Filial piety in Buddhism - Knowledge (XXG)

678: 922:, father and son, older and younger brother, husband and wife, will be benefited". He further stated that in order to become a monk, a devotee had to ask permission from his parents and emperor first—ordination as a monk was therefore not against filial piety, he argued. This argument was supported by certain rules in the Indian Buddhist monastic discipline, but the intention behind these rules was redefined to show that Buddhism was congruent with traditions of piety and loyalty. In his arguments Huiyuan was supported by some government officials and prominent lay people. His writings effectively stopped the debate with regard to monks not prostrating for the emperor, but the more general issue of the Buddhist monastic order being exempt from certain duties and obligations still remained. 563:. After having been a monk for 17 years, he discovers his parents are abused by their servants and are starving. He then feels he needs to choose between the monastic vocation and taking care of his destitute parents as a lay person, since he assumes he cannot do so as a monk. The Buddha is able to prevent him from disrobing, however, and teaches him he can take care of his parents while still in monk's robes. The monk then decides to share gifts of food and cloth with them regularly, for which he is criticized by his fellow monks. His fellow monks consider this inappropriate for a Buddhist monk and report this to the Buddha. The Buddha, however, speaks high praise of the monk's filial piety, and he relates a discourse called the 1077:) saving his mother. The festival became very popular throughout Chinese society, even to the point of imperial families and government officers becoming involved. The story also became very popular: though already part of the Indian Buddhist tradition, East Asian Buddhism raised it from a peripheral role to a central one. Buddhists attempted to show that filial children could still take care of their parents in the afterlife, a concept which they believed Confucianists overlooked. Some Buddhist authors like Ch'i-sung proclaimed that Buddhists not only practiced filial piety, but also did so at a more deeper level than Confucianists, because they took care of their parents in both this life and the next. The 677: 1331: 1526:. Just like in Song Dynasty China, filial piety was not seen as just a virtue to be practiced towards parents, relatives and ancestors, but to all living beings. Since all living beings were seen to have been one's parents from previous lives, the filial role of the individual was more broadly construed, and blood lines were interpreted in a more spiritual sense rather than only blood relations. With this, Tōrei meant to emphasize the role of religion and its lineage. Therefore, in Japan, Buddhists regarded the position of Buddhism on filial piety as either the same as in Confucianism, or as broader and deeper than in Confucianism. 1354:

practices, practicing them at different periods in life (e.g. being a filial daughter and later choosing the nun's life), or by transforming Confucian practices in Buddhist practices. Though the ideal of self-sacrifice agreed with Confucian values, such sacrifice was redefined fitting with Buddhist values. Through these writings, Chinese Buddhists attempted to connect the family with the monastery in a mutually supportive relationship. Inscriptions show that female donors of Buddhist monasteries often dedicated their generosity to their parents, effectively helping to establish a new ideal of female filial piety. Also,

829:"A long time ago, the Ch'i people crossed a large river in a boat and it happened that their father fell into the water. His sons rolled up their sleeves, seized his head, and turned him upside down, forcing the water out of his mouth, thus bringing their father back to life. Now, to seize one's father's head and turn him upside down is certainly not very filial. Yet they could have done nothing better to save their father's life. If they had folded their hands and practiced the norm of filial sons, their father's life would have been lost in the waters." 1419:

the son's obligation to the mother was a new addition to the Chinese concept of filial piety, as the bond between mother and son became the primary relationship. According to scholar Nomura Shin'ichi, the ideal of the son repaying the gratitude to his mother played an important part in uniting two contrasting ideas in East Asian culture at the time, that is, the concept of feminine impurity on the one hand and the ideal of pure motherhood on the other hand. The son was taught to deal with this indebtedness to his mother by

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perceived as unruly, by providing a role for her as a filial daughter where indigenous tradition was silent or ambiguous. In edifying stories about virtuous daughters-in-law, women were given a pivotal role in creating harmony in the family, which was unprecedented. However, although daughters' expression of filial piety was basically the same as that of sons, daughters expressed it in more extreme forms, including infanticide or suicide. Often their role only became important in the absence of any sons.

892: 1156: 248: 751:), Buddhism was heavily criticized for what Confucianists perceived as a disregard for Confucian virtues and role ethics among family members. In addition, Buddhist monks were without descendants, and therefore did not create the offspring necessary to continue the ancestor worship in next generations. Furthermore, Buddhist monks shaved their heads, which was perceived as a lack of filial piety, because Confucianism saw the human body as a "living monument of filial piety" and considered 318:, the Buddha describes through several metaphors the difficulty in repaying the gratitude of one's parents through material means only. The discourses say that even if children were to carry their parents on their backs their entire lives, or let them be kings and queens of the country, they would still not have repaid the large debt to their parents. Eventually, he concludes that it is only possible to repay one's gratitude by teaching them Buddhism through spiritual qualities, such as 275:. Whereas the first word refers to acknowledgement of the indebtedness towards others, the second quality is interpreted as repaying such debt. Buddhist texts often encourage children from the age of discretion to take care of their parents, remember their gratitude to them, honor them and do everything they can to repay their gratitude to them. The care and attention the parents have given the child is seen to deserve full acknowledgment from the child. In a 22: 666:, Michihata Ryōshū, Miyakawa Hasayuki and Kenneth Ch'en developed the perspective that filial piety was unique for the period in which Buddhism was introduced in China, and had not been part of Indian Buddhism before that. But in a more recent development, starting with Buddhist studies scholars such as John Strong and Gregory Schopen, it has been shown that filial piety was part of Buddhist teaching since 1568: 1458: 1094: 1102:

instead of retreating to the remote wilderness. This also helped to contribute to the social expectations of Chinese Confucian culture. By the end of the 6th century, Buddhist monks were paying homage to the Chinese emperor through rituals and services, which also helped to stop the argument whether monks should prostrate themselves. Nevertheless, in 662 emperor

982: 1147:), which argued that good people should develop filial piety for their parents and neighbors first, and only in a later stage develop love for humankind. Although this idea was influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhist doctrine, the principle was eventually used as a criticism against Buddhism, which was seen to disregard filial piety in favor of universal kindness. 1597:, gratitude is widely and publicly expressed as elderly parents are honored by gifts. Among Sri Lankans, commemoration of one's deceased parents is an important part of daily routine of many people. This may be done by a simple daily act of lighting incense. There still is a common expression among Sri Lankans that "the mother is the Buddha of the home". 345:, parents are described as worthy of respect and gifts, because they have created their children, and were the ones who educated their children in their formative years. Furthermore, parents have provided the basic requirements for the child to survive. Children who attempt to pay back their debt to their parents by providing for them, are considered 636:. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, therefore, helping to liberate other living beings from suffering came to be seen as a form of filial piety, since it was believed that all beings could have once been one's parents. This doctrine has affected Buddhist practice as well. For example, in some forms of Tibetan meditation, practitioners are instructed to develop 1535:

mother. A common metaphor found in popular Sinhalese verse and religious prose dating from medieval times is that of the Buddha as a caring, loving mother. In another example, vernacular post-canonical Pāli texts in several Theravādin countries mention a previous life of the Buddha in which he first conceived the idea of becoming a Buddha (

1130:(810–859) attempted to recover the damage done, since that time Chinese Buddhism has never completely recovered to its former status. It did continue to uphold a role in state rituals and mourning rites for ancestors, up until late imperial times (13th–20th century). Monasteries were given names like "Monastery for Honoring Loyalty " and 796: 485: 856:

achievements of the monk were at the same time a form of filial piety toward his parents. In that sense, Sun Chuo claimed that Buddhism teaches what amounts to a perfect form of filial piety, which he further amplified by referring to the Buddha's conversion of his father. Sun Chuo also responded to criticism with regard to the story of

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practices like dedicating the merit of a building to one's parents were common among Buddhist monastics, even more so than among laypeople. There is also textual evidence to suggest that the ties monastics had with their parents were not absolutely severed as ideally prescribed. For example, in some texts of

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than the debt to its father, and hurting one's mother was considered more severe than hurting one's father. Although a child was seen to be indebted to both parents, "he obligation to the father is a call of duty, whereas the obligation to the mother is a pull of love". In Tang dynasty China, a number of

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In the process of integrating Buddhism in Chinese culture, Buddhists soon realized that refutation of criticism by Confucianists was not sufficient to hold their own. Chinese Buddhism had to stress its own ideas about filial piety. To more directly point out the Buddhist's filial nature, passages and

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emphasized filial piety to parents and loyalty to the emperor, and Buddhist monastic life was seen to go against its tenets. In the 3rd–5th century, as criticism of Buddhism increased, Buddhist monastics and lay authors responded by writing about and translating Buddhist doctrines and narratives that

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served not only as an adaptation to Confucian values, but also served Buddhist ideals of edification. In their teachings about filial piety, Chinese Buddhists emphasized the great suffering a mother goes through when giving birth and raising a child. They described how difficult it is to repay one's

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wrote a number of hagiographies of virtuous nuns. In these stories, a new ideal Chinese woman was constructed, who was both filial yet also practiced Buddhist virtues. In Baochang's stories, he depicted women that excelled at both Confucian and Buddhist virtue and practices, by either combining such

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issued decrees obliging monks to prostrate before their parents and the emperor. Dao Xuan and Fa Lin, standing in the tradition of Huiyuan, argued that monks paid respects internally, and that such internal respect was more important than outward expression. There was so much opposition that Gaozong

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During this period, in response to attacks from Confucianists and Daoists, works written in defense of filial piety in Buddhism reflected a higher level of maturity. For example, in response to Daoist criticism that Buddhism teaches abandonment of one's parents, Fa Lin responded by referring to the

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Apart from religious texts, the first generations of Buddhists in China responded to criticism from Confucianists by emphasizing the lay life more and the monastic life less in their teachings, and for those who did become ordained as monastics, they decided to erect monasteries in populated areas,

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300–380), made an even stronger argument, by stating that Buddhists monks (far from working solely for their own benefit) were working to ensure the salvation of all people and making their family proud by doing so. Any change in the son's status would reflect on the parent, therefore the spiritual

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to all living beings as though they were one's parents is the more superior form of filial piety. Another aspect emphasized was the great suffering a mother goes through when giving birth and raising a child. Chinese Buddhists described how difficult it is to repay the goodness of one's mother, and

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in order to dedicate the religious merit to their parents. Having passed this rite is regarded by the Thai as a sign of maturity and as an expression of filial piety. in Thailand, women cannot receive full ordination, however, and therefore practice their filial role mostly economically. Even Thai

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the mother often would commit in raising her children. They even went so far that she might even go to hell as a result of the sins she committed. The mother became the primary source of well-being and indebtedness for the son, which was in contrast with pre-Buddhist perspectives. This emphasis on

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Buddhist writings on filial piety influenced Confucianism and Chinese culture at large. In India, where Buddhism originated, women had different social roles than in China, and devotion of the child to the mother was an important virtue. The debt of a child to its mother was seen as more important

1296:, the Discourse on the Difficulties in Repaying Parents' Debts. The text emphasized the compassion parents have towards their children. It later became highly popular in East Asian countries, as it was cited in at least ten Chinese translations of Indian texts. Based on this text, the more popular 846:

also attempted to counter charges that not having children was a violation of good ethics. It was pointed out that Confucius himself had praised a number of ascetic sages who had not had children or family, but because of their wisdom and sacrifice were still perceived as ethical by Confucius. The

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as object of devotion. Vernacular narratives warned of the dangers of treating one's parents with disrespect and encouraged the listeners a life-long respect for mothers and mother-like figures. Buddhist rituals marking the period of adulthood of a young male emphasized gratitude and honor to the

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Chinese texts and started writing extensively about filial piety. Some of these works were written by Japanese Buddhist monks, writing about filial Buddhist lay people or monks. Others were written by Chinese Buddhist monks that had moved to Japan as part of initiatives to revitalize Buddhism for

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mothers often committed in raising her children. The mother became the primary source of well-being and indebtedness for the son, which was in contrast with pre-Buddhist perspectives emphasizing the father. Nevertheless, although some critics of Buddhism did not have much impact during this time,

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women, especially daughters-in-law, were described as pious children, a description that had hardly been used for women. This changed all genres of writing from the early medieval period onward. Buddhist doctrine helped fulfill the need for changing post-Han society to deal with daughters-in-law

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was not only a way for Chinese Buddhists to adapt to Confucian ideals, it added its own Buddhist contribution to the concept of filial piety. It added the role of women and poor people in practicing filial piety, and regarded filial piety as a quality to be practiced toward all living beings in

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Nevertheless, many Chinese Buddhists still adhered strongly to Confucian values, and attempted to reconcile the two value systems. In the process of introducing and integrating Buddhism in China, historian Kenneth Ch'en distinguished three stages. In the first stage, Buddhism actively advocated

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evidence and some textual evidence showing that early Buddhist laypeople, monks and nuns often displayed strong devotion to their deceased parents, concluding filial piety was already an important part of the devotional life of early Buddhists. Contrary to the general scholarly view, devotional

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has the Buddha make the argument that parents bestow kindness to their children in many ways, and put great efforts into ensuring the well-being of their child. The discourse continues by describing how difficult it is to repay one's parents' kindness, but concludes that this can be done, in a

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is born as a princess and refuses to marry following her father's wishes. She eventually manages to find salvation for herself and her father, when she heals her father from his illness by sacrificing some of her body parts to be used for medicine. This story is still used by Buddhist women in

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song informed by Buddhist principles, a princess called Pari kongju is abandoned by her parents because they want a male heir. She is later saved by the Buddha and raised by others. Despite being abandoned, she later finds medicine for her ill royal parents and cures them out of filial piety.

