1872:
1862:
1842:
91:
1852:
301:
was the first liquid metal cooled nuclear reactor and used mercury coolant, thought to be the obvious choice since it is liquid at room temperature. However, because of disadvantages including high toxicity, high vapor pressure even at room temperature, low boiling point producing noxious fumes when
154:
To date, most fast neutron reactors have been liquid metal cooled and so are called liquid metal cooled fast reactors (LMFRs). When configured as a breeder reactor (e.g. with a breeding blanket), such reactors are called liquid metal fast breeder reactors (LMFBRs).
318:
sodium-potassium alloy) do not corrode steel to any significant degree and are compatible with many nuclear fuels, allowing for a wide choice of structural materials. NaK was used as the coolant in the first breeder reactor prototype, the
367:
above normal operating conditions. However, because lead has a high melting point and a high vapor pressure, it is tricky to refuel and service a lead cooled reactor. The melting point can be lowered by alloying the lead with
190:, further dramatically reducing the probability of an accident. Some designs immerse the entire core and heat exchangers into a pool of coolant, virtually eliminating the risk that inner-loop cooling will be lost.
492:
Further advantages of tin are the high boiling point and the ability to build a crust even over liquid tin helps to cover poisonous leaks and keeps the coolant in and at the reactor. It has been tested by
334:
of sodium also causes these liquids to become intensely radioactive during operation, though the half-life is short and therefore their radioactivity does not pose an additional disposal concern.
58:(thereby improving cooling capabilities), which presents safety and maintenance issues that liquid metal designs lack. Additionally, the high temperature of the liquid metal can be used to drive
583:, which were bypassed. In order to standardize the reactors in the fleet, the submarine's sodium-cooled, beryllium-moderated reactor was removed starting in 1958 and replaced with a
54:. This makes them attractive in situations where size and weight are at a premium, like on ships and submarines. Most water-based reactor designs are highly pressurized to raise the
1875:
73:. Disadvantages include difficulties associated with inspection and repair of a reactor immersed in opaque molten metal, and depending on the choice of metal, fire hazard risk (for
482:
962:
1006:
1670:
690:(DFR), using NaK as a coolant, from 1959 to 1977, exporting 600 GW-h of electricity to the grid over that period. It was succeeded at the same site by PFR, the
638:
gases. The reactor was repaired and returned to service in
September 1960 and ended operation in 1964. The reactor produced a total of 37 GW-h of electricity.
634:
In July 1959, the Sodium
Reactor Experiment suffered a serious incident involving the partial melting of 13 of 43 fuel elements and a significant release of
108:
330:
in a 1995 accident and fire. Sodium is also the coolant used in the
Russian BN reactor series and the Chinese CFR series in commercial operation today.
1065:
326:
Sodium and NaK do, however, ignite spontaneously on contact with air and react violently with water, producing hydrogen gas. This was the case at the
652:
999:
683:
167:, must not cause excessive corrosion of the structural materials, and must have melting and boiling points that are suitable for the reactor's
1311:
858:
Gossé, Stéphane (June 2014). "Thermodynamic assessment of solubility and activity of iron, chromium, and nickel in lead bismuth eutectic".
1228:
934:
923:
1896:
1304:
481:
today is not used as a coolant for working reactors because it builds a crust, it can be a useful additional or replacement coolant at
1510:
664:
502:
363:. The high boiling point of lead provides safety advantages as it can cool the reactor efficiently even if it reaches several hundred
992:
130:
1845:
1820:
1685:
1763:
1597:
1435:
1199:
1077:
971:
1753:
1602:
1060:
320:
112:
1527:
1360:
642:
624:
1607:
1316:
1070:
393:
allows operation at lower temperatures while preventing the freezing of the metal coolant in a lower temperature range (
298:
1865:
1827:
1492:
1430:
1255:
1159:
1045:
604:
1713:
1392:
740:
62:
with high thermodynamic efficiency. This makes them attractive for improving power output, cost effectiveness, and
1365:
820:
Weeks, J. R.; Romano, A. J. (1969). "Liquidus curves and corrosion of Fe, Ti, Zr, and Cu in liquid Bi–Pb alloys".
