740:
about extrapolating outcomes to formulate a general theory regarding the population of interest. However, researchers have begun to find strategies to effectively generalize causal effects outside of the sample by comparing the environments of the treated population and external population, accessing information from larger sample size, and accounting and modeling for treatment effects heterogeneity within the sample. Others have used covariate blocking techniques to generalize from field experiment populations to external populations.
51:
668:. This is in contrast to laboratory experiments, which enforce scientific control by testing a hypothesis in the artificial and highly controlled setting of a laboratory. Field experiments have some contextual differences as well from naturally-occurring experiments and quasi-experiments. While naturally-occurring experiments rely on an external force (e.g. a government, nonprofit, etc.) controlling the
545:
690:(SUTVA), indicates that the value of the outcome depends only on whether or not the subject is assigned the treatment and not whether or not other subjects are assigned to the treatment. When these three core assumptions are met, researchers are more likely to provide unbiased estimates through field experiments.
756:' experiments communities may lobby for their community to get a cash transfer so the assignment is not purely random). There are limitations to collecting consent forms from all subjects. Comrades administering interventions or collecting data could contaminate the randomization scheme. The resulting
676:
Field experiments encompass a broad array of experimental designs, each with varying degrees of generality. Some criteria of generality (e.g. authenticity of treatments, participants, contexts, and outcome measures) refer to the contextual similarities between the subjects in the experimental sample
672:
treatment assignment and implementation, field experiments require researchers to retain control over randomization and implementation. Quasi-experiments occur when treatments are administered as-if randomly (e.g. U.S. Congressional districts where candidates win with slim margins, weather patterns,
663:
relationships. Random assignment helps establish the comparability of the treatment and control group so that any differences between them that emerge after the treatment has been administered plausibly reflect the influence of the treatment rather than pre-existing differences between the groups.
726:
Researchers can utilize machine learning methods to simulate, reweight, and generalize experimental data. This increases the speed and efficiency of gathering experimental results and reduces the costs of implementing the experiment. Another cutting-edge technique in field experiments is the use of
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judgment, benchmarks can help to add credibility to a study. While some argue that covariate adjustment or matching designs might work just as well in eliminating bias, field experiments can increase certainty by displacing omitted variable bias because they better allocate observed and unobserved
739:
There are limitations of and arguments against using field experiments in place of other research designs (e.g. lab experiments, survey experiments, observational studies, etc.). Given that field experiments necessarily take place in a specific geographic and political setting, there is a concern
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Noncompliance issues affecting field experiments (both one-sided and two-sided noncompliance) can occur when subjects who are assigned to a certain group never receive their assigned intervention. Other problems to data collection include attrition (where subjects who are treated do not provide
747:
Using field experiments can also lead to concerns over interference between subjects. When a treated subject or group affects the outcomes of the nontreated group (through conditions like displacement, communication, contagion etc.), nontreated groups might not have an outcome that is the true
697:
tests to determine the size and strength of the intervention's effect on the subjects. Field experiments allow researchers to collect diverse amounts and types of data. For example, a researcher could design an experiment that uses pre- and post-trial information in an appropriate statistical
685:
Under random assignment, outcomes of field experiments are reflective of the real-world because subjects are assigned to groups based on non-deterministic probabilities. Two other core assumptions underlie the ability of the researcher to collect unbiased potential outcomes: excludability and
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non-interference. The excludability assumption provides that the only relevant causal agent is through the receipt of the treatment. Asymmetries in assignment, administration or measurement of treatment and control groups violate this assumption. The non-interference assumption, or
744:
outcome data) which, under certain conditions, will bias the collected data. These problems can lead to imprecise data analysis; however, researchers who use field experiments can use statistical methods in calculating useful information even when these difficulties occur.
718:. As well, field experiments can act as benchmarks for comparing observational data to experimental results. Using field experiments as benchmarks can help determine levels of bias in observational studies, and, since researchers often develop a hypothesis from an
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Field experiments can be expensive, time-consuming to conduct, difficult to replicate, and plagued with ethical pitfalls. Subjects or populations might undermine the implementation process if there is a perception of unfairness in treatment selection (e.g. in
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for field testing. However, others argue that, even though replicability is difficult, if the results of the experiment are important then there a larger chance that the experiment will get replicated. As well, field experiments can adopt a
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The distinguishing characteristics of field experiments are that they are conducted in real-world settings and often unobtrusively and control not only the subject pool but selection and overtness, as defined by leaders such as
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and the rest of the population. They are increasingly used in the social sciences to study the effects of policy-related interventions in domains such as health, education, crime, social welfare, and politics.
