Feral cat - Knowledge

1226:(TNR). Scientific research has not found TNR to be an effective means of controlling the feral cat population. Literature reviews have found that, in the instances where studies documented TNR colonies that declined in population, those declines were being driven primarily by substantial percentages of colony cats being permanently removed from colonies by some combination of re-homing and euthanasia on an ongoing basis. TNR colonies often increase in population because cats breed quickly and the trapping and sterilization rates are frequently too low to stop this population growth, because food is usually being provided to the cats, and because public awareness of a TNR colony tends to encourage people in the surrounding community to dump their own unwanted pet cats there. The growing popularity of TNR, even near areas of particular ecological sensitivity, has been attributed in part to the failure of scientists to communicate the environmental harm caused by feral cats to the public, and their unwillingness to engage with TNR advocates. 1301:

drawn into the colony from outside. Members of the public often begin dumping unwanted pet cats at TNR sites, increasing the rate of recruitment. And neutered cats are less territorial, allowing for higher populations. TNR programs are sometimes able to attain local reductions in the numbers of cats at specific colony locations, but it has never been demonstrated to meaningfully impact cat populations over large areas or regions, because the effort necessary to maintain sufficient sterilisation rates means that systemic TNR will never be a credible option. For example, to reduce a typical Australian city's population of 700,000 feral cats through TNR would require sterilising at least 500,000 of them initially, and then continuing to sterilise more than 75% of the kittens that the other 200,000 would continue to produce each year indefinitely, along with all the new recruits from other cat populations drawn by the food supply.

1297:

effective. Comparisons of different techniques have also found that trap-and-euthanise programmes are half the cost of TNR ones. An analysis of both techniques in Hawaii suggested they are less effective when new cats were introduced by the abandonment of pets. The usefulness of TNR is disputed by some scientists and conservation specialists, who argue that TNR is only concerned with cat welfare and ignores the ongoing damage caused by feeding outdoor populations of neutered cats, including the depredation of wildlife, transmission of diseases, and the accumulation of cat faeces in the environment. Conservation scientists also question the effectiveness of TNR at controlling numbers of feral cats. Some studies that have supported TNR have also been criticised for using anecdotal data to evaluate their effectiveness.

202:, a feral cat is defined as a cat that chooses not to interact with humans, survives with or without human assistance, and hides or defends itself when trapped rather than allowing itself to be handled. Animal rescuers and veterinarians consider cats to be feral when they had not had much human contact particularly before eight weeks of age, avoid humans, and prefer to escape rather than attack a human. Feral cats are distinguished from domesticated cats based on their levels of socialization, ownership, and confinement, and on the amount of fear of, interaction with, and dependence upon humans. However, veterinarians and rescuers disagreed on whether a feral cat would tend to hiss and spit at or attack a human during an encounter, and disagreed on whether adult feral cats could potentially be 1293:." The AVMA stated that "free-roaming abandoned and feral cats that are not in properly managed colonies should be removed from their environment and treated in the same manner as other abandoned and stray animals in accordance with local and state ordinances" and that "or colonies not achieving attrition and posing active threats to the area in which they are residing, the AVMA does not oppose the consideration of euthanasia when conducted by qualified personnel, using appropriate humane methods as described in the AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals.". According to estimates from the Humane Society of the United States, the population of feral cats in the US ranges from 50 to 70 million. In contrast, the number of pet cats in the US stands at approximately 76 million. 125: 877: 1289:(AVMA), in 2016, adopted a resolution that "encourages collaborative efforts to identify humane and effective alternatives to the destruction of healthy cats for animal control purposes, while minimizing their negative impact on native wildlife and public health." The AVMA voiced support for "properly managed colonies" outside "wildlife-sensitive ecosystems" but stated that "he goal of colony management should be continual reduction and eventual elimination of the colony through 1436:, they are not effective for eliminating pre-existing severe infestations. In systems where wildlife is threatened by both predation by rats and cats, there are concerns that controlling cats could increase predation by rats, due to rat populations increasing. For example, in Christmas Island, it was shown that decreasing cat populations would improve the growth rate of a threatened bird, as long as rats did not increase by more than 77 rats per cat removed. 632: 215: 1321:. While TNR is a popular approach to resolving the over population problem, it is not a ubiquitously accepted method. Another perspective emphasizes the poor outdoor living conditions of feral cats, and advocates for rehoming, adoption, or euthanasia as a more ethical response. This perspective centers the pressure feral cats place on the ecosystem, which is alternative to the popular position that centers the value of each cat's life. 1338:

of threatened seabirds. The predation was documented by wildlife cameras, as well as by the presence of cat tracks, cat scat, decapitated fairy terns, and injured and missing fairy tern nestlings. Though the colony was surrounded by ultrasound generators intended to deter cats, the fairy tern colony might have been an irresistible target, and this particular cat was white and had a blue eye, traits commonly associated with deafness.

790:, although some are more transient and travel long distances. The home ranges of male feral cats, which are generally two or three times larger than those of female cats, are on average under 10 ha (25 acres), but can vary from almost 300 ha (740 acres) to under 1 ha (2.5 acres). This variance is often due to breeding season, access to females, whether the cat is neutered, age, time of day, and availability of prey. 304: 7532: 1347:

populations previously checked by the feral cat population. This new dynamic may prove to be more harmful, with further upstream effects on the ecosystem that were not predicted before removal of the feral cat population. With such a sensitive system to account for, solutions for population control will likely differ from case to case, and especially in different ecosystems where feral cats are to be controlled.

947:, although these cosmopolitan species co-evolved with cats in human-disturbed environments and so have an advantage over native rodents in evading cat predation. Studies in California showed that 67% of the mice killed by cats were native species, and that areas near feral cat colonies actually have larger house mouse populations, but fewer birds and native rodents. 803: 794:

settlements. While feral cats prey on other small mammals and reptiles, their home ranges don't change to reflect the seasonal availability of prey animals. This indicates that feral cats have a fairly consistent home range, and migration is more representative of mate availability, consistency in human-related food sources, or other less transient stimuli.