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At the time when Buddhism developed in India, there was criticism that Buddhist otherworldly ideals did not fit in with expectations of filial piety. Devotion to the mother was seen as a fundamental virtue, and early Buddhists had to reconcile Buddhist doctrine and practice with Indian social

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attacking Buddhism for destroying the nation and the family. He argued that monks did not do anything productive, and resources were wasted on building Buddhist monasteries. He also criticized the shaving of hair as "destructive to the person". Again, Buddhist writers responded in defense.

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In South and Southeast Asia, the example of the Buddha maintaining a loving relationship with his family, as depicted in a wide range of narratives, had a profound effect in countries where Theravāda Buddhism took hold. In devotional texts, parents were mentioned in the same list with the

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were an expression of filial piety. Although the promotion of the five precepts by Buddhist monks had previously been referred to as a way to support imperial rule and therefore a form of filial piety, Buddhist writers now took this further. In particular, Qisong in his work the

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Buddhism stressed individual salvation, which went against the Confucian tenets, that mostly focused on family life and society. Buddhism advocated monasticism and celibacy, and emphasized the suffering inherent in family life, which was unacceptable in the Confucian world view.

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Filial piety is still an important part of moral education in Buddhist countries. It is an important value in a number of Asian cultures, some of which are based on Buddhism, such as Thailand. In the context of care-giving in Thailand, the parents of a child are compared to an

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cites Confucius saying that judgments should be made appropriately, weighing circumstances. In a way, Buddhists claimed therefore that a Buddhist monk benefited his parents, and in superior ways than Confucianism, because their renunciation was the "height of self-giving".

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practicing filial piety toward their parents, based on the qualities of gratitude and reciprocity. Initially, scholars of Buddhism like Kenneth Ch'en saw Buddhist teachings on filial piety as a distinct feature of Chinese Buddhism. Later scholarship, led by people such as

1259:). Perhaps inspired by Brahmanical teachings, Chinese Buddhists hoped that edifying people about the four debts would help for Buddhism to become more accepted in China. However, the teaching of the four debts only gained much popularity during the 8th century, when the 567:, as well his own previous life as Śyāma. In this previous life, the Buddha-to-be was taking care of his blind parents, but was accidentally shot by a king hunting. Whilst his last thoughts went out to his parents who would no longer have any one to take care of them, a 1432:

framework. Cole states that Chinese Buddhist texts depicted women as examples of virtue and sacrifice, but also as lustful and greedy people. However, Cole's monograph about the family in Chinese Buddhism has received mixed reviews and his conclusions are disputed.

918:(334–416) argued that Buddhist monks did not have to pay homage to the emperor in "a manifested way", but just in heart and mind. Buddhist monks did in fact support imperial rule, he continued, but do so by teaching virtue to the people and in that way "all the 730:

Although many similarities can be found between the contexts in which Indian and Chinese Buddhism arose, it was only in China that Buddhism would, in Strong's words, "systematically and self-consciously" develop its response to the question of filial piety.

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leaving his parents and becoming a monk was so he could teach them later on and thereby repay his debt of gratitude to them. Zongmi described the Ghost Festival as the highest expression of filial piety, in which Buddhist and Confucian doctrine could meet.

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were more universal and therefore more superior than Confucian kinship-oriented filial piety. Over time, the debate between critics and Buddhists became more refined as more Buddhist texts were translated and Buddhism became better known in China.

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The behavior of a Buddhist monk is similar. While on the surface the Buddhist seems to reject and abandon his parents, the pious Buddhist is actually aiding his parents as well as himself on the path towards enlightenment. In this regard, the

1126:(841–845), citing as one of the justifications that Buddhists would "abandon their rulers and parents for the company of teachers". Monastics were defrocked and monasteries were destroyed at a large scale. Although Wuzong's successor Emperor 1202:

for all living beings. This is a higher form of filial piety, he argued, because one presumes that all living beings have once been our parents and tries to repay the debt of gratitude to them. Qisong summarized his argument by stating that

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and dedicate the merit to the mother, which would help her. In other words, to be a good son, one also had to be a good Buddhist. Religious studies scholar Alan Cole has attempted to describe the role of women in Chinese Buddhism using a

1050:(618–907), the story gained much popularity and it was eventually transformed into a Confucian classic tale as well. Furthermore, it was a way for Chinese Buddhists to make a statement that Buddhist filial piety was superior to Confucian 5255: 807:

When Buddhism was introduced to China, it was redefined to support filial piety. Many elements of Buddhist teaching were once secondary in Indian Buddhism, but now gained new importance and a new function in a process of apologetics.

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Buddhist studies scholar Reiko Ohnuma does point out, however, that Buddhist texts describe the ideal monk as a person who detaches himself from his parents, which is seen as a hindrance to his spiritual progress. He is to develop

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to this day, which is especially popular in the countryside. Throughout Asia, the Ghost Festival is still celebrated, though its importance is most felt in countries which have been influenced by both Buddhism and Confucianism.

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Filial piety is still an important value in a number of Asian cultures. In China, Buddhism continued to uphold a role in state rituals and mourning rites for ancestors, up until late imperial times (13th–20th century). Also,

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Among some Buddhists, there is a custom of prostrating to parents. In a 2015 study among British teens who self-identify as Buddhist, 78% of heritage (ethnic) Buddhists indicated they prostrated to their parents, and 13% of

1543:). The story depicts the Buddha-to-be as a filial and grateful son, which the text says is a habit of Buddhas-to-be in general. The mother is part of the reason the Buddha-to-be aspires to become a Buddha in a future life. 1677:

A common idea found in Chinese Buddhist texts was that a mother breast-fed her child for three years, and the breast milk originated from the mother's blood: "For three years you drank your mother's white blood". See also

536:. Further, the Mahāyāna tradition has it that the Buddha organizes a funeral ceremony for his father out of piety. The Buddha is not only depicted as showing filial piety to his natural parents, but also his foster mother 640:

to all living beings by remembering that all could have been their mother in previous lifetimes. Just as in Pāli texts, Mahāyāna texts compare particularistic love negatively to universal love, which is seen as superior.

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and make merit, especially making donations to the Buddhist clergy and in that way to help their mothers from a bad rebirth in hell. The traditional ancestral sacrifices were therefore discouraged by Chinese Buddhists.

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and narratives about filial piety are still widely used. The Ghost Festival is still popular in many Asian countries, especially those countries which are influenced by both Buddhism and Confucianism. Furthermore, in

174:. By this Buddhists attempted to show that filial piety also meant taking care of one's parents in the next life, not just this life. Furthermore, authors in China—and to some extent Japan—wrote that in Buddhism, all 4550: 1481:, in the 17th century. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Confucian value of filial piety toward parents and emperor became strongly associated with Buddhism. Important in this process was the spread of 1593:

women who emigrate abroad tend to still send money to their aging parents. The custom of sending money to one's parents is common among rural Thai, who often work in big cities to earn money. During the

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filial piety as a Confucian virtue. In the second stage, Buddhists referred to their own tradition to make an argument that filial piety had always been part of it. In the last stage, they argued that

147:(334–416) responded that although monks did not express such piety, they did pay homage in heart and mind; moreover, their teaching of morality and virtue to the public helped support imperial rule. 559:

evidence from the first centuries CE, and can be found in both the Pāli and Chinese Buddhist scriptures. In the Pāli version of the story, it is prefaced by the life of a man who is ordained as a

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with the parents, which is a value that informs their filial piety, and gives it a sense of "respect, honor, fidelity, devotion, dutifulness, and sacrifice". Furthermore, there is a custom among

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stated in this regard that the best way to repay one's parents' kindness was by helping them to develop faith in Buddhism, not just by taking care of them materially. On a similar note, the monk

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and textual evidence to show that early Buddhist laypeople, monks and nuns often displayed strong devotion to their parents, concluding that filial piety was already an important part of the

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Apart from merit, in many Āgama texts, filial piety is said to lead to an orderly and harmonious society. In Pāli texts, the belief that children are indebted to their parents is a form of

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is reported to have had seven rules of conduct according to which he lived his life, the first of which being "As long as I live, may I maintain my parents". This rule is also cited in the

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Berezkin, Rostislav (21 February 2015), "Pictorial Versions of the Mulian Story in East Asia (Tenth–Seventeenth Centuries): On the Connections of Religious Painting and Storytelling",

876:. Sun Chuo's opponent critic described Sudāna as an "inhuman creature", but Sun Chuo argued that Sudāna had realized the highest form of filial piety, because in his final lifetime as 431:

Some early Buddhist texts describe the children's devotion toward their parents as a good deed that will reap religious merit, lead to praise by the wise, and finally, a rebirth in

1493:. Further, the songs, meant for Buddhists, urged people to respectfully serve social relationships including parents, in agreement with Confucian social ethics. In an 18th-century 123:

stated that while on the surface the Buddhist monk seems to reject and abandon his parents, he is actually aiding his parents as well as himself on the path towards enlightenment.

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From the 3rd century onward, women had a more dominant role in Chinese society. There was much criticism of this trend, as women's behavior was perceived as unruly and shameless.

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From the 6th century onward, Chinese Buddhists began to realize that they had to stress Buddhism's own particular ideas about filial piety in order to for Buddhism to survive.

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with their departed relatives. Responding to the criticism that monks shave their hair, Liu Xie stated they abandoned minor filial acts in order to perform greater ones.

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considered it a child's duty to continue the parental line. Moreover, celibacy did not exist in China before the arrival of Buddhism. Therefore, in early medieval China (

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there are anecdotes that suggest monastics regularly kept contact with their parents, expressed concern for them, and even borrowed money to support them. Also, in many

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Later, in the middle of the Tang dynasty, Han Yu attempted to criticize Buddhism for lack of filial piety in a memorandum, but his protests were suppressed by emperor

1659:: "... the story of Sāma, told to convince Chinese of Buddhism's support for filiality, instead ended up convincing them that Sāma was no Buddhist but a Confucian". 1181:(1007 – 1072) criticized Han Yu's writings for not conforming to Confucian doctrine. Also, during this time some Buddhist writers started to argue that the 1097:

Emperor Gaozong of Tang issued decrees obliging monks to prostrate before their parents and the emperor, but Buddhists protested and the decrees were rescinded.

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The adaptation of Buddhism to fit in with Confucian expectations of filial piety did not only take place on an academic level. Even on the grassroots level, in

376:, and the devotion toward one's parents, of which the latter is considered better, because they are considered the real creators. Parents are also compared to " 705:

stories monks are mentioned that take care of their parents, sometimes financially. Lastly, John Strong and Kenneth Ch'en have argued that the doctrine of the

4642: 4873: 4349: 4100: 1322:(960–1279). Popular preaching and lectures, mural and cave paintings and stone carvings indicate that it once was very popular among the common people. 825:, as well as historical precedents. In one passage, the text compares the life of a Buddhist monk with a pious son who saves his father from drowning: 5144: 4131: 407:, and concludes that those people are much more useful and meaningful to tend to than the fire. The parents are mentioned here as first and foremost. 4699: 1341:

When Buddhism developed in China, not only filial piety itself was redefined, but also the role of women in Chinese culture: in texts such as the

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ethics. In early Buddhism, filial piety was an important part of Buddhist ethics, though not as fundamental to ethics as it was in Confucianism.

4816:"Filial Piety with a Zen Twist: Universalism and Particularism Surrounding the Sutra on the Difficulty of Reciprocating the Kindness of Parents" 154:, Sujāti and other Buddhist stories of self-sacrifice spread a belief that a filial child should even be willing to sacrifice its own body. The 5020: 1127: 215:

countries in South and Southeast Asia, generosity, devotion and transfer of merit to parents are still widely practiced among the population.