101:
1690:
1299:
1082:
616:
584:
359:
Lead has excellent neutron properties (reflection, low absorption) and is a very potent radiation shield against
327:
59:
904:
Handbook on heavy liquid metal technology. Prepared in the frame of the OECD/NEA working party of the fuel cycle
1901:
1855:
1780:
1680:
1592:
746:
522:
486:
354:
179:
1559:
1810:
1785:
1399:
1176:
656:
628:
144:
32:
1675:
691:
1705:
1660:
1122:
1050:
784:- Winter/ Spring 1983 Edition Page 128. Published by Los Alamos National Laboratory and available here:
733:
726:
687:
565:
528:
498:
390:
385:
373:
342:
303:
266:
168:
164:
1655:
1640:
867:
722:
718:
660:
534:
148:
70:
1815:
1790:
1575:
1169:
1037:
780:
Bunker, Merle E. "Early
Reactors From Fermi’s Water Boiler to Novel Power Prototypes" a chapter in
1695:
1532:
1459:
1270:
797:
781:
405:
331:
596:
1027:
883:
837:
635:
576:
538:
214:
50:
Due to their high thermal conductivity, metal coolants remove heat effectively, enabling high
44:
875:
829:
717:, for cooling. NaK is liquid at room temperature. Liquid metal cooling is also used in most
600:
187:
1515:
1355:
1294:
1773:
1733:
1260:
1187:
1016:
364:
63:
40:
28:
1265:
623:-moderated nuclear reactor (A Sodium-Graphite Reactor, or SGR) sited in a section of the
871:
1748:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1468:
1375:
1344:
1326:
785:
702:
698:
558:
554:
394:
183:
1890:
1204:
462:
458:
207:
202:
175:
55:
51:
1479:
984:
964:
SRE Fuel
Element Damage, Final Report of the Atomics International Ad Hoc Committee
546:
519:
426:
77:), corrosion and/or production of radioactive activation products may be an issue.
74:
36:
879:
404:
Beside its highly corrosive character, its main disadvantage is the formation by
1537:
1127:
580:
454:
409:
338:
90:
902:
833:
422:
887:
1248:
1238:
675:
572:
542:
525:
466:
439:
360:
178:, reducing the probability that the coolant can boil, which could lead to a
1743:
947:
694:, which operated from 1974 to 1994 and used liquid sodium as its coolant.
579:
nuclear power plant. It was commissioned in 1957, but it had leaks in its
1768:
1617:
1612:
1552:
1221:
1149:
1132:
1117:
1092:
679:
671:
646:
620:
315:
1758:
1738:
1137:
1112:
494:
369:
115: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
841:
1547:
1542:
1522:
1502:
1487:
1370:
1107:
1087:
1055:
706:
227:
69:
Liquid metals, being electrically highly conductive, can be moved by
1097:
1584:
1440:
1243:
1233:
710:
376:
is highly corrosive to most metals used for structural materials.
1445:
1334:
1144:
1102:
645:, another sodium-cooled graphite-moderated SGR that operated in
253:
988:
163:
Suitable liquid metal coolants must have a low neutron capture
1418:
1282:
714:
478:
279:
240:
84:
537:
submarines used reactors cooled by lead-bismuth eutectic and
935:
Ukraine advises Japan to use tin to cool
Fukushima reactor
341:, one based on oxide fuel, the other on the metal-fueled
901:
Fazio, Concetta; Li, Ning; Na, Byung-Chan (2005-07-01).
302:
heated, relatively low thermal conductivity, and a high
192:
627:
then operated by the
Atomics International division of
39:. Liquid metal cooled reactors were first adapted for
571:
was the only U.S. submarine to have a sodium-cooled,
786:
http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?00416628.pdf
43:
power generation. They have also been used to power
1803:
1704:
1634:
1583:
1574:
1501:
1467:
1458:
1417:
1410:
1390:
1343:
1325:
1281:
1186:
1168:
1036:
948:"40 Curious Nuclear Energy Facts You Should Know"
16:Nuclear reactor where the coolant is liquid metal
798:"Neutron Scattering Lengths and cross sections"
143:Liquid metal coolant has been applied to both
1671:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
1000:
595:Liquid metal cooled reactors were studied by
8:
853:
851:
815:
813:
811:
497:researchers and was proposed to convert the
337:There are two proposals for a sodium cooled
1851:
1648:
1580:
1464:
1414:
1407:
1183:
1007:
993:
985:
924:Atmospheric corrosion of tin and tin alloy
659:was an experimental, liquid sodium-cooled
709:nuclear power plants were sodium cooled.
131:Learn how and when to remove this message
768:Le nucléaire expliqué par des physiciens
766:Bonin, Bernhard; Klein, Etienne (2012).
667:in 1963 and was decommissioned in 1975.
758:
1598:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
684:United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
1603:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
7:
663:that operated from 1963 to 1972. It
113:adding citations to reliable sources
1608:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
665:suffered a partial nuclear meltdown
21:liquid metal cooled nuclear reactor
970:. NAA-SR-4488-supl. Archived from
961:Ashley, R.L.; et al. (1961).