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Gordon, Brett R.; Zettelmeyer, Florian; Bhargava, Neha; Chapsky, Dan (2017). "A Comparison of
Approaches to Advertising Measurement: Evidence from Big Field Experiments at Facebook".
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untreated outcome. A subset of interference is the spillover effect, which occurs when the treatment of treated groups has an effect on neighboring untreated groups.
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in the lab and the field has left longstanding impacts in the physical, natural, and life sciences. Modern use field experiments has roots in the 1700s, when
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Aronow, P. M.; Samii, C. (2017). "Estimating average causal effects under general interference, with application to a social network experiment".
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467:
154:
777:" design that will eventually give the entire sample access to the intervention on different timing schedules. Researchers can also design a
1879:
Fryer Jr, Roland G (2014). "Injecting charter school best practices into traditional public schools: Evidence from field experiments".
1403:
Aronow, Peter M.; Carnegie, Allison (2013). "Beyond LATE: Estimation of the
Average Treatment Effect with an Instrumental Variable".
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because they simulate real-world occurrences. Some researchers argue that field experiments are a better guard against potential
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462:
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1055:"The Design of Field Experiments with Survey Outcomes: A Framework for Selecting More Efficient, Robust, and Ethical Designs"
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Ahmed, Ali M; Hammarstedt, Mats (2008). "Discrimination in the rental housing market: A field experiment on the
Internet".
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1988:"The instability of field experiments: building an experimental research tradition on the rocky seashores (1950–1985)"
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design, including similar adaptive designs on experiments with variable outcomes and variable treatments over time.
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Lee, D. S.; Moretti, E.; Butler, M. J. (2004). "Do voters affect or elect policies? Evidence from the US House".
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261:
1363:"Instrumental Variable Methods for Conditional Effects and Causal Interaction in Voter Mobilization Experiments"
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1336:
1577:"Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination"
1705:"The sociology of discrimination: Racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit, and consumer markets"
1142:
LaLonde, R. J. (1986). "Evaluating the econometric evaluations of training programs with experimental data".
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1906:
Field, Erica; Pande, Rohini (2008). "Repayment frequency and default in microfinance: evidence from India".
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1611:"Putting behavioral economics to work: Testing for gift exchange in labor markets using field experiments"
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815:(e.g., in the labor market, in housing, in the sharing economy, in the credit market, or in integration),
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researcher Harold
Gosnell conducted an early field experiment on voter participation in 1924 and 1925.
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Woertman, W.; de Hoop, E.; Moerbeek, M.; Zuidema, S. U.; Gerritsen, D. L.; Teerenstra, S. (2013).
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assign subjects (or other sampling units) to either treatment or control groups to test claims of
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inference method to see if an intervention has an effect on subject-level changes in outcomes.
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1839:"Does price matter in charitable giving? Evidence from a large-scale natural field experiment"
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1024:"Door-to-door canvassing in the European elections: Evidence from a Swedish field experiment"
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Field experiments offer researchers a way to test theories and answer questions with higher
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1477:"Stepped wedge designs could reduce the required sample size in cluster randomized trials"
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Raj, V.; Kalyani, S. (2017). "Taming non-stationary bandits: A Bayesian approach".
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1754:"What's in a name? Measuring access to social activities with a field experiment"
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After designing the field experiment and gathering the data, researchers can use
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1672:"Racial discrimination in the sharing economy: Evidence from a field experiment"
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Scott, Steven L. (2010). "A modern
Bayesian look at the multi-armed bandit".
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products to validate earlier laboratory tests and to obtain broader feedback.
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Other categorical examples of sciences that use field experiments include:
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Grodwohl, Jean-Baptiste; Porto, Franco; El-Hani, Charbel N. (2018-07-31).
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From local to global: External validity in a fertility natural experiment
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Rubin, Donald B. (2005). "Causal
Inference Using Potential Outcomes".
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utilized a controlled field experiment to identify a treatment for
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1209:"Recursive partitioning for heterogeneous causal effects: Table 1"
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Broockman, David E.; Kalla, Joshua L.; Sekhon, Jasjeet S. (2017).