5683: 5620: 5598: 5538: 5297: 5192: 5090: 5063: 4908: 4737: 4715: 4620: 4574: 4528: 4501: 4410: 4282: 4260: 4238: 4214: 5662: 1054:. Sujāti and other Buddhist stories of self-sacrifice spread a belief that a filial child should even be willing to sacrifice its own body. 334:. Though this discourse was translated and cited in many Buddhist traditions and schools, it came to be more emphasized with the arising of 1330: 5518: 5164:

Traditions in Contact and Change: Selected Proceedings of the Xivth Congress Of The International Association for the History Of Religions

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Furthermore, in order for Confucianists to accept Buddhism more easily, new elements were introduced in the Buddhist doctrine. During the

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parables about filial piety in Northwest Indian and Central Asian Buddhism became very prominent in Chinese Buddhism. The story of Śyāma (

351: 459:, and if they already were but were found out later to have killed a parent, they were expelled. This sentiment is echoed in the later 5549: 4949: 4163: 4042: 1382:

were written that spoke of the Buddha's respect for his parents, and the parent–child relationship. The most important of these, the

929:(420–577), Buddhism developed much in China, and conflicts arose with Daoists and Confucianists. A Daoist wrote a polemic called the 131:

300–380) further argued that monks were working to ensure the salvation of all people and making their family proud by doing so, and

5465: 5217: 4862: 4759: 4685: 4663: 4596: 4274: 4152: 899: 555:, a filial son who takes care of his blind parents in their old age. This story was very popular in Buddhist India, as derived from 26: 5124: 1063:, and led to the establishment of the Ghost Festival in China in the 6th century. The festival was held in the seventh moon of the 551:, there are several examples that illustrate filial piety. In one life found in several Buddhist collections, the Buddha-to-be is 285:, several ways are mentioned in which a child can repay its parents: "I will perform duties incumbent on them, I will keep up the 5454:"Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sūtras Related to Filial Piety as a Response to Confucian Criticism of Buddhists Being Unfilial" 1021: 986: 1114:

and not much responded to. Han Yu was nearly executed and banished. His popularity later rose, however. During the 10th-century

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with their departed relatives. Buddhist monks were also criticized for not expressing their respect to the Chinese emperor by

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Lo, Y.K. (2004), "Filial Devotion for Women: A Buddhist Testimony from Third-Century China", in Chan, A.K.; Tan, S. (eds.),

4402: 364:) expected to go to a heavenly rebirth in their afterlife, whereas people who are negligent in this, are called "outcasts" ( 5688: 5051:

Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks: Collected Papers on the Archaeology, Epigraphy, and Texts of Monastic Buddhism in India

235:, filial piety is prescribed and practiced in three ways: to repay the gratitude toward one's parents; as a good karma or 64:, filial piety is prescribed and practiced in three ways: to repay the gratitude toward one's parents; as a good karma or 1655:

In the process of the appropriation of this story by Confucianists, however, Śyāma was remodeled as a Confucian from the

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Kohn, L. (2004), "Immortal Parents and Universal Kin: Family Values in Medieval Daoism", in Chan, A.K.; Tan, S. (eds.),

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Andaya, B.W. (6 March 2002), "Localising the Universal: Women, Motherhood and the Appeal of Early Theravāda Buddhism",

1274: 1173:

Buddhist idea that all living beings might have been our parents, but also our enemies. A wise man therefore practices

817:(牟子理惑論) presented arguments why Buddhist practices did not go against Confucius, but were actually praised by him. The 5497: 5184: 4447:

Hsu, C.Y.; O'Connor, M.; Lee, S. (22 January 2009), "Understandings of Death and Dying for People of Chinese Origin",

1209: 4871:

Ohnuma, Reiko (December 2006), "Debt to the Mother: A Neglected Aspect of the Founding of the Buddhist Nuns' Order",

540:. Ohnuma has argued that a major reason for the Buddha to allow his foster mother to become a full-fledged Buddhist 5209: 5167: 5082: 5055: 5034:

Chinese Popular Religion: Linking Fieldwork and Theory, Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Sinology

4707: 4612: 4493: 4206: 4127: 766:

and was connected with the idea that Buddhism did not adhere to filial piety. This already became a problem in the

771: 465:, which states that a person who committed matricide or patricide cannot attain to insight in Buddhist teachings. 4997:"Kwamkatanyu-katavethi to pho-mae nai thana khrueang mue plukfang jariyatham kae luk tam naya phra phutthasasana" 4432: 4230: 1556: 1379: 1177:

and seeks enlightenment. This is the Buddhist way to benefit one's parents and all living beings. The Zen master

895: 629: 533: 346: 175: 109:

supported filiality, comparing them to Confucianism and thereby defending Buddhism and its value in society. The

4583:

Knapp, K.N. (2004), "Reverent Caring: The Parent–Son Relationship in Early Medieval Tales Of Filial Offspring",

5698: 4293: 1111: 662:(1885–1944), emphasized the role of filial piety in Indian Buddhism. However, in later years, scholars such as 5306:

Truitt, Allison (2015), "Not a Day but a Vu Lan Season: Celebrating Filial Piety in the Vietnamese Diaspora",

1207:

piety is venerated in all religious teachings, but it is especially true in Buddhism". On a similar note, the

847:

argument that Buddhist filial piety concerns itself with the parent's soul is the most important one. Later,

5636: 4900: 1103: 711: 583: 335: 166: 5334:

Walraven, Boudewijn (2012), "Buddhist Accommodation and Appropriation and the Limits of Confucianization",

4121: 435:. It is described as a fundamental good deed, and is in some Āgama texts compared to making offerings to a 1622: 1119: 1013: 891: 667: 193: 90: 45: 5156: 1118:

revival, Han Yu's writings were rediscovered and he became a saintly figure. Already in the 9th century,

5678: 5228:"'Heaven Starts at Your Parents' Feet': Adolescent Bowing to Parents and Associated Spiritual Attitudes" 4377:

Hinsch, Bret (2002), "Confucian Filial Piety and the Construction of the Ideal Chinese Buddhist Woman",

1415: 1384: 966: 184: 5395: 1298: 1165: 415:, feeling the same for his loved ones and foes. On a similar note, the texts say a monk should see all 247: 4123:

Dhamma Education: The Transmission and Reconfiguration of the Sri Lankan Buddhist Tradition in Toronto

5008: 4919:"Evolving Relationship Between the Buddhist Monastic Order and the Imperial States of Medieval China" 1366:

Singapore to justify their resistance to marriage. Another story that connects filial piety with the

571:

intervened and Śyāma came back to life. In some versions of the story, it is the mother who makes an

473: 252: 224: 53: 5458:

Buddhism in East Asia: Aspects of History's First Universal Religion Presented in the Modern Context

799:

Huiyuan (334–416) argued that Buddhist monks did not have to show homage externally, in order to be

5658: 767: 521: 419:

as his mother, not only his biological mother. This is considered a helpful method to practice the

372:). Buddhist studies scholar Guang Xing believes a comparison is drawn here between the devotion to 298: 69: 4516:

Filial Piety and Its Divine Rewards: The Legend of Dong Yong and Weaving Maiden with Related Texts

1155: 5651: 5574: 5383: 5351: 5323: 5247: 4984: 4803: 4795: 4520: 4474: 4366: 4310: 4291:

Fu, C.W.H. (1973), "Morality or Beyond: The Neo-Confucian Confrontation with Mahāyāna Buddhism",

4188: 4087: 4059: 1406: 1043: 915: 885: 880:

he would eventually help his family to attain enlightenment. Sun Chuo concluded: "If this is not

144: 1580:

from the perspective of the family. The children of a parent are seen to have a relationship of

1240: 654:

In the early days of Western Buddhist scholarship, a number of scholars, among which Indologist

455:. According to Buddhist texts, people who had done so were not allowed to become members of the 5396:"Caring for Terminally Ill Persons with Cancer: Experiences of Thai Buddhist Family Caregivers" 4490:

Personal Salvation and Filial Piety: Two Precious Scroll Narratives of Guanyin and her Acolytes

938:

replied that Buddhist supported imperial rule by promoting virtuous behavior, referring to the

5616: 5594: 5566: 5534: 5506: 5461: 5293: 5213: 5201: 5188: 5115: 5086: 5059: 5012: 4996: 4941: 4904: 4858: 4787: 4755: 4733: 4711: 4681: 4659: 4616: 4592: 4570: 4539:"Monks as Advocates of Filial Piety: The History of Buddhist Kōshiden in the Early Edo Period" 4524: 4497: 4466: 4436: 4406: 4358: 4336: 4278: 4256: 4234: 4210: 4180: 4148: 1536: 1506: 1445: 1285: 1252: 1244: 959: 935: 861: 822: 720: 706: 682: 587: 440: 432: 416: 319: 161: 136: 116: 98: 5609:

The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China

5530: 1621:

There were also more literal forms of self-mutilation among some Buddhists, such as applying

1187: 969:, Buddhism was adapted to fit in with Confucian values, as evidenced in the 5th-century text 5612: 5558: 5526: 5441: 5375: 5343: 5315: 5277: 5239: 4999:[Filial Piety as a Tool to Cultivate Morality for the Young According to Buddhism], 4976: 4933: 4882: 4838: 4830: 4779: 4729: 4458: 4386: 4321: 4302: 4252: 4172: 4109: 4079: 4051: 1602: 1515: 1494: 1441: 1437: 1303: 1214: 1178: 1115: 1064: 1025: 995: 943: 603: 595: 448: 399: 260: 236: 232: 189: 65: 61: 49: 4918: 4635:

China and Beyond in the Mediaeval Period: Cultural Crossings and Inter-regional Connections

1522:. In the 18th-century, filial piety was reinterpreted by Japanese writers such as Fórì and 5099: 5072: 5045: 1626: 1350: 1195: 1059: 783: 663: 624: 568: 452: 156: 143:

and other devotion, which in Confucianism was associated with the virtue of filial piety.

86: 41: 4672:

Kunio, M. (2004), "Filial Piety and 'Authentic Parents'", in Chan, A.K.; Tan, S. (eds.),

4325: 4247:

Emiko, Ochiai (2014), "Introduction: Intimate Work and the Construction of Asian Women",

958:

argued that Buddhist monks and lay people did practice filial piety, but monks did so by

715:, originated in Indian Buddhism, within the context of ancestor worship and offerings to 200:, citing lack of filial piety as one of his reasons for attacking Buddhist institutions. 5103: 5152: 4937: 2899:, p. 57). Poceski explains how the discussion after Huiyuan's rebuttals proceeded. 1424: 1082: 877: 813: 763: 724: 723:

has stated, however, that there is no evidence of an Indian predecessor to the Chinese

659: 517: 381: 281: 171: 111: 82: 73: 1243:

that a person should repay: the moral debt to one's parents, to all living beings, to

1199: 403:, the Buddha compares reverence toward one's parents, family and religious leaders to 331: 179: 5672: 5640: 5445: 5387: 5355: 5327: 5271: 5251: 5030:"Daughters, Buddhist Salvation, and Filial Piety: Some Issues of Interpretive Method" 4988: 4807: 4768:

Lo, Y.K. (2005), "Recovering a Buddhist Voice on Daughters-In-Law: The Yuyenü Jing",

4638: 4510: 4485: 4449: 4091: 1560: 1523: 1482: 1182: 579: 525: 365: 357: 323: 290: 5227: 5078:

Buddhist Monks and Business Matters: Still More Papers on Monastic Buddhism in India

4063: 872:

and gives away his father's possessions, his own wife and children as a practice of

591: 77: 4478: 1656: 1510: 1319: 1315: 1191: 1051: 1047: 919: 881: 800: 741: 572: 556: 552: 537: 489: 461: 420: 404: 151: 105: 37: 4560:

How Master Mou Removes Our Doubts: A Reader-Response Study and Translation of the

4098:

Berkwitz, S.C. (1 September 2003), "History and Gratitude in Theravada Buddhism",

1555:

is still popular in East Asia and is often referred to in preaching by monks. The

1310:, title has similar meaning). The Fumu was depicted in illustrations found in the 778:

and left their families behind, which was very disturbing for Buddhism's critics.

5243: 5176: 5076: 5049: 4980: 4894: 4695: 4606: 4514: 4397:

Holt, J.C. (2007), "Gone but Not Departed", in Cuevas, B.J.; Stone, J.I. (eds.),

4224: 4200: 1016:

of Buddhist texts, was included in a number of different anthologies such as the

4419: 4271:

Making Fields of Merit: Buddhist Female Ascetics and Gendered Orders in Thailand

1630: 1567: 1233: 981: 671: 655: 509: 504:

to teach his mother, who died when giving birth to him. It is found in both the

493: 436: 4390: 2835:, p. 12) mentions the part on supporting imperial rule. The quote is from 5645: 5281: 4967:

Ratanakul, Pinit (January 2013), "Reflections on Aging in Buddhist Thailand",

4834: 4799: 4566: 4462: 4083: 4055: 1589: 1531: 1519: 1502: 1485:, in which filial children were encouraged to chant invocations of the Buddha 1248: 1093: 857: 691: 529: 500:

A well-known story that expresses filial piety is the Buddha's journey to the

469: 307: 302: 212: 5570: 5510: 5016: 4945: 4791: 4362: 4347:

Goossaert, Vincent (1999), "Review of Mothers and Sons in Chinese Buddhism",

4340: 4184: 1518:(1622–1693) emphasized filial piety in his teachings, considering it part of 1222: 286: 4886: 4751: 4677: 4655: 4608:

Selfless Offspring: Filial Children and Social Order in Early Medieval China

4588: 4144: 4113: 1585: 1490: 1225:", which inspired writings by Buddhist scholars on the subject and made the 911: 775: 541: 501: 386: 94: 89:, has come to believe that filial piety was part of Buddhist doctrine since 16:

Aspect of Buddhist ethics, story-telling traditions, apologetics and history

5319: 4470: 1629:. Confucianists also took issue with Buddhists changing their surname to a 701: 575:

referring to the virtue of her son, and by doing so magically revives him.