619:was an experimental sodium-cooled
503:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
174:Liquid metals generally have high
14:
736:studied are liquid metal cooled:
505:into liquid tin cooled reactors.
258:327.46 °C, (621.428 °F)
222:356.73 °C (674.114 °F)
219:−38.83 °C, (−37.894 °F)
1871:
1870:
1861:
1860:
1850:
1841:
1840:
1691:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
232:97.72 °C, (207.896 °F)
89:
287:2602 °C, (4715.6 °F)
284:231.9 °C, (449.42 °F)
261:1749 °C, (3180.2 °F)
100:needs additional citations for
1681:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
641:SRE was the prototype for the
564:The second nuclear submarine,
321:Experimental Breeder Reactor-1
306:, it has fallen out of favor.
271:123.5 °C, (254.3 °F)
235:883 °C, (1621.4 °F)
1:
880:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2014.03.011
643:Hallam Nuclear Power Facility
625:Santa Susana Field Laboratory
545:as their propulsion plants. (
274:1670 °C, (3038 °F)
1481:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
860:Journal of Nuclear Materials
248:785 °C, (1445 °F)
1828:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
713:used a liquid metal alloy,
605:Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion
245:−11 °C, (12.2 °F)
1920:
1897:Liquid metal fast reactors
1666:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
834:10.5006/0010-9312-25.3.131
741:Sodium-cooled fast reactor
453:= 138.38 day), a volatile
383:
352:
186:enables operation at near-
1836:
1791:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
1686:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
1651:
1493:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
1023:
617:Sodium Reactor Experiment
585:pressurized water reactor
487:loss-of-coolant accidents
328:Monju Nuclear Power Plant
66:in nuclear power plants.
1856:List of nuclear reactors
1696:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
1312:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
747:Lead-cooled fast reactor
355:Lead-cooled fast reactor
180:loss-of-coolant accident
1846:Nuclear fusion reactors
1811:Organic nuclear reactor
1017:nuclear fission reactor
657:Monroe County, Michigan
629:North American Aviation
60:power conversion cycles
734:Generation IV reactors
701:is sodium cooled. The
692:Prototype Fast Reactor
678:, in the far north of
499:boiling water reactors
194:Liquid metal coolants
727:Integral Fast Reactor
723:fast breeder reactors
719:fast neutron reactors
688:Dounreay Fast Reactor
686:(UKAEA) operated the
391:Lead-bismuth eutectic
386:Lead-bismuth eutectic
380:Lead-bismuth eutectic
374:lead-bismuth eutectic
343:integral fast reactor
304:neutron cross-section
267:Lead-bismuth eutectic
169:operating temperature
149:fast-neutron reactors
71:electromagnetic pumps
1676:Traveling-wave (TWR)
1160:Supercritical (SCWR)
661:fast breeder reactor
399:123.5 °C / 255.3 °F)
109:improve this article
1046:Aqueous homogeneous
950:. December 9, 2019.
872:2014JNuM..449..122G
597:Pratt & Whitney
461:(the highest known
195:
1866:Nuclear technology
782:Los Alamos Science
406:neutron activation
332:Neutron activation
314:Sodium and NaK (a
193:
159:Coolant properties
45:nuclear submarines
31:where the primary
1884:
1883:
1876:Nuclear accidents
1799:
1798:
1630:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1570:
1569:
1454:
1453:
1386:
1385:
802:www.ncnr.nist.gov
483:nuclear disasters
291:
290:
141:
140:
133:
1909:
1874:
1873:
1864:
1863:
1854:
1853:
1844:
1843:
1786:Helium gas (GFR)
1649:
1644:
1581:
1465:
1415:
1408:
1403:
1402:
1184:
1180:
1179:
1009:
1002:
995:
986:
979:
978:
976:
969:
958:
952:
951:
944:
938:
932:
926:
921:
915:
914:
912:
911:
898:
892:
891:
866:(1–3): 122–131.