53: 1445: 1012:

stray cats admitted to TNR programs in diverse locations of the U.S. resulted in the same 0.4% rate of euthanasia for debilitating conditions. The body condition of feral cats entering a TNR program in Florida was described as "generally lean but not emaciated". However, many feral cats had suffered from parasites such as

1035:(TNR) program on a university campus in Central Florida found that, despite widespread concern about the welfare of free-roaming cats, 83% of the cats studied had been present for more than six years, with almost half first observed as adults of unknown age. The authors compared this result to a 1984 study that found the 1397:

cats may be contributing to the decline in the numbers of birds in urban areas, although the importance of this effect remains controversial. Feral cats can threaten native species with extinction. Controlling or eliminating the populations of the non-native cats can produce a rapid recovery in native animals.

1011:

Adult feral cats without human assistance have been found in surprisingly good condition. In Florida, a study of feral cats admitted to a trap-neuter-return (TNR) program concluded that "euthanasia for debilitated cats for humane reasons is rarely necessary". A further study of over 100,000 feral and

845:

In a 2013 study with British participants, rescuers tended to be more willing than veterinarians to attempt to tame adult feral cats. Veterinarians tended to be more opposed to this practice, with some expressing concerns for the welfare of such a cat in a home environment. In a 2010 interview survey

1300:

In order for TNR to reduce the cat population, sterilisation rates of at least 75% must be maintained at all times, particularly because TNR practitioners providing cats with food makes the problem worse by increasing the survival rate of feral kittens. Also, this food source causes other cats to be

1234:

over time. TNR results in fewer complaints, as nuisance behaviors diminish following neutering, and the quality of life of the cats is improved. The practice is reported to save money and garner more public support and better morale than efforts that involve killing cats. TNR is popular, but there's

1229:

Trap-neuter-return involves trapping feral cats, vaccinating, spaying or neutering them, and then returning them to the place where there were originally trapped. TNR programs are prevalent in several countries, including England, Italy, Canada, and the United States, and are supported by many local

841:

Feral kittens can be trapped and socialized, then adopted into a home. The age at which a kitten becomes difficult to socialize is not agreed upon, but suggestions generally range from seven weeks to four months of age. Although older cats can sometimes be socialized, it is a very long and difficult

189:

and distracts from feral cats being an environmental problem, and that it has connotations that falsely imply that feral cats exist with the consent of the communities where they live, and that the public has a moral obligation to support them in the outdoors. Studies have shown that the public does

1396:

To date, little scientific data is available to assess the impact of cat predation on prey populations outside of agricultural situations. Even well-fed domestic cats may hunt and kill, mainly catching small mammals, but also birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates. Hunting by domestic

1337:

colony on at least six nights in November 2018. It killed at least six breeding adult fairy terns; directly or indirectly killed at least 40 nestlings, and caused enough stress on the fairy tern colony that all 111 nests were abandoned; resulting in a complete breeding failure for the entire colony

2468:

Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.;

1408:

tend to be more ecologically vulnerable and behaviorally "naive", when faced with predation by cats. Feral cats have had a major impact on these native species and have played a leading role in the endangerment and extinction of many species. In Hawaii's remote, mountainous areas, they destroy the

1192:

has warned about the rabies risk associated with feral cats. With 16% of people infected with rabies from exposure to rabid cats, cats have been the primary animals responsible for transmission of the virus to humans in the United States since the efforts to control rabies in dogs in the 1970s. In

793:

Feral cats depend on the presence of human settlement to subsist. Colonies and stray feral cats will settle in urban, suburban, and rural developments like cities and farms, wherever they can find easy access to food or prey animals. Few to no feral cats are found significantly distant from human

782:

Some behaviors of feral cats are commonly observed, although there is disagreement among veterinarians, rescuers and researchers on the prevalence of some. In a free-roaming environment, feral cats avoid humans. They do not allow themselves to be handled or touched by humans, and back away or run

1296:

The effectiveness of both trap-and-euthanise and TNR programmes is largely dependent upon controlling immigration of cats into cleared or controlled areas; where immigration of new cats is controlled, both techniques can be effective. However where immigration is not controlled, culling is more

262:

revealed that no widely accepted definition of a feral cat exists. Many facilities used waiting periods to evaluate whether a cat was feral by observing whether the cat became less afraid and evasive over time. Other indicators included the cat's response to touch with an inanimate object, and

5081:

Alexandra Newman, David Smith, Ria R Ghai, Ryan M Wallace, Mia Kim Torchetti, Christina Loiacono, Laura S Murrell, Ann Carpenter, Scott Moroff, Jane A Rooney, Casey Barton Behravesh. “First reported cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection in companion animals—New York, March–April 2020.” Morbidity and

1346:

In sensitive environments, such as delicate ecosystems that have been degraded by feral cats, population management can be quite difficult. On isolated Pacific islands, trapping and removing the feral population too quickly can have adverse effects including booms in rodent and small reptile

1475:

are unlikely to exist, but the current wildcat population is distinct enough from domestic cats to be worth protecting. High levels of hybridisation have led to difficulties in distinguishing pure wildcats from feral and domestic cats, which can complicate conservation efforts.

1581:

Ali Taghipour, Sahar Ghodsian, Mina Shajarizadeh, Mitra Sharbatkhori, Sasan Khazaei, Hamed Mirjalali. “Global prevalence of microsporidia infection in cats: a systematic review and meta-analysis of an emerging zoonotic pathogen.” Preventive Veterinary Medicine 188, 105278,

1221:

Feral cats are controlled or managed by various agencies to manage disease, for the protection of native wildlife and to protect their welfare. Control of feral cats can be managed through trapping and euthanasia or other forms of lethal control, or, some claim, through

1591:

Ali Rostami, Mahdi Sepidarkish, Guangxu Ma, Tao Wang, Maryam Ebrahimi, Yadolah Fakhri, Hamed Mirjalali, Andreas Hofmann, Calum NL Macpherson, Peter J Hotez, Robin B Gasser. “Global prevalence of Toxocara infection in cats”. Advances in Parasitology 109, 615-639,

1382: 818:

and linear hierarchies. Some colonies are organized in more complex structures, such as relative hierarchies, where social status of individual cats varies with location, time of day, or the activity the cats are engaged in, particularly feeding and mating.