548: 21: 5495:

Xing, G. (2016), "The Teaching and Practice of Filial Piety in Buddhism",

5347: 5157:"Filial Piety And Buddhism: The Indian Antecedents to a "Chinese" Problem" 4440: 119:, as well as historical precedents to respond to critics of Buddhism. The 1594: 1486: 1311: 1160: 848: 637: 124: 5648:, by the Thai composer Somtow Sucharitkul, sung and subtitled in English 5547:

Yu, Chun-fang (2000), "Review of Mothers and Sons in Chinese Buddhism",

5453: 4370: 5578: 5379: 4842: 4314: 4192: 1682:, p. 21) for similar motives in South-East Asian vernacular texts. 1577: 1420: 1362: 1355: 1174: 955: 873: 759: 752: 633: 602:

to help his mother, but to no avail. Then the Buddha advises him to do

560: 505: 412: 377: 327: 132: 5432:

Xing, X. (2010b), "A Buddhist–Confucian Controversy on Filial Piety",

2763:, p. 12) argues that this is a better argument than those of the 1457: 1478: 1466: 1371: 1264: 1256: 1138: 1086: 1068: 1033: 1003: 696: 607: 456: 373: 297:) of my family, I will make myself worthy of my heritage." The deity 256: 228: 140: 104:

When Buddhism was introduced in China, it had no organized celibacy.

57: 5562: 5363: 5136: 4630: 4538: 4306: 4176: 795: 544:, and thereby starting the order of nuns, was gratitude toward her. 484: 25:

Buddha image with scenes of stories in which he repaid his parents.

5475: 5412: 5029: 4783: 2759:, p. 116) specifies that monks make their families proud, and 1571:

Among some Buddhists, there is a custom of prostrating to parents.

1566: 1456: 1429: 1389: 1329: 1154: 1092: 980: 890: 869: 794: 716: 676: 599: 483: 276: 246: 206: 20: 5413:"Popularization of Stories and Parables on Filial Piety in China" 5181:

Respect for the Elderly: Implications for Human Service Providers

4896:

Ties That Bind: Maternal Imagery and Discourse in Indian Buddhism

384:, which is similar to the filial devotion expressed in the Hindu 68:; and as a way to contribute to and sustain the social order. In 1057:

As for the story of Maudgalyayāna, this was incorporated in the

903: 898:

and the deeds of filial piety they performed in previous lives.

30: 4851:

Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples: India, China, Tibet, Japan

1012:) was an example of this. The story was often mentioned in the 868:), a previous life of the Buddha, in which a prince becomes an 5108:'s Obligation to Support His Parents in Two Vinaya Traditions" 1280:

In the 2nd century CE, another text was composed based on the

758:

Another problem was that early Chinese Buddhist monks did not

532:

on several occasions, eventually helping his father to attain

239:; and as a way to contribute to and sustain the social order. 3922: 3898: 3642: 3640: 1137:

Neo-Confucianism upheld the principle of "gradational love" (

954:) to show that Buddhists observed social norms. In addition, 5587:

The Making of a Savior Bodhisattva: Dizang in Medieval China

5394:

Wiseso, W.; Fongkaew, W.; Pinyokham, N.; Spiers, J. (2017),

4543:

Proceedings of the Association for Japanese Literary Studies

1198:

were superior to Confucian ethics, because of the virtue of

582:, one of the main disciples of the Buddha, who is described 4161:

Ch'en, Kenneth (1968), "Filial Piety in Chinese Buddhism",

1436:

Chinese Buddhists urged people to stop killing animals for

447:). By contrast, killing one's parents is considered one of 2475: 2473: 1239:, Chinese Buddhist leaders introduced the teaching of the 1221:) contained a phrase stating that "filial piety is called 1107:

had to adjust the decree and eventually fully rescind it.

1022:

Confucian tradition of twenty-four stories of filial piety

5276:, CES Interdisciplinary Postgraduate Student Conference, 4399:

The Buddhist Dead: Practices, Discourses, Representations

3693: 3691: 3145: 3143: 2775: 2773: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2415:, p. 185). For the relation with hungry ghosts, see 1796:, p. 214). The latter author mentions the qualities. 1553:

Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents

1475:

Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents

1463:

Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents

1423:

to the local monastery. The monastery would then perform

1166:

Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents

311:, indicating the impact of filiality during that period. 2940: 2938: 2558: 2556: 1816: 1814: 5476:"Early Buddhist and Confucian Concepts of Filial Piety" 2723: 2721: 2597: 2595: 2318: 2316: 632:

has once been one's relative in a previous life in the

267:

In the Nikāyas, two qualities are often named in pair:

4425:

Women under Primitive Buddhism. Laywomen and Almswomen

3247: 3245: 3184: 3182: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2507: 2505: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2045: 2043: 2041: 1984: 1982: 1261:

Mahāyāna Discourse on the Concentration of Mind Ground

5400:

Pacific Rim International Journal of Nursing Research

4704:

Buddhist Funeral Cultures of Southeast Asia and China

4537:

Katsumata, Motoi (2015), Tomasi, Massimiliano (ed.),

3745:, Ch. 1). Berezkin mentions the devotional practices. 3411: 3409: 2624: 2622: 2072: 2070: 2028: 2026: 2020:, pp. 81–2). The 2012 study specifies the texts. 1843: 1841: 1700: 1698: 989:, of which the story of Śyāma eventually became part. 770:(266–420). Furthermore, during the Wei (386–550) and 48:, and was essential in the apologetics and texts of 4072:

Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences

2964:, pp. 137, 140) specifies the region in India. 2386:, pp. 184–7). For the borrowing of money, see 1509:were written, as Japanese authors were inspired by 2640: 1557:story of the monk Mulian saving his beloved mother 598:. Shocked by this, he tries to use his meditative 178:have once been one's parents, and that practicing 5273:Bowing to Parents and Attitudes in Buddhist Teens 4696:"Feeding the Dead: Ghosts, Materiality and Merit" 4631:"Chinese Filial Cannibalism: A Silk Road Import?" 1132:"Monastery for the Glorification of Filial Piety" 670:, though Strong did regard it as a compromise to 5480:Journal of the Oxford Centre of Buddhist Studies 5232:International Journal of Children's Spirituality 762:to the emperor, which was seen as going against 135:stated that Buddhists practiced filial piety by 5137:"Buddhism and the 'Great Persecution' in China" 3391:, p. 224) The 2016 study dates the murals. 594:that his mother who has just died is reborn in 5177:"Repayment for Parents Kindness: Buddhist Way" 1863:, p. 11). For the rebirth in heaven, see 1477:was introduced and translated in Korea in the 1388:, was written early in the Tang dynasty. This 1085:(780-841) argued that the main motivation for 4969:Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging 1444:; rather, people were encouraged to practice 1374:'s previous lives, both as filial daughters. 1194:(known as "five constants"), but argued that 1122:took Han Yu's arguments to heart and began a 727:with its emphasis on salvation of ancestors. 188:this changed in the period leading up to the 8: 4139:Chan, A.K.; Tan, S. (2004), "Introduction", 2411:For the relation with ancestor worship, see 1900:, p. 217). The 2013 study mentions the 1716: 1358:became quite popular, which related how the 791:Apologetics and adaptation (3rd–5th century) 709:, so much emphasized in the filial story of 590:. In this story, Maudgalyayāna sees through 5226:Thanissaro, Phra Nicholas (November 2010), 4874:Journal of the American Academy of Religion 4748:Filial Piety in Chinese Thought and History 4674:Filial Piety in Chinese Thought and History 4652:Filial Piety in Chinese Thought and History 4585:Filial Piety in Chinese Thought and History 4350:Archives de sciences sociales des religions 4141:Filial Piety in Chinese Thought and History 4101:Journal of the American Academy of Religion 549:stories of the previous lives of the Buddha 263:, filial piety is prescribed and practiced. 4333:Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens 4023: 3938:, p. 84). For other communities, see 2149:, p. 175). For the cloth, see Strong. 2000: 1505:in Japan (1603–1868), large quantities of 610:on behalf of his mother, which does help. 528:relates how the Buddha teaches his father 480:In canonical and post-canonical narratives 4326:"Feminine Elements in Sinhalese Buddhism" 3975: 3814: 3778: 3721: 3098: 3074: 2973: 2957: 2836: 2815: 2676: 2613: 2479: 2416: 2218: 2206: 2158: 1728: 1588:in Asia for male children to temporarily 1163:grottoes illustrations were found of the 1044:cut off her own flesh to feed her parents 492:carrying his parents, Saphan Sam Temple, 5523:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion 5460:, Vidyanidhi Prakashan, pp. 75–86, 4633:, in Wong, D.C.; Heldt, Gusthav (eds.), 3999: 3862: 3838: 3790: 3766: 3742: 3646: 3038: 3005:, p. 194). Xing mentions the Sūtra. 2712: 2271: 1868: 1024:(1260–1368). A similar story of Sujāti ( 774:, many Chinese women became ordained as 3939: 3595: 3535: 3451: 3311: 3275: 3236: 3173: 3161: 3149: 2896: 2848: 2803: 2791: 2779: 2752: 2664: 2652: 2562: 2535: 2523: 2496: 2464: 2399: 2387: 2370: 2358: 2259: 1694: 1614: 314:However, in the early discourse called 5531:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.559 5270:Thanissaro, Phra Nicholas (May 2015), 4011: 3850: 3826: 3697: 3571: 3559: 3511: 3487: 3475: 3110: 3086: 3062: 3050: 3002: 2944: 2739: 2688: 2601: 2586: 2574: 2440: 2428: 2412: 2383: 2346: 2334: 2322: 2267: 2266:, pp. 212–3). For Przyluski, see 2255: 2242: 2182: 2170: 2146: 2142: 2129: 2117: 2105: 2061: 1973: 1949: 1937: 1913: 1864: 1860: 1832: 1789: 1776: 1764: 1752: 1740: 1679: 950:, i.e. the Chinese translation of the 5141:Critical Moments in Religious History 3963: 3910: 3754: 3738: 3734: 3670: 3658: 3619: 3547: 3523: 3463: 3287: 3263: 3224: 3200: 3188: 3026: 3014: 2985: 2961: 2925: 2908: 2860: 2756: 2727: 2700: 2254:For Horner, Ryōshū and Hasayuki, see 1642:It is disputed who the author of the 1440:, because this would create only bad 910:Responding to criticism from emperor 451:, leading to an immediate destiny to 7: 5206:The Ghost Festival in Medieval China 4226:Mothers and Sons in Chinese Buddhism 3987: 3951: 3935: 3886: 3874: 3802: 3682: 3631: 3607: 3583: 3499: 3400: 3388: 3384: 3371: 3359: 3347: 3335: 3323: 3299: 3251: 3134: 3122: 2998: 2921: 2892: 2879: 2832: 2828: 2760: 2628: 2547: 2511: 2452: 2307: 2295: 2283: 2263: 2230: 2194: 2093: 2076: 2049: 2032: 2017: 2013: 1988: 1961: 1925: 1897: 1893: 1880: 1847: 1820: 1805: 1793: 1704: 1349:On a similar note, in 517, the monk 1190:equated each of the precepts with a 888:, then what is piety and humanity?" 170:and led to the establishment of the 5179:, in Sung, K.T.; Kim, B.J. (eds.), 5162:, in Slater, P.; Wiebe, D. (eds.), 5036:, Academia Sinica, pp. 17–48, 1590:become ordained as a Buddhist monks 578:There is also a story of the elder 93:. Strong and Schopen have provided 5550:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 5519:"Filial Piety in Chinese Buddhism" 5490:from the original on 30 March 2019 4938:10.1553/medievalworlds_no6_2017s40 4202:Chinese Transformation of Buddhism 4164:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 4043:Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 3709: 3439: 3427: 3415: 3212: 2270:, p. 172). For Nakamura, see 1453:Development in other parts of Asia 1067:, and commemorated Maudgalyayāna ( 618:Early Buddhist texts, such as the 341:In a third early discourse called 14: 5665:from the original on 22 June 2019 5308:Journal of Asian American Studies 5258:from the original on 12 July 2019 5147:from the original on 24 June 2019 5130:from the original on 12 July 2019 5040:from the original on 12 July 2019 5023:from the original on 12 July 2019 4955:from the original on 12 July 2019 4645:from the original on 12 July 2019 4553:from the original on 12 July 2019 4134:from the original on 12 July 2019 4002:, p. 67, "Ammā gedara Budun" 1904:and the translation of the title. 1270:Dacheng Ben Shengxin Di Guan Jing 1046:, to keep them alive. During the 900:Mount Baoding Buddhist Sculptures 735:Introduction of Buddhism in China 690:institutions. Schopen found much 27:Mount Baoding Buddhist Sculptures 5446:10.1111/j.1540-6253.2010.01582.x 5427:from the original on 31 May 2019 5116:Journal of the Pali Text Society 1859:For the typology of people, see 1489:for their parents' rebirth in a 1337:, Korean woodblock, 16th century 987:The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars 338:in India in the 1st century CE. 40:has been an important aspect of 1465:was introduced in Korea in the 1183:five moral precepts in Buddhism 1124:campaign to extinguish Buddhism 927:Northern and Southern dynasties 198:Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution 4855:Motilal Banarsidass Publishers 4269:Falk, Monica Lindberg (2007), 2258:, p. 51). For Ch'en, see 1269: 1143: 1073: 1038: 1008: 977:Reinvention (6th–13th century) 821:does this by referring to the 243:Repaying the debt of gratitude 72:, narratives are given of the 1: 5434:Journal of Chinese Philosophy 5139:, in Keulman, Kenneth (ed.), 4249:Asian Women and Intimate Work 1397:contained a similar message. 985:Drawing in a 1846 version of 852: 823:Confucian and Daoist classics 745: 128: 117:Confucian and Daoist classics 5684:Buddhist belief and doctrine 5244:10.1080/1364436X.2010.525625 4995:Sakyabhinand, Widya (2014), 4981:10.1080/15528030.2012.738582 4823:Journal of Religion in Japan 4379:Journal of Chinese Religions 2928:, p. 256) mentions the 2641:Hsu, O'Connor & Lee 2009 1514:Chinese residents in Japan. 1507:biographies of filial people 588:sharing his religious merits 449:the most gravest deeds to do 397:('great sacrifice') in the 5591:University of Hawai'i Press 5498:Journal of Law and Religion 5417:Journal of Buddhist Studies 5336:Journal of Korean Religions 5185:University Press of America 5028:Sangren, P.S. (June 2013), 4403:University of Hawai'i Press 2988:, pp. 135–6, 141, 145. 1547:Practice in the present day 1263:was translated in Chinese ( 906:, China, 12th–13th century. 584:saving his mother from hell 5715: 5456:, in Sharma, Anita (ed.), 5210:Princeton University Press 5168:Wilfrid Laurier University 5083:University of Hawaii Press 5056:University of Hawaii Press 4849:Nakamura, Hajime (1991) , 4708:Cambridge University Press 4613:University of Hawaii Press 4494:University of Hawaii Press 4391:10.1179/073776902804760220 4207:Princeton University Press 4128:Wilfrid Laurier University 1314:caves dating back to the 634:cycle of birth and rebirth 512:and the commentary to the 5362:Wilson, Liz (June 2014), 5282:10.13140/RG.2.1.1435.0248 4835:10.1163/22118349-12341248 4463:10.1080/07481180802440431 4433:George Routledge and Sons 4231:Stanford University Press 4084:10.1007/s40647-015-0060-4 4056:10.1017/S0022463402000012 3829:, pp. 19–20, 24, 29. 2064:, pp. 862, 866, 871. 1578:enlightened Buddhist monk 1483:edifying vernacular songs 1307: 1218: 1029: 999: 947: 865: 658:(1896–1981) and linguist 524:. On a similar note, the 4726:China's Buddhist Culture 4294:Philosophy East and West 3934:For Thai Buddhists, see 5517:Xing, G. (March 2018), 4917:Poceski, Mario (2017), 4901:Oxford University Press 4853:(1st Indian ed.), 3215:, pp. 378–80, 394. 1871:, p. 592 note 19). 712:Mulian Saves His Mother 472:, part of the Buddhist 167:Mulian Saves His Mother 160:introduced the idea of 5646:Thai opera about Śyāma 5320:10.1353/jaas.2015.0025 5288:Traylor, K.L. (1988), 4893:Ohnuma, Reiko (2012), 4724:Li-tian, Fang (2010), 4223:Cole, R. Alan (1994), 4199:Ch'en, K.K.S. (1973), 4120:Bhikkhu, D.M. (2010), 3769:, pp. 108, 111–2. 3017:, pp. xvii–xviii. 2419:, p. 90 note 23). 1595:Thai New Year festival 1572: 1540: 1470: 1414:parents, and how many 1407:this and the next life 1356:the legend of Miaoshan 1338: 1289: 1257:the monastic community 1169: 1098: 990: 907: 831: 804: 755:a form of mutilation. 719:. Scholar of religion 686: 650:Early Buddhist history 502:second Buddhist heaven 497: 444: 427:Other early discourses 393:In a fourth discourse 369: 361: 294: 264: 196:(841–845) started the 34: 5694:Buddhism in East Asia 5364:"Buddhism and Family" 5348:10.1353/jkr.2012.0005 5032:, in Hsun, C. (ed.), 4887:10.1093/jaarel/lfl026 4814:Mohr, Michel (2013), 4702:; Ladwig, P. (eds.), 4558:Keenan, J.P. (1994), 4114:10.1093/jaarel/lfg078 3737:, p. 209 n.66), 3673:, p. 69 note 88. 2667:, p. 36 note 11. 1633:when becoming a monk. 1570: 1559:is still depicted in 1460: 1402:Sūtra of Filial Piety 1385:Sūtra of Filial Piety 1335:Sūtra of Filial Piety 1333: 1158: 1096: 1079:Sutra on a Filial Son 984: 894: 827: 798: 680: 628:, mention that every 487: 287:lineage and tradition 250: 164:through the story of 24: 5689:Buddhism and society 5637:Gratitude to Parents 5607:Zurcher, E. (2007), 5290:Chinese Filial Piety 5135:Smith, R.J. (1993), 5009:Kasetsart University 4771:History of Religions 4680:, pp. 111–110, 4629:Knapp, K.N. (2014), 4605:Knapp, K.N. (2005), 3925:, pp. 324, 326. 3781:, pp. 35, 40–1. 3741:, p. xvii) and 3514:, pp. 66, 70–2. 3478:, pp. 54–6, 73. 3089:, pp. 179, 185. 2976:, pp. 23, 82–6. 2806:, pp. 134, 284. 2361:, pp. 62, 65–7. 2145:, pp. 191) and 1586:Theravādin Buddhists 474:Noble Eightfold Path 387:Taittirı̄ya Upaniśad 253:Early Buddhist Texts 225:Early Buddhist Texts 101:of early Buddhists. 54:Early Buddhist Texts 5659:Columbia University 5187:, pp. 353–66, 5175:Sung, K.T. (2009), 4694:Ladwig, P. (2012), 4658:, pp. 91–109, 4641:, pp. 135–49, 4405:, pp. 326–44, 3757:, p. 209 n.66. 3452:Chan & Tan 2004 3203:, pp. 7, 10–3. 3001:, p. 221) and 2016:, p. 219) and 1425:recitation of texts 1042:) relates that she 768:Eastern Jin Dynasty 760:formally pay homage 697:monastic discipline 70:Buddhist scriptures 5585:Zhiru, Ng (2007), 5411:Xing, G. (2010a), 5380:10.1111/rec3.12107 5143:, pp. 59–76, 5001:Humanities Journal 4754:, pp. 71–90, 4591:, pp. 44–70, 4562:Mou-tzu Li-huo lun 4521:Hackett Publishing 3942:, pp. 251–2). 