855:
846:
845:
817:
806:
805:
794:
788:
778:
772:
771:
763:
611:Power generation
601:nuclear aircraft
591:Nuclear aircraft
465:, above that of
450:
449:
445:
436:
434:
433:
421:(and subsequent
419:
417:
416:
400:
196:
188:ambient pressure
136:
129:
125:
122:
116:
93:
85:
1919:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1906:
1902:Nuclear physics
1887:
1886:
1885:
1880:
1832:
1795:
1700:
1645:
1638:
1637:
1622:
1566:
1497:
1472:
1450:
1422:
1404:
1397:
1396:
1395:
1382:
1348:
1339:
1321:
1286:
1277:
1191:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1164:
1078:Natural fission
1032:
1031:
1019:
1013:
983:
982:
974:
967:
960:
959:
955:
946:
945:
941:
933:
929:
922:
918:
909:
907:
900:
899:
895:
857:
856:
849:
819:
818:
809:
796:
795:
791:
779:
775:
765:
764:
760:
755:
613:
603:as part of the
593:
559:OK-550 reactors
516:
511:
475:
451:
447:
443:
442:
432:
430:
429:
428:
427:
415:
413:
412:
411:
410:
398:
388:
382:
365:degrees Celsius
357:
351:
312:
296:
161:
137:
126:
120:
117:
106:
94:
83:
64:fuel efficiency
41:breeder reactor
29:nuclear reactor
17:
12:
11:
5:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1905:
1904:
1899:
1889:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1868:
1858:
1848:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1824:
1823:
1818:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1710:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1661:Integral (IFR)
1658:
1652:
1646:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1589:
1587:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1525:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1507:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1427:
1425:
1420:
1412:
1405:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1337:
1331:
1329:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1302:
1291:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1252:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1231:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1196:
1194:
1189:
1181:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1135:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1048:
1042:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1025:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1014:
1012:
1011:
1004:
997:
989:
981:
980:
977:on 2009-04-10.
953:
939:
927:
916:
893:
847:
828:(3): 131–136.
807:
789:
773:
757:
756:
754:
751:
750:
749:
744:
612:
609:
592:
589:
533:and all seven
523:November-class
515:
512:
510:
507:
474:
471:
441:
431:
414:
395:eutectic point
384:Main article:
381:
378:
350:
347:
311:
310:Sodium and NaK
308:
295:
292:
289:
288:
285:
282:
276:
275:
272:
269:
263:
262:
259:
256:
250:
249:
246:
243:
237:
236:
233:
230:
224:
223:
220:
217:
211:
210:
205:
200:
184:vapor pressure
176:boiling points
160:
157:
139:
138:
97:
95:
88:
82:
79:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1915:
1914:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1877:
1869:
1867:
1859:
1857:
1849:
1847:
1839:
1838:
1835:
1829:
1826:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1706:Generation IV
1703:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1656:Breeder (FBR)
1654:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1642:
1633:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1406:
1401:
1394:
1389:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1342:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1280:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1029:
1022:
1018:
1010:
1005:
1003:
998:
996:
991:
990:
987:
973:
966:
965:
957:
954:
949:
943:
940:
936:
931:
928:
925:
920:
917:
906:
905:
897:
894:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
854:
852:
848:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
816:
814:
812:
808:
803:
799:
793:
790:
787:
783:
777:
774:
769:
762:
759:
752:
748:
745:
742:
739:
738:
737:
735:
730:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
695:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
648:
644:
639:
637:
632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
610:
608:
606:
602:
598:
590:
588:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
569:
562:
561:in others).
560:
556:
552:
548:
547:VT-1 reactors
544:
540:
536:
532:
531:
527:
524:
521:
513:
508:
506:
504:
500:
496:
490:
488:
484:
480:
472:
470:
468:
464:
463:radiotoxicity
460:
456:
455:alpha-emitter
452:
437:
424:
420:
407:
402:
396:
392:
387:
379:
377:
375:
371:
366:
362:
356:
348:
346:
344:
340:
335:
333:
329:
324:
322:
317:
309:
307:
305:
300:
293:
286:
283:
281:
278:
277:
273:
270:
268:
265:
264:
260:
257:
255:
252:
251:
247:
244:
242:
239:
238:
234:
231:
229:
226:
225:
221:
218:
216:
213:
212:
209:
208:Boiling point
206:
204:
203:Melting point
201:
199:Metal Coolant
198:
197:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
172:
170:
166:
165:cross section
158:
156:
152:
150:
146:
135:
132:
124:
114:
110:
104:
103:
98:This section
96:
92:
87:
86:
80:
78:
76:
75:alkali metals
72:
67:
65:
61:
57:
56:boiling point
53:
52:power density
48:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
27:is a type of
26:
22:
1714:Sodium (SFR)
1665:
1641:fast-neutron
1480:
1026:
972:the original
963:
956:
942:
930:
919:
908:. Retrieved
903:
896:
863:
859:
825:
821:
801:
792:
776:
767:
761:
731:
725:such as the
696:
669:
651:
640:
633:
614:
594:
581:superheaters
567:
563:
550:
529:
517:
491:
476:
403:
389:
358:
336:
325:
323:, in 1951.