452:. Cats are thought to have been introduced to Australia in either the 1600s by Dutch shipwrecks, or the late 1700s by English settlers. These domesticated cats began to form feral populations after their offspring began living away from human contact. 783:

when they are able to do so. If trapped, they hiss, growl, bare their teeth, or strike out. They remain fairly hidden from humans and will not approach, although some feral cats gradually become more comfortable around humans who feed them regularly.

416:. The need to keep rodents from consuming or contaminating grain crops stored for later human consumption may be the original reason that cats were domesticated. The spread of cats throughout much of the world is thought to have originated in 1212:

in cats, they advised that the risk should still be considered, as the infection in humans can cause significant health problems, and cats who are not otherwise transmitting the infection can begin shedding the parasite in times of stress.

1144:

was the next most common infection, found in 18.3% of the cats, although they noted that the antibody levels were low in most of the cats who tested positive, and concluded that the cats they tested did not appear to be a greater risk for

178:, and researchers. The lines between stray and feral cat are diffuse. The general idea is that owned cats that wander away from their homes may become stray cats, and stray cats that have lived in the wild for some time may become feral. 1316:

spent $ 11 million on a "Focus on Felines" initiative that included TNR advocacy. Promoters of TNR are often funded by big businesses with a commercial interest in selling cat food, such as pet food mills and the pet products retailer

1122:

in cats, which can increase their susceptibility to other infections. Research has shown that the prevalence of these viruses among feral cat populations is low and is similar to prevalence rates for owned cats in the United States.

5037: 1372:

control strategy to decimate rabbits, mice, and rats. Feral cats kill on average one million reptiles each day. It has been estimated that they kill more than 800 million mammals annually, of which 56 percent are native species.

82:) that lives outdoors and avoids human contact; it does not allow itself to be handled or touched, and usually remains hidden from humans. Feral cats may breed over dozens of generations and become an aggressive local 5782: 1861:

A feral cat is a cat that is unapproachable in its free-roaming environment and is capable of surviving with or without direct human intervention, and may additionally show fearful or defensive behaviour on human

6000:

Plein, Michaela; O'Brien, Katherine R.; Holden, Matthew H.; Adams, Matthew P.; Baker, Christopher M.; Bean, Nigel G.; Sisson, Scott A.; Bode, Michael; Mengersen, Kerrie L.; McDonald-Madden, Eve (24 August 2022).

5413:

Woinarski, J. C. Z.; Murphy, B. P.; Palmer, R.; Legged, S. M.; Dickman, C. R.; Doherty, T. S.; Edwards, G.; Nankivell, A.; Read, J. L.; Stokeld, D. (2018). "How many reptiles are killed by cats in Australia?".

6074:

Driscoll, C. A.; Menotti-Raymond, M.; Roca, A. L.; Hupe, K.; Johnson, W. E.; Geffen, E.; Harley, E. H.; Delibes, M.; Pontier, D.; Kitchener, A. C.; Yamaguchi, N.; O'Brien, S. J.; Macdonald, D. W. (2007).

281:

or stray. However, even these so-called 'managed colonies' often have a devastating impact on wildlife as demonstrated in the decimation of native mammals in adjacent reserves, such as occurred with

1388: 1386: 1383: 4052: 1387: 190:

not support there being large numbers of free ranging cats in the outdoors, but that the use of language in surveys appears to influence the levels of support for different management options.

3509:"Multistate matrix population model to assess the contributions and impacts on population abundance of domestic cats in urban areas including owned cats, unowned cats, and cats in shelters" 1464:

to various extents throughout the world, the first reported case occurring more than 200 years ago. The significance of hybridisation is disputed. Modern genetic analysis revealed that the

3774: 1601:

Xuying Zhang, Kokila Jamwal, Ottmar Distl. “ Tracking footprints of artificial and natural selection signatures in breeding and non-breeding cats.” Scientific reports 12 (1), 18061, 2022.

4812: 1197:, the need to revaccinate every few years makes this challenging to maintain. Furthermore, lack of documentation can mean that contact with vaccinated feral cats may still require 5092:

Schmidt, P. M.; Swannack, T. M.; Lopez, R. R.; Slater, M. R. (2009). "Evaluation of euthanasia and trap–neuter–return (TNR) programs in managing free-roaming cat populations".

4632:

Natoli, E.; Maragliano, L.; Cariola, G.; Faini, A.; Bonanni, R.; Cafazzo, S.; Fantini, C. (2006). "Management of feral domestic cats in the urban environment of Rome (Italy)".

1970:

Natoli, E.; Maragliano, L.; Cariola, G.; Faini, A.; Bonanni, R.; Cafazzo, S.; Fantini, C. (2006). "Management of feral domestic cats in the urban environment of Rome (Italy)".

1385: 1238:

The International Companion Animal Management Coalition advocates for TNR as a humane method of controlling feral cat populations. In the U.S., the practice is endorsed by the

4955: 2362: 5831: 3442:

Bonanni, R.; Cafazzo, S.; Fantini, C.; Pontier, D.; Natoli, E. (2007). "Feeding-order in an urban feral domestic cat colony: relationship to dominance rank, sex and age".

4518:

Mcruer, Dave L.; Gray, Lincoln C.; Horne, Leigh-Ann; Clark Jr., Edward E. (21 June 2016). "Free-roaming Cat Interactions With Wildlife Admitted to a Wildlife Hospital".

2127: 5072:

Judith L Stella, Candace C Croney. “Environmental aspects of domestic cat care and management: implications for cat welfare.” The Scientific World Journal 2016, 2016.