3923:Wiseso et al. 2017 3899:Wiseso et al. 2017 3550:, pp. 109–10. 3387:, p. 79) and 3278:, pp. 41, 46. 2895:, p. 12) and 2390:, pp. 138–9). 2262:, p. 57) and 1896:, p. 15) and 1792:, p. 11) and 1573: 1471: 1393:Buddhist way. The 1370:figure is that of 1339: 1294:Fumuen Nanbao Jing 1170: 1099: 991: 908: 805: 687: 608:monastic community 498: 457:monastic community 265: 35: 5622:978-90-04-15604-3 5600:978-0-8248-3045-8 5540:978-0-19-934037-8 5474:Xing, G. (2013), 5452:Xing, G. (2012), 5299:978-0-939758-19-7 5292:, Eastern Press, 5194:978-0-7618-4530-0 5092:978-0-8248-2774-8 5065:978-0-8248-1870-8 4910:978-0-19-991567-5 4739:978-981-4281-42-3 4717:978-1-107-00388-0 4622:978-0-8248-2866-0 4576:978-0-7914-2204-5 4530:978-1-60384-219-8 4503:978-0-8248-3215-5 4412:978-0-8248-3031-1 4284:978-87-7694-019-5 4262:978-90-04-25808-2 4255:, pp. 1–36, 4240:978-0-8047-6510-7 4216:978-1-4008-7208-4 4147:, pp. 1–12, 3841:, pp. 67–78. 3466:, pp. 164–5. 3338:, pp. 80–81. 3227:, pp. 116–7. 3176:, pp. 39–40. 3077:, pp. 49–50. 2851:, pp. 283–4. 2703:, pp. 115–6. 2550:, pp. 223–4. 2373:, pp. 131–2. 2337:, pp. 172–3. 2286:, pp. 212–3. 2173:, pp. 175–6. 2132:, pp. 174–5. 1867:, p. 9) and 1823:, pp. 216–7. 1767:, pp. 7, 10. 1719:, pp. 144–5. 1717:Sakyabhinand 2014 1409:. Therefore, the 1395:Fumu Enzhong Jing 1326:The role of women 1299:Fumu Enzhong Jing 1087:Prince Siddhārtha 920:six relationships 811:For example, the 721:Stephen F. Teiser 707:transfer of merit 683:transfer of merit 614:In Mahāyāna texts 592:meditative vision 516:, as well as the 488:Wall painting of 347:"superior people" 336:Mahāyāna Buddhism 320:faith in Buddhism 219:In Buddhist texts 162:transfer of merit 5706: 5652:Selections from 5625: 5613:Brill Publishers 5611:(3rd ed.), 5603: 5581: 5543: 5513: 5491: 5470: 5448: 5428: 5407: 5390: 5368:Religion Compass 5358: 5330: 5302: 5284: 5266: 5265: 5263: 5222: 5197: 5171: 5161: 5148: 5131: 5129: 5112: 5095: 5068: 5041: 5024: 4991: 4963: 4962: 4960: 4954: 4923: 4913: 4889: 4867: 4845: 4820: 4810: 4764: 4742: 4730:Cengage Learning 4720: 4690: 4668: 4646: 4625: 4601: 4579: 4554: 4533: 4506: 4481: 4443: 4430: 4415: 4393: 4373: 4343: 4330: 4317: 4287: 4265: 4253:Brill Publishers 4243: 4219: 4195: 4157: 4135: 4116: 4094: 4066: 4027: 4021: 4015: 4009: 4003: 3997: 3991: 3985: 3979: 3973: 3967: 3961: 3955: 3949: 3943: 3932: 3926: 3920: 3914: 3908: 3902: 3896: 3890: 3884: 3878: 3872: 3866: 3865:, p. 79–81. 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3830: 3824: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3805:, pp. 58–9. 3800: 3794: 3788: 3782: 3776: 3770: 3764: 3758: 3752: 3746: 3731: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3701: 3695: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3668: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3644: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3611: 3605: 3599: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3574:, pp. 12–4. 3569: 3563: 3562:, pp. 50–1. 3557: 3551: 3545: 3539: 3533: 3527: 3526:, pp. 21–2. 3521: 3515: 3509: 3503: 3497: 3491: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3461: 3455: 3449: 3443: 3442:, pp. 84–5. 3437: 3431: 3425: 3419: 3413: 3404: 3398: 3392: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3345: 3339: 3333: 3327: 3321: 3315: 3309: 3303: 3302:, pp. 14–5. 3297: 3291: 3285: 3279: 3273: 3267: 3261: 3255: 3249: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3204: 3198: 3192: 3186: 3177: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3138: 3132: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3042: 3036: 3030: 3024: 3018: 3012: 3006: 2995: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2954: 2948: 2942: 2933: 2930:Shanshengzi Jing 2918: 2912: 2906: 2900: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2864: 2858: 2852: 2846: 2840: 2831:, p. 224). 2825: 2819: 2813: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2794:, pp. 44–5. 2789: 2783: 2777: 2768: 2755:, p. 134). 2749: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2725: 2716: 2710: 2704: 2698: 2692: 2686: 2680: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2617: 2616:, pp. 82–3. 2611: 2605: 2599: 2590: 2584: 2578: 2572: 2566: 2560: 2551: 2545: 2539: 2533: 2527: 2521: 2515: 2509: 2500: 2494: 2483: 2477: 2468: 2462: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2380: 2374: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2350: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2326: 2320: 2311: 2310:, pp. 9–10. 2305: 2299: 2293: 2287: 2281: 2275: 2252: 2246: 2245:, pp. 32–4. 2240: 2234: 2228: 2222: 2216: 2210: 2209:, pp. 24–5. 2204: 2198: 2197:, p. 220–1. 2192: 2186: 2180: 2174: 2168: 2162: 2161:, pp. 20–3. 2156: 2150: 2139: 2133: 2127: 2121: 2115: 2109: 2103: 2097: 2091: 2080: 2074: 2065: 2059: 2053: 2047: 2036: 2030: 2021: 2010: 2004: 1998: 1992: 1986: 1977: 1971: 1965: 1959: 1953: 1952:, pp. 16–7. 1947: 1941: 1935: 1929: 1923: 1917: 1916:, pp. 30–2. 1911: 1905: 1902:Aṅguttara Nikāya 1890: 1884: 1883:, pp. 14–5. 1878: 1872: 1857: 1851: 1845: 1836: 1830: 1824: 1818: 1809: 1803: 1797: 1786: 1780: 1779:, pp. 11–2. 1774: 1768: 1762: 1756: 1750: 1744: 1738: 1732: 1726: 1720: 1714: 1708: 1702: 1683: 1675: 1669: 1666: 1660: 1653: 1647: 1640: 1634: 1619: 1603:convert Buddhist 1541:manopraṇidhānaya 1438:ancestor worship 1421:making donations 1380:apocryphal texts 1309: 1271: 1238: 1220: 1206: 1192:Confucian virtue 1145: 1116:neo-Confucianist 1075: 1065:Chinese calendar 1040: 1031: 1010: 1009:Shanzi or Yamuku 1001: 949: 940:Shanshengzi Jing 867: 854: 764:social propriety 750: 747: 604:meritorious acts 565:Mātuposaka Sutta 400:Aṅguttara Nikāya 355: 190:Neo-Confucianist 130: 50:Chinese Buddhism 5714: 5713: 5709: 5708: 5707: 5705: 5704: 5703: 5699:Buddhist ethics 5669: 5668: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5606: 5601: 5584: 5563:10.2307/2652714 5546: 5541: 5516: 5494: 5473: 5468: 5451: 5431: 5410: 5393: 5361: 5333: 5305: 5300: 5287: 5269: 5261: 5259: 5225: 5220: 5200: 5195: 5174: 5166:, vol. 3, 5159: 5151: 5134: 5127: 5110: 5098: 5093: 5071: 5066: 5044: 5027: 4994: 4966: 4958: 4956: 4952: 4926:Medieval Worlds 4921: 4916: 4911: 4892: 4870: 4865: 4848: 4818: 4813: 4767: 4762: 4745: 4740: 4723: 4718: 4693: 4688: 4671: 4666: 4649: 4628: 4623: 4604: 4599: 4582: 4577: 4557: 4536: 4531: 4509: 4504: 4484: 4446: 4428: 4418: 4413: 4396: 4376: 4346: 4328: 4320: 4307:10.2307/1398336 4290: 4285: 4268: 4263: 4251:, vol. 3, 4246: 4241: 4222: 4217: 4198: 4177:10.2307/2718595 4160: 4155: 4138: 4119: 4097: 4069: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4026:, pp. 1–2. 4024:Thanissaro 2015 4022: 4018: 4010: 4006: 3998: 3994: 3986: 3982: 3974: 3970: 3966:, p. 24–5. 3962: 3958: 3950: 3946: 3933: 3929: 3921: 3917: 3909: 3905: 3897: 3893: 3885: 3881: 3873: 3869: 3861: 3857: 3849: 3845: 3837: 3833: 3825: 3821: 3813: 3809: 3801: 3797: 3789: 3785: 3777: 3773: 3765: 3761: 3753: 3749: 3732: 3728: 3720: 3716: 3708: 3704: 3696: 3689: 3685:, pp. 2–3. 3681: 3677: 3669: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3645: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3622:, p. xvii. 3618: 3614: 3606: 3602: 3594: 3590: 3582: 3578: 3570: 3566: 3558: 3554: 3546: 3542: 3534: 3530: 3522: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3498: 3494: 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3462: 3458: 3450: 3446: 3438: 3434: 3426: 3422: 3414: 3407: 3399: 3395: 3382: 3378: 3370: 3366: 3358: 3354: 3346: 3342: 3334: 3330: 3322: 3318: 3310: 3306: 3298: 3294: 3286: 3282: 3274: 3270: 3262: 3258: 3250: 3243: 3235: 3231: 3223: 3219: 3211: 3207: 3199: 3195: 3187: 3180: 3172: 3168: 3160: 3156: 3148: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3085: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3061: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3025: 3021: 3013: 3009: 2996: 2992: 2984: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2960:, p. 18). 2955: 2951: 2943: 2936: 2924:, p. 12). 2919: 2915: 2907: 2903: 2890: 2886: 2878: 2867: 2859: 2855: 2847: 2843: 2826: 2822: 2814: 2810: 2802: 2798: 2790: 2786: 2778: 2771: 2750: 2746: 2738: 2734: 2726: 2719: 2711: 2707: 2699: 2695: 2687: 2683: 2675: 2671: 2663: 2659: 2651: 2647: 2639: 2635: 2627: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2600: 2593: 2585: 2581: 2573: 2569: 2561: 2554: 2546: 2542: 2534: 2530: 2522: 2518: 2510: 2503: 2495: 2486: 2478: 2471: 2463: 2459: 2451: 2447: 2439: 2435: 2427: 2423: 2410: 2406: 2398: 2394: 2381: 2377: 2369: 2365: 2357: 2353: 2345: 2341: 2333: 2329: 2321: 2314: 2306: 2302: 2294: 2290: 2282: 2278: 2274:, p. 269). 2253: 2249: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2205: 2201: 2193: 2189: 2181: 2177: 2169: 2165: 2157: 2153: 2140: 2136: 2128: 2124: 2116: 2112: 2104: 2100: 2092: 2083: 2075: 2068: 2060: 2056: 2048: 2039: 2031: 2024: 2011: 2007: 2001:Thanissaro 2010 1999: 1995: 1987: 1980: 1972: 1968: 1960: 1956: 1948: 1944: 1936: 1932: 1924: 1920: 1912: 1908: 1891: 1887: 1879: 1875: 1858: 1854: 1846: 1839: 1831: 1827: 1819: 1812: 1804: 1800: 1787: 1783: 1775: 1771: 1763: 1759: 1755:, pp. 7–8. 1751: 1747: 1739: 1735: 1727: 1723: 1715: 1711: 1703: 1696: 1692: 1687: 1686: 1676: 1672: 1667: 1663: 1654: 1650: 1641: 1637: 1627:self-immolation 1620: 1616: 1611: 1549: 1455: 1328: 1236: 1204: 1196:Buddhist ethics 1153: 1060:Ullambana Sūtra 979: 971:Tiwei Boli Jing 803:to the emperor. 793: 784:Buddhist ethics 748: 737: 664:Hajime Nakamura 652: 647: 638:loving-kindness 625:Saṃyutta Nikāya 616: 522:Saṃyukta Āgamas 482: 429: 413:even-mindedness 349: 245: 221: 157:Ullambana Sūtra 99:devotional life 87:Gregory Schopen 42:Buddhist ethics 17: 12: 11: 5: 5712: 5710: 5702: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5671: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5654:Mouzi Lihuolun 5649: 5643: 5632: 5631:External links 5629: 5627: 5626: 5621: 5604: 5599: 5582: 5557:(1): 333–350, 5544: 5539: 5514: 5492: 5471: 5466: 5449: 5440:(2): 248–260, 5429: 5408: 5391: 5374:(6): 188–198, 5359: 5342:(1): 105–116, 5331: 5314:(3): 289–311, 5303: 5298: 5285: 5267: 5238:(4): 295–305, 5223: 5218: 5198: 5193: 5172: 5149: 5132: 5104:"The Buddhist 5096: 5091: 5069: 5064: 5042: 5025: 4992: 4964: 4914: 4909: 4890: 4881:(4): 861–901, 4868: 4863: 4846: 4811: 4800:10.1086/497803 4784:10.1086/497803 4765: 4760: 4743: 4738: 4721: 4716: 4691: 4686: 4669: 4664: 4647: 4626: 4621: 4602: 4597: 4580: 4575: 4555: 4534: 4529: 4511:Idema, Wilt L. 4507: 4502: 4486:Idema, Wilt L. 4482: 4457:(2): 153–174, 4444: 4416: 4411: 4394: 4374: 4357:(108): 63–64, 4344: 4318: 4288: 4283: 4266: 4261: 4244: 4239: 4220: 4215: 4196: 4158: 4153: 4136: 4126:(PhD thesis), 4117: 4108:(3): 579–604, 4095: 4067: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4028: 4016: 4004: 3992: 3990:, p. 330. 3980: 3976:Ratanakul 2013 3968: 3956: 3954:, p. 100. 3944: 3927: 3915: 3903: 3901:, p. 318. 3891: 3889:, p. 225. 3879: 3867: 3855: 3843: 3831: 3819: 3815:Katsumata 2015 3807: 3795: 3793:, p. 421. 3783: 3779:Katsumata 2015 3771: 3759: 3747: 3743:Berezkin (2015 3726: 3722:Goossaert 1999 3714: 3702: 3700:, p. 292. 3687: 3675: 3663: 3651: 3636: 3624: 3612: 3610:, p. 365. 3600: 3588: 3586:, p. 357. 3576: 3564: 3552: 3540: 3528: 3516: 3504: 3492: 3490:, pp. 56. 3480: 3468: 3456: 3444: 3432: 3430:, p. 321. 3420: 3418:, p. 346. 3405: 3393: 3376: 3364: 3352: 3340: 3328: 3326:, p. 222. 3316: 3304: 3292: 3290:, p. 258. 3280: 3268: 3266:, p. 252. 3256: 3241: 3229: 3217: 3205: 3193: 3178: 3166: 3154: 3139: 3127: 3125:, p. 356. 3115: 3103: 3091: 3079: 3067: 3065:, p. 194. 3055: 3053:, p. 137. 3043: 3031: 3029:, p. 132. 3019: 3007: 2990: 2978: 2966: 2949: 2947:, p. 178. 2934: 2913: 2911:, p. 256. 2901: 2884: 2882:, p. 224. 2865: 2863:, p. 254. 2853: 2841: 2839:, p. 94). 2820: 2808: 2796: 2784: 2782:, p. 284. 2769: 2744: 2732: 2730:, p. 116. 2717: 2715:, p. 107. 2705: 2693: 2681: 2669: 2657: 2655:, p. 285. 2645: 2643:, p. 162. 2633: 2618: 2606: 2591: 2579: 2567: 2552: 2540: 2538:, p. 282. 2528: 2516: 2514:, p. 355. 2501: 2499:, p. 281. 2484: 2469: 2467:, p. 110. 2457: 2455:, p. 223. 2445: 2443:, p. 186. 2433: 2421: 2404: 2402:, p. 139. 2392: 2375: 2363: 2351: 2339: 2327: 2312: 2300: 2298:, p. 105. 2288: 2276: 2272:Nakamura (1991 2247: 2235: 2223: 2211: 2199: 2187: 2185:, p. 176. 2175: 2163: 2151: 2134: 2122: 2120:, p. 190. 2110: 2108:, p. 177. 2098: 2096:, p. 221. 2081: 2066: 2054: 2052:, p. 220. 2037: 2022: 2005: 1993: 1991:, p. 219. 