313:
297:
173:
162:
153:
142:
127:
118:
107:Please help
102:verification
99:
81:Applications
68:
49:
37:liquid metal
24:
20:
18:
1749:Superphénix
1576:Molten-salt
1528:VHTR (HTGR)
1305:HW BLWR 250
1271:R4 Marviken
1200:Pressurized
1170:Heavy water
1154:many others
1083:Pressurized
1038:Light water
697:The Soviet
636:radioactive
599:for use in
339:Gen IV LMFR
1891:Categories
1533:PBR (PBMR)
910:2022-06-05
753:References
721:including
535:Alfa-class
514:Submarines
509:Propulsion
459:radiotoxic
423:beta decay
361:gamma rays
353:See also:
299:Clementine
121:March 2024
1585:Fluorides
1249:IPHWR-700
1244:IPHWR-540
1239:IPHWR-220
1028:Moderator
1015:Types of
888:0022-3115
822:Corrosion
705:and U.S.
676:Caithness
607:program.
577:moderated
573:beryllium
566:USS
543:beryllium
539:moderated
526:submarine
495:Ukrainian
477:Although
467:plutonium
1618:TMSR-LF1
1613:TMSR-500
1593:Fuji MSR
1553:THTR-300
1393:Graphite
1256:PHWR KWU
1222:ACR-1000
1150:IPWR-900
1133:ACPR1000
1128:HPR-1000
1118:CPR-1000
1093:APR-1400
937:Kyivpost
680:Scotland
672:Dounreay
647:Nebraska
621:graphite
316:eutectic
145:thermal-
1759:FBR-600
1739:CFR-600
1734:BN-1200
1400:coolant
1327:Organic
1212:CANDU 9
1209:CANDU 6
1177:coolant
1138:ACP1000
1113:CAP1400
1051:Boiling
868:Bibcode
842:4803122
653:Fermi 1
568:Seawolf
501:at the
457:highly
446:⁄
370:bismuth
294:Mercury
215:Mercury
33:coolant
1804:Others
1744:Phénix
1729:BN-800
1724:BN-600
1719:BN-350
1548:HTR-PM
1543:HTR-10
1523:UHTREX
1488:Magnox
1483:(UNGG)
1376:Lucens
1371:KS 150
1108:ATMEA1
1088:AP1000
1071:Kerena
886:
840:
707:EBR-II
703:BN-350
699:BN-600
682:, the
555:BM-40A
520:Soviet
372:, but
228:Sodium
182:. Low
1821:Piqua
1816:Arbus
1774:PRISM
1516:MHR-T
1511:GTMHR
1441:EGP-6
1436:AMB-X
1411:Water
1356:HWGCR
1295:HWLWR
1234:IPHWR
1205:CANDU
1066:ESBWR
975:(PDF)
968:(PDF)
743:(SFR)
732:Many
711:EBR-I
541:with
425:) of
35:is a
23:, or
1781:Lead
1764:CEFR
1754:PFBR
1636:None
1446:RBMK
1431:AM-1
1361:EL-4
1335:WR-1
1317:AHWR
1261:MZFR
1229:CVTR
1218:AFCR
1145:VVER
1103:APWR
1098:APR+
1061:ABWR
884:ISSN
838:OSTI
615:The
557:and
551:K-27
530:K-27
518:The
349:Lead
254:Lead
147:and
1769:PFR
1560:PMR
1538:AVR
1460:Gas
1398:by
1366:KKN
1300:ATR
1215:EC6
1175:by
1123:EPR
1056:BWR
876:doi
864:449
830:doi
715:NaK
674:in
670:At
655:in
631:.
549:in
489:.
485:or
479:tin
473:Tin
469:).
408:of
401:.
280:Tin
241:NaK
151:.
111:by
25:LMR
1893::
1503:He
1469:CO
1345:CO
1266:R3
882:.
874:.
862:.
850:^
836:.
826:25
824:.
810:^
800:.
729:.
649:.
587:.
553:;
435:Po
418:Bi
397::
345:.
171:.
47:.
19:A
1643:)
1639:(
1471:2
1423:O
1421:2
1419:H
1347:2
1287:O
1285:2
1283:H
1192:O
1190:2
1188:D
1008:e
1001:t
994:v
913:.
890:.
878::
870::
844:.
832::
804:.
770:.
575:-
448:2
444:1
440:T
438:(
134:)
128:(
123:)
119:(
105:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