829:

Feral cats are known to move from colony to colony when home ranges overlap. Additionally, colony populations fluctuate as cats leave family homes and some feral and

810:

Feral cats often live in groups called colonies, which are located close to food sources and shelter. Researchers disagree on the existence, extent, and structure of

1130:

in the United States tested them for a number of infections that could be detrimental to feline or human health. The study found the most prevalent infection to be

3627: 1617: 86:

in urban, savannah and bushland environments. Some feral cats may become more comfortable with people who regularly feed them, but even with long-term attempts at

4111:

Levy, J. K.; Gale, D. W.; Gale, L. A. (2003). "Evaluation of the effect of a long-term trap-neuter-return and adoption program on a free-roaming cat population".

116:

programs to prevent the feral cats from continuing to breed. Scientific evidence has demonstrated that TNR is not effective at controlling feral cat populations.

263:

observation of the cats' social behavior in varying environments such as response to human contact, with a human nearby, or when moved to a quieter environment.

4667: 3652:

Lowe S., Browne M., Boudjelas S., De Poorter M. 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species: a selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. 2000.

4841: 6380:

Lecis, R.; Pierpaoli, M.; Biro, Z. S.; Szemethy, L.; Ragni, B.; Vercillo, F.; Randi, E. (2006). "Bayesian analyses of admixture in wild and domestic cats (

5001: 3485: 2470: 2355: 1189: 5449:

Murphy, B. P.; Woolley, L.-A.; Geyle, H. M.; Legge, S. M.; Palmer, R.; Dickman, C. R.; Augusteyn, J.; Brown, S. C.; Comer, S. (2019). "Introduced cats (

4547:"A renewed call for conservation leadership 10 years further in the feral cat Trap-Neuter-Return debate and new opportunities for constructive dialogue" 7343: 6878: 7571: 1208:

risk" for transmission of intestinal parasites. Although the authors noted that their study did not provide evidence for great risk associated with

277:

The Australian government categorizes cats who have no interaction with or assistance from humans as feral, and unowned cats who rely on humans as

4611: 1286: 3665:

Prugh, L. R.; Stoner, C. J.; Epps, C. W.; Bean, W. T.; Ripple, W. J.; Laliberte, A. S.; Brashares, J. S. (2009). "The Rise of the Mesopredator".

2159: 1384: 606:

that had more pronounced stripes than the African wildcat. This is also considered to have descended from domestic cats introduced to the island.

3770: 6858: 6497: 6325:

Pierpaoli. M.; Birò, Z. S.; Herrmann, M.; Hupe, K.; Fernandes, M.; Ragni, B.; Szemethy, L.; Randi, E. (2003). "Genetic distinction of wildcat (

3009: 2518: 736: 5888: 622:

that resembled an African wildcat, but had a bushy tail like a European wildcat. Groves considered the Cretan wildcat an introduced feral cat.

5737: 5270: 3150: 4594: 124: 4823: 2105: 6206: 5290: 7486: 1239: 846:

with veterinarians and rescuers in the United States, 66% of respondents had socialization programs for kittens, and 8% for adult cats.

5020: 4237:"Prevalence of feline leukemia virus infection and serum antibodies against feline immunodeficiency virus in unowned free-roaming cats" 580:, the Sardinian wild cat. The Corsican wildcat is considered to have been introduced in the early first millennium. The earliest known 7393: 6883: 6452: 6141: 2331: 4288:

Luria, B. J.; Levy, J. K.; Lappin, M. R.; Breitschwerdt, E. B.; Legendre, A. M.; Hernandez, J. A.; Gorman, S. P.; Lee, I. T. (2004).

3845:

Scott, K. C.; Levy, J. K.; Crawford, P. C. (2002). "Characteristics of free-roaming cats evaluated in a trap-neuter-return program".

822:

A 'managed colony' is taken care of by humans who supply food and water to the cats, provide shelters and veterinary care, implement

6898: 6853: 5245: 3341: 2399: 2173:

MacDonald, D. W.; Apps, P. J.; Carr, G. M.; Kerby, G. (1987). "Social dynamics, nursing coalitions and infanticide among farm cats,

1536: 1259: 1243: 360:

Some animal rescue organizations maintain Barn Cat Programs and rehome neutered feral cats to people who are looking for barn cats.

105:

on Earth. Attempts to control feral cat populations are widespread but generally of greatest impact within purpose-fenced reserves.

4974: 1193:

2010, there were 303 rabid cats reported within the United States. Although some colony management programs involve administering

7576: 4385: 3195:

Lepczyk, C. A.; Lohr, C. A.; Duffy, D. C. (2015). "A review of cat behavior in relation to disease risk and management options".

1924:

Lepczyk, C. A.; Calver, M. C. (2022). "Cat got your tongue? The misnomer of 'community cats' and its relevance to conservation".

5128: 1028:

Feral cats in managed colonies can live long lives. A number of cats in managed colonies in the United Kingdom died of old age.

353:

species. In England, farm cat colonies are present on the majority of farms and consist of up to 30 cats. Female farm cats show

6927: 6260: 4780: 4154:

Nassar, R.; Mosier, J. E.; Williams, L. W. (1984). "Study of the feline and canine populations in the greater Las Vegas area".

2935: 2272:

Faure, E.; Kitchener, A. C. (2009). "An Archaeological and Historical Review of the Relationships between Felids and People".

2134: 3702:"Estimation of the dietary nutrient profile of free-roaming feral cats: possible implications for nutrition of domestic cats" 565: 5571: 4744: 3951:

Scott, K. C.; Levy, J. K.; Gorman, S. P.; Newell, S. M. (2002). "Body Condition of Feral Cats and the Effect of Neutering".

3889: 508:. Based on these values, he concluded that Sardinian wildcats are descendants of African wildcats that were introduced from 5059: 3602: 2471:"A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" 826:

programs, find foster homes for cats that can be socialized for eventual adoption, and educate people in the neighborhood.