1978: 1966: 1954: 1942: 1930: 1928:, p. 218. 1918: 1906: 1885: 1873: 1869:Berkwitz (2003 1852: 1837: 1825: 1810: 1808:, p. 215. 1798: 1781: 1769: 1757: 1745: 1733: 1729:Ratanakul 2013 1721: 1709: 1707:, p. 214. 1693: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1684: 1670: 1661: 1648: 1635: 1631:religious name 1613: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1548: 1545: 1454: 1451: 1327: 1324: 1320:Song dynasties 1318:(618–907) and 1302:was composed ( 1292:), called the 1282:Kataññnu Sutta 1237:(202 BCE–9 CE) 1229:very popular. 1152: 1149: 1120:Emperor Wuzong 978: 975: 952:Sigalaka Sutta 878:Gautama Buddha 844:Mouzi Lihuolun 814:Mouzi Lihuolun 792: 789: 749: 100–600 736: 733: 725:Ghost Festival 660:Jean Przyluski 651: 648: 646: 643: 615: 612: 600:psychic powers 573:"act of truth" 526:Pāli tradition 481: 478: 428: 425: 343:Sabrahmā Sutta 282:Sigalaka Sutta 244: 241: 220: 217: 194:Emperor Wuzong 192:revival, when 172:Ghost Festival 112:Mouzi Lihuolun 46:early Buddhism 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5711: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5655: 5650: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5641:Ajahn Sumedho 5638: 5635: 5634: 5630: 5624: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5605: 5602: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5583: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5551: 5545: 5542: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5515: 5512: 5508: 5505:(2): 212–26, 5504: 5500: 5499: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5469: 5467:9789380651408 5463: 5459: 5455: 5450: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5392: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5360: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5332: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5304: 5301: 5295: 5291: 5286: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5274: 5268: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5224: 5221: 5219:0-691-05525-4 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5196: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5133: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5109: 5107: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5079: 5074: 5070: 5067: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5052: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4993: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4965: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4920: 4915: 4912: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4875: 4869: 4866: 4864:9788120807648 4860: 4856: 4852: 4847: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4817: 4812: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4778:(4): 318–50, 4777: 4773: 4772: 4766: 4763: 4761:0-203-41388-1 4757: 4753: 4749: 4744: 4741: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4722: 4719: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4689: 4687:0-203-41388-1 4683: 4679: 4675: 4670: 4667: 4665:0-203-41388-1 4661: 4657: 4653: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4639:Cambria Press 4636: 4632: 4627: 4624: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4603: 4600: 4598:0-203-41388-1 4594: 4590: 4586: 4581: 4578: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4561: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4535: 4532: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4517: 4512: 4508: 4505: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4451: 4450:Death Studies 4445: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4427: 4426: 4421: 4417: 4414: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4375: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4351: 4345: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4301:(3): 375–96, 4300: 4296: 4295: 4289: 4286: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4264: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4242: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4227: 4221: 4218: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4203: 4197: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4165: 4159: 4156: 4154:0-203-41388-1 4150: 4146: 4142: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4124: 4118: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4102: 4096: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4078:(1): 95–120, 4077: 4073: 4068: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4044: 4038: 4037: 4032: 4025: 4020: 4017: 4014:, p. 16. 4013: 4008: 4005: 4001: 4000:Gombrich 1972 3996: 3993: 3989: 3984: 3981: 3978:, p. 15. 3977: 3972: 3969: 3965: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3948: 3945: 3941: 3940:Bhikkhu (2010 3937: 3931: 3928: 3924: 3919: 3916: 3913:, p. 25. 3912: 3907: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3892: 3888: 3883: 3880: 3877:, p. 18. 3876: 3871: 3868: 3864: 3863:Gombrich 1972 3859: 3856: 3853:, p. 17. 3852: 3847: 3844: 3840: 3839:Gombrich 1972 3835: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3820: 3817:, p. 38. 3816: 3811: 3808: 3804: 3799: 3796: 3792: 3791:Nakamura 1991 3787: 3784: 3780: 3775: 3772: 3768: 3767:Walraven 2012 3763: 3760: 3756: 3751: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3715: 3711: 3706: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3679: 3676: 3672: 3667: 3664: 3661:, p. 24. 3660: 3655: 3652: 3648: 3647:Berezkin 2015 3643: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3628: 3625: 3621: 3616: 3613: 3609: 3604: 3601: 3598:, p. 46. 3597: 3592: 3589: 3585: 3580: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3553: 3549: 3544: 3541: 3538:, p. 35. 3537: 3532: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3496: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3481: 3477: 3472: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3457: 3453: 3448: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3406: 3403:, p. 79. 3402: 3397: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3380: 3377: 3374:, p. 78. 3373: 3368: 3365: 3362:, p. 77. 3361: 3356: 3353: 3350:, p. 15. 3349: 3344: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3317: 3314:, p. 47. 3313: 3308: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3293: 3289: 3284: 3281: 3277: 3272: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3257: 3254:, p. 13. 3253: 3248: 3246: 3242: 3239:, p. 41. 3238: 3233: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3170: 3167: 3164:, p. 39. 3163: 3158: 3155: 3152:, p. 57. 3151: 3146: 3144: 3140: 3137:, p. 81. 3136: 3131: 3128: 3124: 3119: 3116: 3113:, p. 47. 3112: 3107: 3104: 3101:, p. 92. 3100: 3095: 3092: 3088: 3083: 3080: 3076: 3071: 3068: 3064: 3059: 3056: 3052: 3047: 3044: 3040: 3039:Berezkin 2015 3035: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3020: 3016: 3011: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2994: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2953: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2917: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2902: 2898: 2897:Poceski (2017 2894: 2888: 2885: 2881: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2857: 2854: 2850: 2845: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2824: 2821: 2818:, p. 94. 2817: 2812: 2809: 2805: 2800: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2753:Zurcher (2007 2748: 2745: 2742:, p. 86. 2741: 2736: 2733: 2729: 2724: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2713:Walraven 2012 2709: 2706: 2702: 2697: 2694: 2691:, p. 83. 2690: 2685: 2682: 2679:, p. 16. 2678: 2673: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2658: 2654: 2649: 2646: 2642: 2637: 2634: 2631:, p. 10. 2630: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2610: 2607: 2604:, p. 52. 2603: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2589:, p. 73. 2588: 2583: 2580: 2577:, p. 53. 2576: 2571: 2568: 2565:, p. 37. 2564: 2559: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2544: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2529: 2526:, p. 36. 2525: 2520: 2517: 2513: 2508: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2485: 2482:, p. 82. 2481: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2461: 2458: 2454: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2434: 2431:, p. 31. 2430: 2425: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2393: 2389: 2388:Schopen (2004 2385: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2364: 2360: 2355: 2352: 2349:, p. 51. 2348: 2343: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2328: 2325:, p. 50. 2324: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2304: 2301: 2297: 2292: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2260:Schopen (1997 2257: 2251: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2236: 2233:, p. 18. 2232: 2227: 2224: 2221:, p. 89. 2220: 2215: 2212: 2208: 2203: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2176: 2172: 2167: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2138: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2123: 2119: 2114: 2111: 2107: 2102: 2099: 2095: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2079:, p. 83. 2078: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2055: 2051: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2035:, p. 82. 2034: 2029: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2009: 2006: 2002: 1997: 1994: 1990: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1976:, p. 17. 1975: 1970: 1967: 1964:, p. 17. 1963: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1946: 1943: 1940:, p. 12. 1939: 1934: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1919: 1915: 1910: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1889: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1856: 1853: 1850:, p. 15. 1849: 1844: 1842: 1838: 1835:, p. 11. 1834: 1829: 1826: 1822: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1785: 1782: 1778: 1773: 1770: 1766: 1761: 1758: 1754: 1749: 1746: 1743:, p. 28. 1742: 1737: 1734: 1731:, p. 13. 1730: 1725: 1722: 1718: 1713: 1710: 1706: 1701: 1699: 1695: 1689: 1681: 1674: 1671: 1665: 1662: 1658: 1652: 1649: 1645: 1639: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1618: 1615: 1608: 1606: 1604: 1598: 1596: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1569: 1565: 1562: 1561:Chinese opera 1558: 1554: 1546: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1527: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1516:Bankei Yōtaku 1512: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1479:Goryeo period 1476: 1468: 1467:Goryeo period 1464: 1459: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1396: 1391: 1387: 1386: 1381: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1361: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1344: 1336: 1332: 1325: 1323: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1305: 1301: 1300: 1295: 1291: 1290:Katajña Sūtra 1287: 1283: 1278: 1276: 1272: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1251:(the Buddha, 1250: 1246: 1242: 1235: 1230: 1228: 1224: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1168: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1150: 1148: 1146: 1140: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1108: 1105: 1095: 1091: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1061: 1055: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1035: 1027: 1023: 1020:and even the 1019: 1015: 1014:Chinese canon 1011: 1005: 997: 988: 983: 976: 974: 972: 968: 967:folk religion 963: 961: 960:sharing merit 957: 953: 945: 941: 937: 932: 928: 923: 921: 917: 913: 905: 901: 897: 896:Seven Buddhas 893: 889: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 863: 859: 850: 845: 840: 837: 830: 826: 824: 820: 816: 815: 809: 802: 797: 790: 788: 785: 779: 777: 773: 772:Jin Dynasties 769: 765: 761: 756: 754: 743: 734: 732: 728: 726: 722: 718: 717:hungry ghosts 714: 713: 708: 704: 703: 698: 693: 684: 681:Ceremony for 679: 675: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 649: 644: 642: 639: 635: 631: 627: 626: 621: 613: 611: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 580:Maudgalyayāna 576: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 545: 543: 539: 535: 534:enlightenment 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 508:commentaries 507: 503: 495: 491: 486: 479: 477: 475: 471: 466: 464: 463: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 426: 424: 422: 421:celibate life 418: 414: 408: 406: 402: 401: 396: 391: 389: 388: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 353: 348: 344: 339: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 316:Kataññu Sutta 312: 310: 309: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 283: 278: 274: 270: 262: 258: 254: 249: 242: 240: 238: 234: 230: 226: 218: 216: 214: 209: 208: 201: 199: 195: 191: 186: 181: 177: 176:living beings 173: 169: 168: 163: 159: 158: 153: 148: 146: 142: 138: 137:sharing merit 134: 126: 122: 118: 114: 113: 107: 102: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 32: 28: 23: 19: 5679:Filial piety 5657:, hosted by 5653: 5608: 5586: 5554: 5548: 5522: 5502: 5496: 5483: 5479: 5457: 5437: 5433: 5420: 5416: 5403: 5399: 5371: 5367: 5339: 5335: 5311: 5307: 5289: 5272: 5260:, retrieved 5235: 5231: 5205: 5202:Teiser, S.F. 5180: 5163: 5153:Strong, John 5140: 5120: 5114: 5105: 5077: 5050: 5033: 5004: 5000: 4975:(1): 12–19, 4972: 4968: 4957:, retrieved 4929: 4925: 4895: 4878: 4872: 4850: 4829:(1): 35–62, 4826: 4822: 4775: 4769: 4747: 4725: 4703: 4700:Williams, P. 4673: 4651: 4634: 4607: 4584: 4563: 4559: 4546: 4542: 4515: 4489: 4454: 4448: 4424: 4420:Horner, I.B. 4398: 4385:(1): 49–75, 4382: 4378: 4354: 4348: 4332: 4322:Gombrich, R. 4298: 4292: 4270: 4248: 4225: 4201: 4168: 4162: 4140: 4122: 4105: 4099: 4075: 4071: 4047: 4041: 4019: 4007: 3995: 3983: 3971: 3959: 3947: 3930: 3918: 3906: 3894: 3882: 3870: 3858: 3846: 3834: 3822: 3810: 3798: 3786: 3774: 3762: 3750: 3729: 3717: 3705: 3678: 3666: 3654: 3634:, p. 2. 