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has pioneering figures who utilized field experiments, including
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Nesseler, Cornel; Carlos, Gomez-Gonzalez; Dietl, Helmut (2019).
757:
711:
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analyzed randomized actual "field" experimental data for crops.
538:
1326:"Covariate Selection for Generalizing Experimental Results"
1107:
Harrison, G. W.; List, J. A. (2004). "Field experiments".
781:
field experiment to remove possibilities of manipulation.
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Edelman, Benjamin; Luca, Michael; Svirsky, Dan (2017).
1313:(Report). National Bureau of Economic Research. w21459.
1795:
Ashraf, Nava; Berry, James; Shapiro, Jesse M (2010).
569:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1575:Bertrand, Marianne; Mullainathan, Sendhil (2004).
1260:Applied Stochastic Models in Business and Industry
2063:Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)
1306:Dehejia, R.; Pop-Eleches, C.; Samii, C. (2015).
1096:(Report). Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
1367:Journal of the American Statistical Association
1213:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
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919:Journal of Business & Economic Statistics
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1955:"An Experiment in the Stimulation of Voting"
1908:Journal of the European Economic Association
1676:American Economic Journal: Applied Economics
1324:Egami, Naoki; Hartman, Erin (19 July 2018).
912:"Natural and quasi-experiments in economics"
1992:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
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1532:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
768:, etc. This leads to the use of larger
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811:have used field experiments to analyze
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688:Stable Unit Treatment Value Assumption
453:Geographic information system software
1703:Pager, Devah; Shepherd, Hana (2008).
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1721:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740
567:adding citations to reliable sources
1837:Karlan, Dean; List, John A (2007).
1881:The Quarterly Journal of Economics
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954:The Quarterly Journal of Economics
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1959:American Political Science Review
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1528:"Lind and scurvy: 1747 to 1795"
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554:needs additional citations for
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1109:Journal of Economic Literature
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1379:10.1080/01621459.2016.1246363
837:often conduct field tests of
1144:The American Economic Review
1953:Gosnell, Harold F. (1926).
1920:10.1162/JEEA.2008.6.2-3.501
1361:Blackwell, Matthew (2017).
673:natural disasters, etc.).
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1936:The Design of Experiments
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1758:Palgrave Communications
1226:10.1073/pnas.1510489113
648:carried out outside of
1942:. Oliver and Boyd Ltd.
1816:10.1257/aer.100.5.2383
1092:Duflo, Esther (2006).
821:charitable fundraising
791:history of experiments
766:precision and accuracy
359:Inferential statistics
305:Descriptive statistics
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2048:Design of experiments
1933:Fisher, R.A. (1937).
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695:statistical inference
143:Philosophical schools
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1526:Tröhler, U. (2005).
1179:10.2139/ssrn.3033144
880:’s field experiment.
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1022:Nyman, Pär (2017).
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561:Please help
556:verification
553:
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242:Hermeneutics
130:Quantitative
1715:: 181–209.
1682:(2): 1–22.
1504:2066/117688
1346:31 December
1034:: 110–118.
863:R.A. Fisher
861:researcher
817:health care
735:Limitations
652:settings.
646:experiments
315:Ethnography
215:Methodology
170:Fallibilism
118:Qualitative
88:Referencing
2042:Categories
1292:1707.09727
897:References
849:Kurt Lewin
819:programs,
809:Economists
795:James Lind
723:factors.
650:laboratory
589:newspapers
490:Statistics
485:Simulation
423:Simulation
364:Interviews
327:Experiment
295:Case study
267:Pragmatism
185:Pragmatism
175:Positivism
165:Empiricism
2012:1742-6316
1998:(3): 45.
1445:1305.6156
1187:197733986
1079:233321039
839:prototype
835:Engineers
831:programs.
825:education
619:June 2022
123:Art-based
2028:51889466
2020:30066110
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1462:26963450
1387:55878137
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1207:(2016).
974:25098703
885:See also
785:Examples
720:a priori
657:randomly
290:Analysis
83:Argument
43:Research
35:a series
33:Part of
1824:6392533
1764:: 1–7.
1730:2915460
1553:1276007
1236:4941430
1156:1806062
1129:3594915
939:1392369
875:Ecology
779:blinded
764:, less
603:scholar
369:Mapping
284:Methods
190:Realism
78:Writing
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1940:(PDF)
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915:(PDF)
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2008:ISSN
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