7383: 7378: 2198:"Risk factors affecting length of stay of cats in an animal shelter: A case study at the Guelph Humane Society, 2011–2016" 1163:, which was detected in 29.8% of cats, although only one cat of the 78 for whom fecal samples were available was shedding 1069: 950:

Though cats usually prey on animals less than half their size, a feral cat in Australia was photographed killing an adult

5021:"The removal of feral cats from San Nicolas Island, California to Protect Native and Endemic Species: 2009 Annual Report" 4618: 3797: 2005:

Natale, A.; Frangipane di Regalbono, A.; Zanellato, G.; Cavalletto, M.; Danesi, P.; Capelli, G.; Pietrobelli, M. (2007).

7448: 6873: 6612: 3222:

Ferreira, Joaquim P.; Leitão, Inês; Santos-Reis, Margarida; Revilla, Eloy (17 October 2011). Ropert-Coudert, Yan (ed.).

1664: 1251: 1089: 6140:

Beaumont, M.; Barratt, E. M.; Gottelli, D.; Kitchener, A. C.; Daniels, M. J.; Pritchard, J. K.; Bruford, M. W. (2001).

1728:"Free-ranging domestic cat abundance and sterilization percentage following five years of a trap–neuter–return program" 1689: 7512: 7398: 7373: 6893: 6761: 6711: 2115:(Report). Government of Australia, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. 2011. 1313: 37: 3291:"The spatial ecology of invasive feral cats Felis catus on San Cristóbal, Galápagos: first insights from GPS collars" 904:, birds, and lizards. Their global prey spectrum encompasses over 1,000 species; the most commonly observed were the 327:

condition. Farm cats primarily live outdoors and usually shelter in barns. They are partially supplied with food and

6868: 6490: 6444: 4671: 1255: 876: 4895: 7491: 7348: 6766: 5849: 1356: 1267: 1198: 599: 6642: 4924: 4700:

Hughes, K. L.; Slater, M. R. (2002). "Implementation of a feral cat management program on a university campus".

3477: 1875: 7458: 7368: 6863: 4236: 1361:

In the United States, free-ranging cats kill one to four billion birds and six to 22 billion mammals annually.

1247: 865: 239: 129: 87: 5783:"Complex interactions among mammalian carnivores in Australia, and their implications for wildlife management" 2519:"Zooarchaeology and the biogeographical history of the mammals of Corsica and Sardinia since the last ice age" 4083: 3890:"Population Characteristics of Feral Cats Admitted to Seven Trap-Neuter-Return Programs in the United States" 1428:

In agricultural settings, cats can be effective at keeping mouse and rat populations low, but only if rodent

556:), had a much shorter tail than the African wildcat, and differed in fur colour and markings from both. When 7507: 7471: 7318: 6463: 5884: 4956:"What is PETA's stance on programs that advocate trapping, spaying and neutering, and releasing feral cats?" 3008:

Ayllón, T.; Diniz, P. P. V.; Breitschwerdt, E. B.; Villaescusa, A.; Rodríguez-Franco, F.; Sainz, A. (2012).

2752:

Bloomer, J. P.; Bester, M. N. (1992). "Control of feral cats on sub-Antarctic Marion Island, Indian Ocean".

1167: 5627:

Nogales, M.; Martin, A.; Tershy, B. R.; Donlan, C. J.; Veitch, D.; Uerta, N.; Wood, B.; Alonso, J. (2004).

2322:

Wastlhuber, J. (1991). "History of Domestic Cats and Cat Breeds". In Pedersen, N. C.; Pratt, P. W. (eds.).

7476: 5797: 5703: 4410:

Roebling, A. D.; Johnson, D.; Blanton, J. D.; Levin, M.; Slate, D.; Fenwick, G.; Rupprecht, C. E. (2014).

4186:

Roebling, A. D.; Johnson, D.; Blanton, J. D.; Levin, M.; Slate, D.; Fenwick, G.; Rupprecht, C. E. (2014).

1410: 933: 493: 98: 3224:"Human-Related Factors Regulate the Spatial Ecology of Domestic Cats in Sensitive Areas for Conservation" 2875: 1329:

De-sexing cats, as in TNR programs, does nothing to prevent them from continuing to destroy wildlife. In

148:

varies between professions and countries, and is sometimes used interchangeably with other terms such as

7517: 7423: 7388: 6888: 6771: 6756: 6483: 4466:"Reply to Wolf et al.: Why Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) Is Not an Ethical Solution for Stray Cat Management" 3166: 1104: 1073: 557: 505: 401: 390: 2676:

Konecy, J. M. (1987). "Home range and activity patterns of feral house cats in the Galapagos Islands".

2035:"A survey of the methods used in shelter and rescue programs to identify feral and frightened pet cats" 1813:"What is a feral cat?: Variation in definitions may be associated with different management strategies" 814:

among feral cats in colonies. Different types of hierarchies have been observed in colonies, including

744: 520:

research indicate that Sardinian wildcats descended from domestic cats that were introduced during the

6003:"Modeling total predation to avoid perverse outcomes from cat control in a data-poor island ecosystem" 5628: 2443: 900:, and typically prefer smaller animals with body weights under 100 g (3.5 oz), particularly 181:

Activists who seek to normalize feral cats in the environment are attempting to rebrand feral cats as

7115: 7010: 6908: 6731: 6393: 6338: 6265: 6225: 6156: 6088: 6014: 5643: 5586: 5462: 5143: 4877: 4558: 4412:"Rabies Prevention and Management of Cats in the Context of Trap-Neuter-Vaccinate-Release Programmes" 4188:"Rabies Prevention and Management of Cats in the Context of Trap–Neuter–Vaccinate–Release Programmes" 3520: 3235: 2964: 2840: 2761: 2685: 2553:"Ancient introductions of mammals in the Mediterranean Basin and their implications for conservation" 2246: 1933: 1632: 1432:

locations (such as tall grass) are kept under control. While cats are effective at preventing rodent

1150: 1065: 724: 5802: 5708: 5129:"Costs and Benefits of Trap-Neuter-Release and Euthanasia for Removal of Urban Cats in Oahu, Hawaii" 4912: 2825: 7566: 7481: 7363: 7210: 6995: 6965: 6746: 6696: 5875: 3631: 1500: 1275: 1171: 1157:

was the most common infection in cats in that colony, afflicting 34% of cats. This was followed by