3627: 3615: 3603: 3596:Li-tian 2010 3591: 3579: 3567: 3555: 3543: 3536:Sangren 2013 3531: 3519: 3507: 3502:, p. 1. 3495: 3483: 3471: 3459: 3454:, p. 5. 3447: 3435: 3423: 3396: 3379: 3367: 3355: 3343: 3331: 3319: 3312:Li-tian 2010 3307: 3295: 3283: 3276:Li-tian 2010 3271: 3259: 3237:Li-tian 2010 3232: 3220: 3208: 3196: 3191:, p. 7. 3174:Li-tian 2010 3169: 3162:Li-tian 2010 3157: 3150:Poceski 2017 3130: 3118: 3106: 3094: 3082: 3070: 3058: 3046: 3034: 3022: 3010: 3003:Wilson (2014 2993: 2981: 2969: 2952: 2929: 2916: 2904: 2887: 2856: 2849:Zurcher 2007 2844: 2823: 2811: 2804:Zurcher 2007 2799: 2792:Li-tian 2010 2787: 2780:Zurcher 2007 2764: 2747: 2735: 2708: 2696: 2684: 2672: 2665:Li-tian 2010 2660: 2653:Zurcher 2007 2648: 2636: 2609: 2582: 2570: 2563:Li-tian 2010 2543: 2536:Zurcher 2007 2531: 2524:Li-tian 2010 2519: 2497:Zurcher 2007 2465:Traylor 1988 2460: 2448: 2436: 2424: 2413:Strong (1983 2407: 2400:Schopen 2004 2395: 2384:Ohnuma (2012 2378: 2371:Schopen 2007 2366: 2359:Schopen 1997 2354: 2342: 2330: 2303: 2291: 2279: 2268:Strong (1983 2256:Hinsch (2002 2250: 2238: 2226: 2214: 2202: 2190: 2178: 2166: 2154: 2147:Strong (1983 2143:Wilson (2014 2137: 2125: 2113: 2101: 2057: 2008: 2003:, p. 7. 1996: 1969: 1957: 1945: 1933: 1921: 1909: 1901: 1888: 1876: 1865:Horner (1930 1861:Ohnuma (2012 1855: 1828: 1801: 1790:Horner (1930 1784: 1772: 1760: 1748: 1736: 1724: 1712: 1680:Andaya (2002 1673: 1664: 1657:Zhou dynasty 1651: 1643: 1638: 1617: 1599: 1581: 1574: 1552: 1550: 1528: 1511:Ming dynasty 1500: 1474: 1472: 1462: 1435: 1410: 1401: 1399: 1394: 1383: 1376: 1367: 1359: 1351:Shi Baochang 1348: 1342: 1340: 1334: 1297: 1293: 1281: 1279: 1268: 1260: 1253:his teaching 1231: 1227:Fanwang Jing 1226: 1210:Fanwang Jing 1208: 1175:impartiality 1171: 1164: 1151:New elements 1142: 1136: 1109: 1100: 1078: 1072: 1058: 1056: 1052:filial piety 1048:Tang dynasty 1037: 1018:Liudu Jijing 1017: 1007: 992: 970: 964: 951: 939: 930: 924: 909: 882:filial piety 843: 841: 835: 832: 828: 818: 812: 810: 806: 780: 757: 742:Confucianism 738: 729: 710: 700: 688: 653: 630:living being 623: 619: 617: 577: 564: 557:epigraphical 546: 538:Mahāpajāpatī 513: 499: 467: 462:Milindapañhā 460: 437:Buddha-to-be 430: 409: 405:fire worship 398: 394: 392: 385: 342: 340: 315: 313: 306: 280: 272: 268: 266: 255:such as the 227:such as the 222: 205: 202: 165: 155: 149: 120: 115:referred to 110: 106:Confucianism 103: 95:epigraphical 56:such as the 38:Filial piety 36: 18: 5406:(4): 317–30 5100:Schopen, G. 5073:Schopen, G. 5046:Schopen, G. 5003:(in Thai), 4843:10125/27405 4050:(1): 1–30, 4012:Andaya 2002 3851:Andaya 2002 3827:Andaya 2002 3739:Idema (2009 3735:Idema (2008 3698:Truitt 2015 3572:Ohnuma 2012 3560:Hinsch 2002 3512:Hinsch 2002 3488:Hinsch 2002 3476:Hinsch 2002 3111:Teiser 1996 3087:Strong 1983 3063:Wilson 2014 3051:Ladwig 2012 2962:Knapp (2014 2958:Ch'en (1973 2945:Strong 1983 2926:Xing (2010b 2837:Ch'en (1968 2757:Kunio (2004 2740:Keenan 1994 2689:Keenan 1994 2602:Hinsch 2002 2587:Hinsch 2002 2575:Hinsch 2002 2441:Strong 1983 2429:Teiser 1996 2417:Ch'en (1968 2347:Hinsch 2002 2335:Strong 1983 2323:Hinsch 2002 2243:Ohnuma 2012 2183:Strong 1983 2171:Strong 1983 2130:Strong 1983 2118:Wilson 2014 2106:Strong 1983 2062:Ohnuma 2006 1974:Horner 1930 1950:Horner 1930 1938:Ohnuma 2012 1914:Ohnuma 2012 1833:Ohnuma 2012 1777:Ohnuma 2012 1765:Horner 1930 1753:Horner 1930 1741:Ohnuma 2012 1501:During the 1368:bodhisattva 1360:bodhisattva 1343:Yuyenü Jing 1247:and to the 1245:one's ruler 1234:Han dynasty 925:During the 914:(369–404), 672:Brahmanical 668:early times 656:I.B. Horner 606:toward the 510:Aṭṭhasālinī 494:Phitsanulok 445:bodhisattva 378:Worthy Ones 350: [ 279:called the 141:prostrating 91:early times 83:John Strong 5673:Categories 5423:: 129–37, 5123:: 107–36, 5011:: 141–64, 4567:SUNY Press 4275:NIAS Press 4033:References 3964:Emiko 2014 3936:Falk (2007 3911:Emiko 2014 3755:Idema 2008 3671:Knapp 2004 3659:Idema 2008 3620:Idema 2009 3548:Zhiru 2007 3524:Idema 2008 3464:Knapp 2005 3389:Xing (2016 3385:Xing (2012 3288:Xing 2010b 3264:Xing 2010b 3225:Kunio 2004 3201:Smith 1993 3189:Smith 1993 3099:Ch'en 1968 3075:Ch'en 1973 3027:Xing 2010a 3015:Idema 2009 2999:Xing (2016 2986:Knapp 2014 2974:Ch'en 1973 2922:Xing (2018 2909:Xing 2010b 2893:Xing (2018 2861:Xing 2010b 2833:Xing (2018 2829:Xing (2016 2816:Ch'en 1968 2761:Xing (2018 2728:Kunio 2004 2701:Kunio 2004 2677:Ch'en 1973 2614:Ch'en 1968 2480:Ch'en 1968 2264:Xing (2016 2219:Ch'en 1968 2207:Ch'en 1973 2159:Ch'en 1973 2018:Xing (2012 2014:Xing (2016 1898:Xing (2016 1894:Xing (2013 1794:Xing (2016 1623:burn marks 1532:Triple Gem 1524:Tōrei Enji 1520:Buddhahood 1503:Edo period 1249:Triple Gem 1241:four debts 1200:compassion 874:generosity 866:Viśvantara 692:epigraphic 620:Māta Sutta 530:Suddhodana 514:Dhammapada 496:, Thailand 470:right view 328:generosity 308:Dhammapada 303:commentary 295:kula vaṃsa 273:katavedita 213:Theravādin 180:compassion 5571:0073-0548 5511:1076-9005 5388:143311213 5356:162689595 5328:147509428 5252:145568757 5017:0859-3485 4989:147449738 4946:2412-3196 4932:: 40–60, 4808:161481590 4792:0018-2710 4752:Routledge 4678:Routledge 4656:Routledge 4589:Routledge 4549:: 35–44, 4363:0335-5985 4341:0084-0084 4185:0073-0548 4171:: 81–97, 4145:Routledge 4092:146215342 3988:Holt 2007 3952:Falk 2007 3887:Xing 2016 3875:Xing 2018 3803:Mohr 2013 3724:, passim. 3712:, passim. 3683:Cole 1994 3632:Cole 1994 3608:Sung 2009 3584:Sung 2009 3500:Cole 1994 3401:Xing 2012 3372:Xing 2012 3360:Xing 2012 3348:Xing 2018 3336:Xing 2012 3324:Xing 2016 3300:Xing 2018 3252:Xing 2018 3135:Xing 2012 3123:Sung 2009 2880:Xing 2016 2629:Xing 2018 2548:Xing 2016 2512:Sung 2009 2453:Xing 2016 2308:Xing 2013 2296:Kohn 2004 2284:Xing 2016 2231:Xing 2013 2195:Xing 2016 2094:Xing 2016 2077:Xing 2012 2050:Xing 2016 2033:Xing 2012 1989:Xing 2016 1962:Xing 2013 1926:Xing 2016 1881:Xing 2013 1848:Xing 2013 1821:Xing 2016 1806:Xing 2016 1705:Xing 2016 1690:Citations 1491:Pure Land 1390:discourse 931:Sanpo Lun 912:Huan Xuan 395:Mahāyañña 362:sappurisa 277:discourse 269:kataññuta 183:how many 78:disciples 52:. In the 5663:archived 5488:archived 5486:: 8–46, 5425:archived 5262:10 March 5256:archived 5204:(1996), 5155:(1983), 5145:archived 5125:archived 5102:(2007), 5075:(2004), 5048:(1997), 5038:archived 5021:archived 4950:archived 4643:archived 4551:archived 4513:(2009), 4488:(2008), 4471:19143109 4422:(1930), 4371:30127464 4324:(1972), 4132:archived 4064:92979626 3649:, Ch. 2. 3041:, Ch. 7. 1537:Sanskrit 1487:Amitabha 1446:devotion 1430:Freudian 1312:Dunhuang 1286:Sanskrit 1223:precepts 1161:Dunhuang 1128:Xuanzong 1112:Xianzong 936:Sengshun 886:humanity 862:Sanskrit 849:Sun Chuo 518:Ekottara 441:Sanskrit 324:morality 125:Sun Chuo 76:and his 33:, China. 5579:2652714 4959:11 June 4479:1446735 4315:1398336 4193:2718595 3710:Yu 2000 3440:Lo 2004 3428:Lo 2005 3416:Lo 2005 3213:Fu 1973 1605:teens. 1582:bunkhun 1363:Guanyin 1304:Chinese 1215:Chinese 1188:Xiaolun 1159:In the 1104:Gaozong 1039:Xusheti 1026:Chinese 996:Chinese 956:Liu Xie 944:Chinese 916:Huiyuan 870:ascetic 753:tonsure 645:History 622:of the 382:Buddhas 305:to the 257:Nikāyas 251:In the 229:Nikāyas 223:In the 145:Huiyuan 133:Liu Xie 58:Nikāyas 5619: 5597: 5577: 5569: 5537: 5509: 5464: 5386: 5354: 5326: 5296: 5250: 5216: 5191: 5106:Bhiksu 5089: 5062: 5015: 4987: 4944: 4907: 4861: 4806: 4798: 4790: 4758: 4736: 4732:Asia, 4714: 4684: 4662: 4619: 4595: 4573: 4527: 4500: 4477: 4469: 4441:576116 4439: 4409: 4369: 4361: 4339: 4313: 4281: 4259: 4237: 4213: 4191: 4183: 4151: 4090: 4062: 1495:shaman 1372:Dizang 1306:: 1275:Prajñā 1267:: 1265:pinyin 1217:: 1205:"ilial 1179:Qisong 1144:ren-yi 1141:: 1139:pinyin 1083:Zongmi 1074:Mulian 1071:: 1069:pinyin 1036:: 1034:pinyin 1028:: 1006:: 1004:pinyin 998:: 946:: 858:Sudāna 702:Jātaka 433:heaven 380:" and 374:Brahma 370:vasala 332:wisdom 261:Āgamas 233:Āgamas 207:sūtras 74:Buddha 62:Āgamas 44:since 5575:JSTOR 5384:S2CID 5352:S2CID 5324:S2CID 5248:S2CID 5170:Press 5160:(PDF) 5128:(PDF) 5111:(PDF) 5007:(2), 4985:S2CID 4953:(PDF) 4922:(PDF) 4819:(PDF) 4804:S2CID 4796:JSTOR 4698:, in 4475:S2CID 4429:(PDF) 4367:JSTOR 4329:(PDF) 4311:JSTOR 4189:JSTOR 4088:S2CID 4060:S2CID 2765:Mouzi 1644:Mouzi 1609:Notes 1442:karma 1411:sūtra 1308:父母恩重經 1273:) by 836:Mouzi 819:Mouzi 801:pious 569:deity 553:Śyāma 490:Śyāma 417:women 354:] 299:Sakka 237:merit 152:Śyāma 121:Mouzi 66:merit 5617:ISBN 5595:ISBN 5567:ISSN 5535:ISBN 5507:ISSN 5462:ISBN 5294:ISBN 5264:2019 5214:ISBN 5189:ISBN 5087:ISBN 5060:ISBN 5013:ISSN 4961:2019 4942:ISSN 4905:ISBN 4859:ISBN 4788:ISSN 4756:ISBN 4734:ISBN 4712:ISBN 4682:ISBN 4660:ISBN 4617:ISBN 4593:ISBN 4571:ISBN 4525:ISBN 4498:ISBN 4467:PMID 4437:OCLC 4407:ISBN 4359:ISSN 4337:ISSN 4279:ISBN 4257:ISBN 4235:ISBN 4211:ISBN 4181:ISSN 4149:ISBN 3733:See 3383:See 2997:See 2956:See 2920:See 2891:See 2827:See 2751:See 2382:See 2141:See 2012:See 1892:See 1788:See 1646:was. 1625:and 1551:The 1473:The 1461:The 1416:sins 1400:The 1316:Tang 1255:and 948:善生子經 904:Dazu 884:and 842:The 776:nuns 596:hell 561:monk 520:and 506:Pāli 453:hell 366:Pali 358:Pali 330:and 291:Pali 271:and 259:and 231:and 185:sins 85:and 60:and 31:Dazu 5639:by 5559:doi 5527:doi 5442:doi 5376:doi 5344:doi 5316:doi 5278:doi 5240:doi 4977:doi 4934:doi 4883:doi 4839:hdl 4831:doi 4780:doi 4459:doi 4387:doi 4303:doi 4173:doi 4110:doi 4080:doi 4052:doi 1219:梵網經 1030:須闍提 586:by 547:In 542:nun 5675:: 5661:, 5615:, 5593:, 5589:, 5573:, 5565:, 5555:60 5553:, 5533:, 5525:, 5521:, 5503:31 5501:, 5482:, 5478:, 5438:37 5436:, 5419:, 5415:, 5404:21 5402:, 5398:, 5382:, 5370:, 5366:, 5350:, 5338:, 5322:, 5312:18 5310:, 5254:, 5246:, 5236:15 5234:, 5230:, 5212:, 5208:, 5183:, 5121:29 5119:, 5113:, 5085:, 5081:, 5058:, 5054:, 5019:, 5005:21 4983:, 4973:25 4971:, 4948:, 4940:, 4928:, 4924:, 4903:, 4899:, 4879:74 4877:, 4857:, 4837:, 4825:, 4821:, 4802:, 4794:, 4786:, 4776:44 4774:, 4750:, 4728:, 4710:, 4706:, 4676:, 4654:, 4637:, 4615:, 4611:, 4587:, 4569:, 4565:, 4547:16 4545:, 4541:, 4523:, 4519:, 4496:, 4492:, 4473:, 4465:, 4455:33 4453:, 4435:, 4431:, 4401:, 4383:30 4381:, 4365:, 4355:44 4353:, 4335:, 4331:, 4309:, 4299:23 4297:, 4277:, 4273:, 4233:, 4229:, 4209:, 4205:, 4187:, 4179:, 4169:28 4167:, 4143:, 4130:, 4106:71 4104:, 4086:, 4074:, 4058:, 4048:33 4046:, 3690:^ 3639:^ 3408:^ 3244:^ 3181:^ 3142:^ 2937:^ 2868:^ 2772:^ 2720:^ 2621:^ 2594:^ 2555:^ 2504:^ 2487:^ 2472:^ 2315:^ 2084:^ 2069:^ 2040:^ 2025:^ 1981:^ 1840:^ 1813:^ 1697:^ 1539:: 1469:. 1288:: 1277:. 1134:. 1032:; 1002:; 1000:晱子 973:. 902:, 864:: 853:c. 746:c. 685:. 476:. 443:: 423:. 390:. 368:: 360:: 352:th 326:, 322:, 293:: 129:c. 29:, 5561:: 5529:: 5484:4 5444:: 5421:8 5378:: 5372:8 5346:: 5340:3 5318:: 5280:: 5242:: 4979:: 4936:: 4930:6 4885:: 4841:: 4833:: 4827:2 4782:: 4461:: 4389:: 4305:: 4175:: 4112:: 4082:: 4076:8 4054:: 2932:. 2767:. 1284:( 1213:( 942:( 860:( 851:( 439:( 356:( 289:( 127:(

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Index