1137: 1132: 1098: 1085: 815: 811: 728: 692: 501: 171: 5688: 5391: 2309:

The cat in ancient Egypt, illustrated from the collection of cat and other Egyptian figures formed

7561: 7433: 7338: 7130: 7040: 6955: 6921: 6903: 6624: 6417: 6362: 6241: 6180: 6056: 5938: 5823: 5729: 5669: 5602: 5517: 5478: 5431: 5321: 5216: 5167: 5109: 4937: 4725: 4576: 4267: 4136: 4028: 3976: 3930: 3870: 3682: 3459: 3405: 3320: 2856: 2701: 2289: 2082: 1949: 1906: 1852: 1749: 1656: 1477: 1279: 1231: 1230:

and state governments. Proponents of TNR argue that it is effective in stopping reproduction and

1223: 1141: 1093: 1032: 925: 823: 644: 615: 585: 573: 113: 57: 2492: 1364:

In Australia, domestic cats were introduced in the 1800s to settlements that had developed near

5042:

a 2002 Navy policy ended existing TNR programs on Navy land and prohibits the creation of more.

2160:"A successful fight against foxes gave rise to a new predator – and the effect was devastating" 7466: 7413: 6970: 6691: 6664: 6647: 6579: 6553: 6448: 6409: 6354: 6307: 6172: 6122: 6104: 6048: 6030: 5979: 5930: 5815: 5763: 5721: 5552: 5372: 5313: 5266: 5241: 5208: 5159: 4717: 4649: 4497: 4441: 4363: 4319: 4259: 4217: 4163: 4128: 4075: 4020: 3968: 3922: 3862: 3723: 3556: 3538: 3397: 3312: 3271: 3253: 3146: 3138: 3116: 3075: 3032: 2990: 2395: 2327: 2219: 2074: 2056: 1987: 1898: 1844: 1648: 1553: 1532: 1524: 1159: 1119: 712: 672: 464: 272: 4762: 3742: 2606: 2387: 1525:"Density, spatial organisation and reproductive tactics in the domestic cat and other felids" 7085: 7065: 7045: 6798: 6686: 6401: 6346: 6297: 6233: 6164: 6112: 6096: 6038: 6022: 5969: 5922: 5807: 5754:

James, H.; Acharya, A. B.; Taylor, J. A.; Freak, M. J. (2002). "A case of bitten Bettongs".

5713: 5659: 5651: 5594: 5544: 5509: 5470: 5423: 5362: 5352: 5305: 5198: 5151: 5101: 4709: 4641: 4566: 4527: 4487: 4477: 4431: 4423: 4353: 4309: 4301: 4251: 4207: 4199: 4120: 4067: 4010: 3960: 3912: 3904: 3854: 3809: 3713: 3674: 3546: 3528: 3451: 3387: 3379: 3302: 3261: 3243: 3204: 3106: 3067: 3024: 2980: 2972: 2914: 2902: 2848: 2800: 2769: 2732: 2693: 2564: 2533: 2495:[Studies on the vertebrate Fauna of the Barbary Coast (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco)]. 2438: 2281: 2254: 2209: 2064: 2046: 1979: 1941: 1890: 1834: 1824: 1739: 1640: 1488: 1472: 1433: 1429: 1305: 1263: 1235:

little evidence that TNR by itself can control the growing population of free roaming cats.

974: 940: 921: 762:

Feral cat colonies in Rome have been monitored since 1991. Urban feral cats were studied in

756: 720: 631: 549: 532: 214: 102: 44: 6188: 2583: 939:

In the United States some people advocate for feral cats as a means to control pigeons and

7418: 7110: 6835: 6681: 6657: 6617: 6302: 6281: 5038:"Activists recommend neutering, vaccinating feral cats roaming Groton Navy Submarine Base" 1465: 1418: 1369: 1183: 1081: 909: 589: 481: 469: 247: 4342:"Infectious disease prevalence in a feral cat population on Prince Edward Island, Canada" 3507:

Flockhart, D. T. Tyler; Coe, Jason B. (28 February 2018). Lepczyk, Christopher A. (ed.).

1401: 6397: 6342: 6229: 6160: 6092: 6018: 5647: 5590: 5466: 5147: 4562: 4464:

Read, John L.; Dickman, Chris R.; Boardman, Wayne S.J.; Lepczyk, Christopher A. (2020).

3917: 3524: 3392: 3367: 3239: 3095:"Feline immunodeficiency virus testing in stray, feral, and client-owned cats of Ottawa" 2968: 2844: 2765: 2689: 2416: 2250: 2069: 2034: 1937: 1839: 1812: 1636: 1618:"Critical Assessment of Claims Regarding Management of Feral Cats by Trap-Neuter-Return" 303: 7408: 7256: 7225: 7155: 6945: 6788: 6117: 6076: 6043: 6002: 5974: 5957: 5877:

Control of Norway Rats in the Agricultural Environment: Alternatives to Rodenticide Use

5548: 5496:

Woods, M.; McDonald, R. A.; Harris, S. (2003). "Predation of wildlife by domestic cats

5367: 5340: 4978: 4492: 4465: 4436: 4411: 4358: 4341: 4314: 4289: 4212: 4187: 3551: 3508: 3266: 3223: 3111: 3094: 2985: 2952: 2821: 2537: 2258: 2033:

Slater, M. R.; Miller, K. A.; Weiss, E.; Makolinski, K. V.; Weisbrot, L. A. M. (2010).

1194: 1146: 752: 732: 716: 704: 676: 660: 610: 537: 517: 488:), but was more reddish, gray and brown and had longer hair on the back. In the 1980s, 413: 243: 199: 2787:

Bonnaud, E.; Bourgeois, K.; Vidal, E.; Kayser, Y.; Tranchant, Y.; Legrand, J. (2007).

7556: 7550: 7535: 7443: 7428: 7333: 7266: 7215: 7185: 7165: 7060: 6950: 6828: 6597: 6405: 6350: 6168: 6060: 5655: 5598: 5513: 5482: 5155: 4859: 4580: 3324: 2773: 2568: 2552: 2425: 1953: 1753: 1644: 1484: 1154: 1061: 1057: 962: 917: 889: 688: 684: 668: 652: 441: 421: 369: 357:

behaviour; they use communal nests and take care of kittens of other colony members.

354: 259: 162: 109: 83: 31: 6421: 6366: 6245: 6184: 5827: 5673: 5606: 5521: 5435: 5325: 5220: 5171: 5002:"Yongsan starts new program to keep stray cats from moving in as the Army moves out" 4787: 4729: 4645: 4271: 4140: 4032: 3980: 3934: 3771:"Scientists catch a feral cat killing a large mammal on camera 'for the first time'" 3686: 3463: 3409: 2860: 2293: 2214: 2197: 1983: 1910: 1856: 7261: 7190: 7180: 7160: 7105: 7070: 7035: 6960: 6845: 6778: 6721: 6634: 6542: 6527: 5733: 3874: 3208: 3051: 2737: 2720: 2086: 2006: 990: 897: 885: 708: 664: 521: 509: 489: 175: 73: 4071: 3455: 850: 5913:

Davis, David E. (1957). "The Use of Food as a Buffer in a Predator–Prey System".

5610: 5474: 5235: 5113: 5019:

Chad C. Hanson; David J. Will; Jake E. Bonham; Bradford S. Keitt (October 2010).

3964: 3827: 3533: 3248: 3071: 1660: 7328: 7230: 7175: 7170: 7135: 7125: 7030: 7015: 6985: 6823: 6808: 6736: 6726: 6602: 6559: 6522: 5309: 5203: 5186: 4713: 4015: 3998: 3858: 2953:"Feral Cat Globetrotters: genetic traces of historical human-mediated dispersal" 2903:"Feral cat predation on seabirds on Hahajima, the Bonin Islands, southern Japan" 1894: 1365: 1170:. They did note that most fecal samples collected indicated the presence of one 1052:

Feral cats, like all cats, are susceptible to diseases and infections including

905: 759:

is mainly of European origin and probably arrived in the 19th century on ships.

636: 455:

In the 19th and 20th centuries, several cat specimens were described as wildcat

344: 230:, feral cats have been protected since 1991, and it is illegal to kill them. In 203: 170:

cats, although stray and feral cats are generally considered to be different by

137: 91: 17: 4305: 4255: 4235:

Lee, I. T.; Levy, J. K.; Gorman, S. P.; Crawford, P. C.; Slater, M. R. (2002).

3908: 3383: 3307: 3290: 2937:

The Feral Cat Conundrum: Assessing the Science and Ethics of Trap-Neuter-Return

2051: 1945: 1727: 7403: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7246: 7200: 7195: 7095: 7075: 7055: 7050: 7020: 6980: 6813: 6701: 6589: 6569: 6514: 6237: 5811: 5717: 5341:"Cat Gets Its Tern: A Case Study of Predation on a Threatened Coastal Seabird" 4878:"Keeping Birds Safe from Outdoor Cats • The National Wildlife Federation Blog" 4124: 3718: 3701: 2852: 2805: 2788: 2388:"Feral mammals of the Mediterranean islands: documents of early domestication" 1778: 1449: 1334: 1113: 1077: 893: 830: 787: 740: 696: 456: 437: 405: 389:

traders probably carried cats on board their trading vessels to Italy and the

378: 324: 278: 6108: 6034: 5934: 5339:

Greenwell, Claire N.; Calver, Michael C.; Loneragan, Neil R. (16 July 2019).

3542: 3316: 3257: 2285: 2060: 1829: 1312:

3 million advocating to legalise TNR throughout the United States, while the

7145: 7140: 7025: 7005: 7000: 6574: 6564: 6532: 6100: 3678: 3574: 1697: 951: 944: 929: 913: 767: 680: 525: 425: 382: 340: 336: 235: 186: 94:. Of the 700 million cats in the world, an estimated 480 million are feral. 6413: 6358: 6329:) populations in Europe, and hybridization with domestic cats in Hungary". 6311: 6176: 6126: 6052: 5819: 5767: 5725: 5376: 5317: 5212: 5163: 4721: 4653: 4501: 4445: 4367: 4323: 4263: 4221: 4132: 4024: 3972: 3926: 3866: 3727: 3560: 3401: 3275: 3120: 3079: 3036: 2994: 2789:"Feeding Ecology of a Feral Cat Population on a Small Mediterranean Island" 2223: 2078: 1991: 1902: 1848: 1652: 1531:(Third ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 119–147. 1333:, Western Australia, a single, neutered, semi-feral cat raided a protected 880:

Cats are included on the list of 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Species.

5983: 5556: 5453:) eating a continental fauna: The number of mammals killed in Australia". 4167: 4079: 3813: 3423:

Voith, V. L.; Borchelt, P. L. (1986). "Social Behavior of Domestic Cats".

3028: 2361:(Report). Australian Nature Conversation Agency and University of Sydney. 1456:

resulting from hybridisation between a domestic cat and a Scottish wildcat

802: 315:

is a free-ranging domestic cat that lives in a cat colony on agricultural

7358: 7353: 7280: 7205: 7100: 6990: 6818: 6751: 6741: 6607: 6547: 5392:

The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States

4612:"How to Help Community Cats | A step-by-step guide to Trap-Neuter-Return" 3010:"Vector-borne diseases in client-owned and stray cats from Madrid, Spain" 2826:"The diet of feral cats on islands: A review and a call for more studies" 2392:

The Walking Larder: Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation

2324:

Feline Husbandry: Diseases and Management in the Multiple Cat Environment

1453: 1330: 1318: 1205: 1017: 892:(top predators) in local ecosystems. They prey on a wide variety of both 748: 700: 648: 603: 602:

in 1930, was a skull and skin of a male specimen from Santa Margarita in

541: 477: 473: 444:. Since then, cats continued to be introduced to new countries, often by 375: 349: 312: 298: 4595:"How to Help Community Cats: A Step-by-Step Guide to Trap-Neuter-Return" 4482: 2493:"Étude de la Faune de Vertébrés de Barbarie (Algérie, Tunisie et Maroc)" 2415:

Yamaguchi, N.; Kitchener, A.; Driscoll, C. & Nussberger, B. (2015).

1204:

The study of feral cats on Prince Edward Island warned of "considerable

52: 7308: 7251: 7150: 6205:

Kitchener, A. C.; Yamaguchi, N.; Ward, J. M.; Macdonald, D. W. (2005).

6026: 5942: 5664: 5357: 4571: 4546: 4531: 2705: 1779:"How Effective and Humane Is Trap-Neuter-Release (TNR) for Feral Cats?" 1461: 1444: 1405: 1127: 986: 861: 854: 545: 513: 449: 386: 219: 6280:

Randi. E.; Pierpaoli, M.; Beaumont, M.; Ragni, B.; Sforzi, A. (2001).

4427: 4203: 2976: 2919: 1744: 1112:

Feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus belong to the

440:

armies also contributed spreading cats and eventually brought them to

7303: 7220: 7120: 6975: 6793: 6652: 6537: 4290:"Prevalence of infectious diseases in feral cats in Northern Florida" 2721:"Aspects of the ecology of feral cats on Dassen Island, South Africa" 2196:

Janke, N.; Berke, O.; Flockhart, T.; Bateman, S.; Coe, J. B. (2017).

1242:. and the National Animal Control Association, TNR is opposed by the 1053: 982: 901: 842:

process, and the cat rarely becomes friendly and may remain fearful.

771: 763: 656: 619: 581: 445: 409: 374:

Domestic cats have been members of ship crews since the beginning of

332: 286: 282: 6211:): a tool for conservation action for a critically endangered felid" 5926: 5427: 5390:

Loss, S. R.; Will, T.; Marra, P. P. (2012). "Article number: 1396".

5105: 3628:"Netizens praise builder of mini-houses for stray cats in Parañaque" 2697: 928:

like the European rabbit and house mouse, and on native rodents and

2588:

Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences

2011:

Parasitological Survey on Stray Cat Colonies from the Veneto Region

1174:, with some samples indicating the presence of multiple parasites. 7090: 7080: 5394:(Report) (Nature Communications 4 ed.). Nature Communications 3653: 3425:

Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practising Veterinarian

1443: 1380: 978: 875: 801: 630: 497: 417: 320: 302: 227: 213: 123: 51: 5535:

Robertson, I. D. (1998). "Survey of Predation by Domestic Cats".

2824:; Donlan, C. J.; Keitt, B.; Le Corre, M.; Horwath, S. V. (2011). 2394:(2015 ed.). London and New York: Routledge. pp. 46–58. 238:

by veterinarians of the Veterinary Public Services. Programs for

7438: 6674: 6669: 6475: 5689:"Mammal Invaders on Islands: Impact, Control and Control Impact" 2820:

Bonnaud, E.; Medina, F. M.; Vidal, E.; Nogales, M.; Tershy, B.;

2434: 2356:

Overview of the Impacts of Feral Cats on Australian Native Fauna

1290: 1271: 1036: 1013: 958: 858: 433: 328: 316: 231: 133: 6479: 4786:. The Humane Society of the United States. 2006. Archived from 4670:. The Humane Society of the United States. 2009. Archived from 3145:. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. pp. 139–154. 2653:

Die Wildkatzen der Alten Welt: Eine Übersicht über die Gattung

2326:. Goleta, CA: American Veterinary Publications. pp. 1−59. 1552:

Hildreth, Aaron M.; Vantassel, Stephen M.; Hygnstrom, Scott E.

1491:

populations exists also in Italy, Hungary, Spain and Portugal.

1309: 1149:

the virus than pet cats. Researchers studying 96 feral cats on

420:. Scientists do not agree on whether cats were domesticated in 56:

A feral cat with a tipped ear, indicating it was neutered in a

6803: 6506: 1304:

TNR is backed by well-funded advocacy organizations: in 2010,

429: 6142:"Genetic diversity and introgression in the Scottish wildcat" 4545:

Debrot, Adolphe O.; Ruijter, Martin N. M. (17 January 2022).

3366:

Crowell-Davis, S. L.; Curtis, T. M.; Knowles, R. J. (2004).

5234:

Woinarski, John; Legge, Sarah; Dickman, Chris (June 2019).

5187:"Trap-neuter-release programs: the reality and the impacts" 743:. Feral cat colonies also occur on the Japanese islands of 6467:

is set in a society of feral cat colonies, called "Clans."

588:

layers revealed fossils of livestock introduced since the

584:

records of cats date to the early 14th century, but older

6441:

Cat Wars: The Devastating Consequences of a Cuddly Killer

5790:

Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society

5696:

Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society

3999:"Humane strategies for controlling feral cat populations" 2617:. London: Trustees of the British Museum. pp. 52–55. 2162:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 21 September 2019. 1876:"Humane strategies for controlling feral cat populations" 1523:

Liberg, O.; Sandell, M.; Pontier, D.; Natoli, E. (2014).

1480:

programs have been established to prevent hybridisation.

957:

African feral cats have been observed directly pilfering

833:

cats get socialized to home life and become family pets.

5958:"Prospects for biological control of rodent populations" 3368:"Social organization in the cat: A modern understanding" 3289:

MacLeod, A.; Cooke, S. C.; Trillmich, F. (1 July 2020).

2660:

The wildcats of the Old World: An overview of the genus

954:

of around the cat's weight at 4 kg (8.8 lb).

647:

carnivore. It occurs between 55° North and 54.3° South

222:

harbour. They are regularly fed by the local fishermen.

6286:) and their hybrids using Bayesian clustering methods" 5298: