Nuclear fission product - Knowledge (XXG)

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rate is highest for the shortest lived radionuclides, although they also decay the fastest. Additionally, less stable fission products are less likely to decay to stable nuclides, instead decaying to other radionuclides, which undergo further decay and radiation emission, adding to the radiation output. It is these short lived fission products that are the immediate hazard of spent fuel, and the energy output of the radiation also generates significant heat which must be considered when storing spent fuel. As there are hundreds of different radionuclides created, the initial radioactivity level fades quickly as short lived radionuclides decay, but never ceases completely as longer lived radionuclides make up more and more of the remaining unstable atoms. In fact the short lived products are so predominant that 87 percent decay to stable isotopes within the first month after removal from the reactor core.

2961:. Perchlorate ions are a competitive inhibitor of the process by which iodide is actively deposited into thyroid follicular cells. Studies involving healthy adult volunteers determined that at levels above 0.007 milligrams per kilogram per day (mg/(kg·d)), perchlorate begins to temporarily inhibit the thyroid gland's ability to absorb iodine from the bloodstream ("iodide uptake inhibition", thus perchlorate is a known goitrogen). The reduction of the iodide pool by perchlorate has dual effects – reduction of excess hormone synthesis and hyperthyroidism, on the one hand, and reduction of thyroid inhibitor synthesis and hypothyroidism on the other. Perchlorate remains very useful as a single dose application in tests measuring the discharge of radioiodide accumulated in the thyroid as a result of many different disruptions in the further metabolism of iodide in the thyroid gland. 878: 38: 2979:, which corresponds to 0.5 mg/kg-day personal intake, if one is 70 kg and consumes 2 litres of water per day, was found to reduce baseline radioiodine uptake by 67% This is equivalent to ingesting a total of just 35 mg of perchlorate ions per day. In another related study where subjects drank just 1 litre of perchlorate-containing water per day at a concentration of 10 ppm, i.e. daily 10 mg of perchlorate ions were ingested, an average 38% reduction in the uptake of iodine was observed. 3090:) of the caesium. The physical or nuclear half-life of Cs is about 30 years. Caesium in humans normally has a biological half-life of between one and four months. An added advantage of the prussian blue is that the caesium which is stripped from the animal in the droppings is in a form which is not available to plants. Hence it prevents the caesium from being recycled. The form of prussian blue required for the treatment of animals, including humans is a special grade. Attempts to use the 2753: 1696: 1712: 1193: 6108: 891: 3691:""In view of the very low concentration of Uranium used, it is not possible for a commercial nuclear reactor to explode like an atomic bomb from the perspective of physics. A good analogy would be to compare alcoholic spirits to beer. Alcoholic spirits, such as Vodka, typically have a 40% alcohol content, and are highly flammable. Beer, which generally has an alcohol content of less than 5%, does not burn."" 2825: 106: 2765: 1814: 6096: 6120: 1133:) or more. Therefore, the total radioactivity of a mixture of pure fission products decreases rapidly for the first several hundred years (controlled by the short-lived products) before stabilizing at a low level that changes little for hundreds of thousands of years (controlled by the seven long-lived products). 1520:. Since a nuclear reactor must balance neutron production and absorption rates, fission products that absorb neutrons tend to "poison" or shut the reactor down; this is controlled with burnable poisons and control rods. Build-up of xenon-135 during shutdown or low-power operation may poison the reactor enough to 3014:

In the event of a radioiodine release, the ingestion of prophylaxis potassium iodide, if available, or even iodate, would rightly take precedence over perchlorate administration, and would be the first line of defense in protecting the population from a radioiodine release. However, in the event of a

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Each fission of a parent atom produces a different set of fission product atoms. However, while an individual fission is not predictable, the fission products are statistically predictable. The amount of any particular isotope produced per fission is called its yield, typically expressed as percent

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against Cs is to mix up the soil by deeply ploughing the soil. This has the effect of putting the Cs out of reach of the shallow roots of the grass, hence the level of radioactivity in the grass will be lowered. Also the removal of top few centimeters of soil and its burial in a shallow trench will

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Treatment of thyrotoxicosis (including Graves' disease) with 600–2,000 mg potassium perchlorate (430-1,400 mg perchlorate) daily for periods of several months or longer was once common practice, particularly in Europe, and perchlorate use at lower doses to treat thyroid problems continues

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The radioactivity in the fission product mixture is initially mostly caused by short lived isotopes such as I and Ba; after about four months Ce, Zr/Nb and Sr take the largest share, while after about two or three years the largest share is taken by Ce/Pr, Ru/Rh and Pm. Later Sr and Cs are the main

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The adjacent figure shows a typical fission product distribution from the fission of uranium. Note that in the calculations used to make this graph, the activation of fission products was ignored and the fission was assumed to occur in a single moment rather than a length of time. In this bar chart

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emission. But Sr has a 30-year half-life, and Sr a 50.5-day half-life. Thus in the 50.5 days it takes half the Sr atoms to decay, emitting the same number of beta particles as there were decays, less than 0.4% of the Sr atoms have decayed, emitting only 0.4% of the betas. The radioactive emission

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The continual distribution of perchlorate tablets or the addition of perchlorate to the water supply would need to continue for no less than 80–90 days, beginning immediately after the initial release of radioiodine was detected. After 80–90 days passed, released radioactive iodine-131 would have

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However, when the average perchlorate absorption in perchlorate plant workers subjected to the highest exposure has been estimated as approximately 0.5 mg/kg-day, as in the above paragraph, a 67% reduction of iodine uptake would be expected. Studies of chronically exposed workers though have

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A few neutron-rich and short-lived initial fission products decay by ordinary beta decay (this is the source of perceptible half life, typically a few tenths of a second to a few seconds), followed by immediate emission of a neutron by the excited daughter-product. This process is the source of

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G. Mushkacheva, E. Rabinovich, V. Privalov, S. Povolotskaya, V. Shorokhova, S. Sokolova, V. Turdakova, E. Ryzhova, P. Hall, A. B. Schneider, D. L. Preston, and E. Ron, "Thyroid Abnormalities Associated with Protracted Childhood Exposure to 131I from Atmospheric Emissions from the Mayak Weapons

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which were dispersed over a wide area. Cs is an isotope which is of long-term concern as it remains in the top layers of soil. Plants with shallow root systems tend to absorb it for many years. Hence grass and mushrooms can carry a considerable amount of Cs, which can be transferred to humans

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The immediate fission products from nuclear weapon fission are essentially the same as those from any other fission source, depending slightly on the particular nuclide that is fissioning. However, the very short time scale for the reaction makes a difference in the particular mix of isotopes

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radioiodine release too massive and widespread to be controlled by the limited stock of iodide and iodate prophylaxis drugs, then the addition of perchlorate ions to the water supply, or distribution of perchlorate tablets would serve as a cheap, efficacious, second line of defense against

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To completely block the uptake of iodine-131 by the purposeful addition of perchlorate ions to a populace's water supply, aiming at dosages of 0.5 mg/kg-day, or a water concentration of 17 ppm, would therefore be grossly inadequate at truly reducing radioiodine uptake. Perchlorate ion

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Most fission products are retained near their points of production. They are important to reactor operation not only because some contribute delayed neutrons useful for reactor control, but some are neutron poisons that inhibit the nuclear reaction. Buildup of neutron poisons is a key to

1055:, and once kinetic energy of the fission products has been removed (i.e., the products have been cooled to extract the heat provided by the reaction), then the mass associated with this energy is lost to the system also, and thus appears to be "missing" from the cooled fission products. 1539:

use fission as either the partial or the main energy source. Depending on the weapon design and where it is exploded, the relative importance of the fission product radioactivity will vary compared to the activation product radioactivity in the total fallout radioactivity.

3026:. In all these cases however, despite the risks, the prophylaxis benefits of intervention with iodide, iodate, or perchlorate outweigh the serious cancer risk from radioiodine bioaccumulation in regions where radioiodine has sufficiently contaminated the environment. 2914:(KI) before exposure to radioiodine. The non-radioactive iodide "saturates" the thyroid, causing less of the radioiodine to be stored in the body. Administering potassium iodide reduces the effects of radio-iodine by 99% and is a prudent, inexpensive supplement to 3142:

For introduction of radionuclides into organism, ingestion is the most important route. Insoluble compounds are not absorbed from the gut and cause only local irradiation before they are excreted. Soluble forms however show wide range of absorption percentages.

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to this day. Although 400 mg of potassium perchlorate divided into four or five daily doses was used initially and found effective, higher doses were introduced when 400 mg/day was discovered not to control thyrotoxicosis in all subjects.

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radioisotopes, being succeeded by Tc. In the case of a release of radioactivity from a power reactor or used fuel, only some elements are released; as a result, the isotopic signature of the radioactivity is very different from an open air

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operated for a few hundred thousand years and produced approximately 5 tonnes of fission products. These fission products were important in providing proof that the natural reactor had occurred. Fission products are produced in

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thus far failed to detect any abnormalities of thyroid function, including the uptake of iodine. this may well be attributable to sufficient daily exposure or intake of healthy iodine-127 among the workers and the short 8 hr

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Lamm, Steven H.; Braverman, Lewis E.; Li, Feng Xiao; Richman, Kent; Pino, Sam; Howearth, Gregory (1999). "Thyroid Health Status of Ammonium Perchlorate Workers: A Cross-Sectional Occupational Health Study".

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In general the higher the energy of the state that undergoes nuclear fission, the more likely that the two fission products have similar mass. Hence, as the neutron energy increases and/or the energy of the

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The fact the neutron is produced via this type of decay and this happens orders of magnitude later compared to the emission of the prompt neutrons, plays an extremely important role in the control of the

2707: 1148:. A number of these actinides have half lives in the missing range of about 100 to 200,000 years, causing some difficulty with storage plans in this time-range for open cycle non-reprocessed fuels. 1444:

or travel through the coolant system and chemistry control systems are provided to remove them. In a well-designed power reactor running under normal conditions, coolant radioactivity is very low.

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atom increases, the valley between the two peaks becomes more shallow. For instance, the curve of yield against mass for Pu has a more shallow valley than that observed for U when the neutrons are

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It is impossible for a reactor to explode like a nuclear weapon; these weapons contain very special materials in very particular configurations, neither of which are present in a nuclear reactor

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are responsible for the bulk of the radioactivity. After a few years, the radiation is dominated by strontium-90 and caesium-137, whereas in the period between 10,000 and a million years it is

1004:. Thus, fission events normally result in beta and additional gamma radiation that begins immediately after, even though this radiation is not produced directly by the fission event itself. 1340:

reactors, about 3% of the uranium in the fuel is converted into fission products as a by-product of energy generation. Most of these fission products remain in the fuel unless there is

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The fission products themselves are usually unstable and therefore radioactive. Due to being relatively neutron-rich for their atomic number, many of them quickly undergo

2972:(including Graves' disease), when a patient is exposed to additional sources of iodine, commonly include 500 mg potassium perchlorate twice per day for 18–40 days. 5762: 4077:

Lawrence, J. E.; Lamm, S. H.; Pino, S.; Richman, K.; Braverman, L. E. (2000). "The Effect of Short-Term Low-Dose Perchlorate on Various Aspects of Thyroid Function".

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Barzilai, D; Sheinfeld, M (1966). "Fatal complications following use of potassium perchlorate in thyrotoxicosis. Report of two cases and a review of the literature".

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flux becomes zero too little time will have passed for any Cs to be present. While in a power reactor plenty of time exists for the decay of the isotopes in the

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For example, the Cs/Cs ratio provides an easy method of distinguishing between fallout from a bomb and the fission products from a power reactor. Almost no

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concentrations in a region's water supply would need to be much higher, at least 7.15 mg/kg of body weight per day, or a water concentration of 250

5157: 1760: 922: 4234: 1252:(expressed by atomic masses 130 through 145). The yield is somewhat dependent on the parent atom and also on the energy of the initiating neutron. 3886:"Health Effects Assessment for Environmental Perchlorate Contamination: The Dose Response for Inhibition of Thyroidal Radioiodine Uptake in Humans" 3581: 1687:

on metal surfaces within the nuclear plant. Much of the other work on the iodine chemistry which would occur during a bad accident has been done.

3690: 2879:– radioactive as well as stable. Absorption of radioiodine can lead to acute, chronic, and delayed effects. Acute effects from high doses include 2808:

The purpose of radiological emergency preparedness is to protect people from the effects of radiation exposure after a nuclear accident or bomb.

1747:. The threat becomes smaller with the passage of time. Locations where radiation fields once posed immediate mortal threats, such as much of the 3607: 1066:

are neutrons), the initial fission products are often more neutron-rich than stable nuclei of the same mass as the fission product (e.g. stable

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is so tightly bonded to the iron that it is safe for a human to consume several grams of prussian blue per day. The prussian blue reduces the

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from Cs will be attenuated by their passage through the soil. The deeper and more remote the trench is, the better the degree of protection.

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per parent fission; therefore, yields total to 200%, not 100%. (The true total is in fact slightly greater than 200%, owing to rare cases of

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to form Cs, the Cs thus formed can then be activated to form Cs only if the time between the start and the end of the criticality is long.

5320: 59: 5396: 4866: 4831: 2103: 2023: 185: 6146: 6018: 5602: 3122:, the addition of a potassium fertilizer can discourage the uptake of cesium into plants. However such treatments with either lime or 2697: 2611: 2053: 1284:, the curve of yield against element is not a smooth curve but tends to alternate. Note that the curve against mass number is smooth. 3990:

Woenckhaus, U.; Girlich, C. (2005). "Therapie und Prävention der Hyperthyreose" [Therapy and prevention of hyperthyroidism].

4682: 4561: 4279: 4218: 3758: 2553: 2458: 81: 4286: 5912: 5777: 4312: 489: 1417:. Fission product decay also generates heat that continues even after the reactor has been shut down and fission stopped. This 1236:, the majority of the fission products occur in two peaks. One peak occurs at about (expressed by atomic masses 85 through 105) 5855: 5689: 5527: 5291: 5169: 4826: 4687: 3733: 3477: 2788: 2498: 2261: 1843: 1324: 681: 3011:

decayed to less than 0.1% of its initial quantity, at which time the danger from biouptake of iodine-131 is essentially over.

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or interfere with normal control of the reaction during restart or restoration of full power. This played a major role in the

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range of 0.1 Ma to >1.0 Ga depending on the mineral used and the concentration of uranium in that mineral.

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This behavior of pure fission products with actinides removed, contrasts with the decay of fuel that still contains

6156: 5805: 5484: 5002: 4959: 4811: 2781: 2138: 1988: 1426: 1422: 1281: 1126: 296: 5457: 1109:. However, as the fission products approach stable nuclear conditions, the last one or two decays may have a long 6181: 6100: 5782: 5391: 5174: 2513: 2478: 2438: 2091: 2058: 1908: 632: 331: 63: 6166: 6161: 6030: 5872: 5772: 5684: 4893: 4779: 4739: 4551: 2508: 2128: 2063: 2000: 908: 895: 627: 5651: 2812:

is the most effective protective measure. However, if evacuation is impossible or even uncertain, then local

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explosions, with the amount depending on the type of weapon. The largest source of fission products is from

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results are shown for different cooling times (time after fission). Because of the stability of nuclei with

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is a major radioactive isotope released from reprocessing plants. In nuclear reactors both caesium-137 and

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is always less than the atomic mass of the original atom. This is because some of the mass is lost as free

676: 5767: 5054: 4598: 3158: 2995:, assuming people drink 2 liters of water per day, to be truly beneficial to the population at preventing 2676: 2163: 326: 291: 4242: 6176: 6061: 5797: 5752: 5214: 5142: 5069: 5064: 5029: 4816: 4784: 4571: 4498: 3585: 3393: 2646: 2488: 2354: 2266: 1963: 1517: 1187: 1152: 801: 686: 578: 4038:"Treatment of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis, a difficult challenge: Results of a prospective study" 3694: 741: 3674: 3544:"Charge distributions of fission fragments of low- and high-energy fission of Fm, No, and Rf isotopes" 3022:

The ingestion of goitrogen drugs is, much like potassium iodide also not without its dangers, such as

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In a similar way the release of radio-iodine in a serious power reactor accident could be retarded by

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The portion of the total radiation dose (in air) contributed by each isotope versus time after the

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particles. The microscopic tracks left by these fission products in some natural minerals (mainly

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Proponents of nuclear fuel cycles which aim to consume all their actinides by fission, such as the

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Baratta, Edmond J.; Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United (10 February 1994).

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Since the nuclei that can readily undergo fission are particularly neutron-rich (e.g. 61% of the

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to provide the cooling (crystallization) ages of natural rocks. The technique has an effective

4170: 3807:. Nuclear Energy Agency. Committee on the safety of nuclear installations. OCDE. March 7, 2000. 5119: 4912: 4799: 4774: 4712: 4669: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4346: 4214: 4130: 4094: 4059: 4007: 3972: 3945: 3915: 3754: 3107: 2992: 2976: 2406: 2329: 2322: 2276: 2143: 1933: 1928: 1838: 1677: 1401:

In a nuclear power reactor, the main sources of radioactivity are fission products along with

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According to Jiri Hala's textbook, the radioactivity in the fission product mixture in an

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resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric nuclear tests conducted at the

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state, power changes slowly enough to permit human and automatic control. Analogous to

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in reducing the bio-uptake of iodine, (whether it be the nutritional non-radioactive

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state. Certain fission products decay over seconds to minutes, producing additional

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C. Kearney, Nuclear War Survival Skills, Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine,

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Bartalena, L.; Brogioni, S; Grasso, L; Bogazzi, F; Burelli, A; Martino, E (1996).

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One measure which protects against the risk from radio-iodine is taking a dose of

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Workshop on iodine aspects of severe accident management. Summary and conclusions

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and decay half life) is relatively short: approx. 10 days (10 days and 13 years).

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of natural uranium, which occurs at a low rate, or as a result of neutrons from

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represent the largest share of radioactive material. After two to three years,

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Small amounts of fission products are naturally formed as the result of either

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when exposed to a radioiodine environment, independent of the availability of

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requires removal after shutdown; loss of this cooling damaged the reactors at

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has resulted in an increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer in the former

5977: 5340: 5330: 4458: 4411: 4376: 3453:, twelfth edition. Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, General Electric Company. 3119: 3115: 3087: 3067: 3060: 3052: 2958: 2930: 2661: 2616: 2578: 2528: 2463: 2369: 1833: 1813: 1803: 1772: 1736: 1700: 1575: 1509: 1472: 1468: 1265: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1137: 1110: 1071: 1067: 1012: 1001: 959: 771: 721: 548: 536: 531: 410: 5835: 4134: 4098: 4011: 3919: 1436:

around the fuel develops holes, fission products can leak into the primary

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Greer, Monte A.; Goodman, Gay; Pleus, Richard C.; Greer, Susan E. (2002).

3520: 1208:, a combination of the two typical of current nuclear power reactors, and 1027:

are produced in similar quantities in fission, and each nucleus decays by

6066: 5860: 5709: 5704: 5644: 5313: 5241: 5224: 5209: 5184: 4927: 4416: 3901: 2946: 2033: 1563:(A = 133). So in a momentary criticality, by the time that the 1402: 1008: 978: 2922:

of potassium iodide. Long-term storage of KI is normally in the form of

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are found in locations away from the fuel because they're formed by the

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Prophylaxis with perchlorate-containing water at concentrations of 17

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Some fission products (such as Cs) are used in medical and industrial

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Color-map of product yields, and detailed data by click on a nuclide.

3774: 3123: 3004: 3000: 2957:, has been shown to reduce iodine uptake and thus is classified as a 2918:. A low-cost alternative to commercially available iodine pills is a 2876: 2671: 2651: 2558: 2548: 2256: 1744: 1728: 1414: 1395: 1309: 1079: 938:

are the atomic fragments left after a large atomic nucleus undergoes

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About 1.5 billion years ago in a uranium ore body in Africa, a

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F. William Walker, Dr. George J. Kirouac, Francis M. Rourke. 1977.

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to move towards a stable configuration, converting a neutron to a

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Paşca, H.; Andreev, A.V.; Adamian, G.G.; Antonenko, N.V. (2018).

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farming, another countermeasure against Cs is to feed to animals

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of the stable Cs which is formed by the decay of isotopes in the

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tend to make even more shallow valleys. In extreme cases such as

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nuclear education for K-12 students Myths About Nuclear Energy

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surfaces is one effect which will retard the release of Tc from

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fissions by splitting into two smaller nuclei, along with a few

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For further details of the use of prussian blue please see the

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I with reactive metals under BWR severe-accident conditions,

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can be used to dilute cesium and limit its uptake by plants.

2828:

Per capita thyroid doses in the continental United States of

1101:

The first beta decays are rapid and may release high energy

1082:

with each beta emission. (Fission products do not decay via

3817: 1672:

drums and nuclear equipment which has become lost prior to

3425:

Note that the effective half life (the combination of the

1447:

The isotope responsible for most of the gamma exposure in

1140:. This fuel is produced in the so-called "open" (i.e., no 2895:. It has been shown that the active iodine released from 1657:- it renders the steel surface passive. The formation of 1440:. Depending on the chemistry, they may settle within the 1415:

how long a given fuel element can be kept in the reactor

3841: 3126:

should not be undertaken lightly as they can alter the

3118:

by plants. Likewise in areas where the soil is low in

2953:

ions, a common water contaminant in the USA due to the

1382:

with a half-life of about a minute. Operating in this

4149:"Nuclear Chemistry: Half-Lives and Radioactive Dating" 3936:

Wolff, J (1998). "Perchlorate and the thyroid gland".

2945:, as the body cannot discern between different iodine 1390:

varying the movement of wood embers towards new fuel,

4210:

Manual of Food Quality Control: Radionuclides in food

3751:

Radioactivity, Ionizing Radiation, and Nuclear Energy

4115:

Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine

6044: 5996: 5953: 5895: 5796: 5726: 5675: 5666: 5593: 5559: 5550: 5509: 5502: 5482: 5435: 5417: 5373: 5278: 5260: 5128: 5042: 4975: 4920: 4911: 4859: 4767: 4758: 4725: 4668: 4630: 4621: 4542: 4474: 4397: 4339: 2941:or radioactive iodine, radioiodine - most commonly 5060:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 4042:Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 3423:Tritiated water can also be absorbed through skin. 3034:The Chernobyl accident released a large amount of 1228:While fission products include every element from 992:. This releases additional energy in the form of 1578:is mostly caused by short-lived isotopes such as 1378:crucial to sustaining criticality. An example is 1370:are operated in the otherwise self-extinguishing 3717:"Nuclear Explained By Analogy Metaphor Examples" 2816:and other measures provide the best protection. 1783:, where all the fission products are dispersed. 1501:Some fission products decay with the release of 1044:of the two atoms produced by the fission of one 3130:greatly, so resulting in a change in the plant 2871:of iodine are particularly harmful because the 1094:, which play an important role in control of a 1646:) ion can react with steel surfaces to form a 1121:Fission products have half-lives of 90 years ( 27:Atoms or particles produced by nuclear fission 5763:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 4313: 3497:"The Fission of Thorium with Alpha-Particles" 3051:reduce the dose to humans and animals as the 2789: 916: 8: 3464:"What Happens to Nuclear Waste in the U.S.?" 2883:, while chronic and delayed effects include 4280:Iodine fallout studies in the United States 3879: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3867: 1650:. In this way these metaloxo anions act as 1451:plants (and the Chernobyl site in 2005) is 5929: 5740: 5672: 5556: 5506: 5499: 5275: 5101: 5088: 4917: 4764: 4627: 4336: 4320: 4306: 4298: 2796: 2782: 2686: 1812: 1790: 1264:. The curves for the fission of the later 977:, producing a third light nucleus such as 923: 909: 93: 4053: 4031: 4029: 3909: 1555:-134 is stable). The Cs is formed by the 1070:-90 is 56% neutrons compared to unstable 82:Learn how and when to remove this message 3145: 1710: 1505:, important to nuclear reactor control. 1191: 45:This article includes a list of general 4181:Development, Office of Research &. 3931: 3929: 3836: 3834: 3608:"Elementary Physics of Reactor Control" 3442: 3415: 2725: 2689: 1802: 1703:dose for a person in the open near the 1680:reactors which have been lost at sea). 1282:even numbers of protons and/or neutrons 1129:that have half lives of 211,100 years ( 96: 5690:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 3749:Hala, Jiri; James D. Navratil (2003). 1551:is formed by nuclear fission (because 5695:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 7: 6119: 3640:"Nuclear Fission - Fission Reaction" 5700:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 3478:"Introduction to ANL's IFR Program" 3046:One of the best countermeasures in 2024:Radium and radon in the environment 1767:, but a considerable number of the 1475:, with a 3.8-minute half-life, and 1196:Fission product yields by mass for 973:About 0.2% to 0.4% of fissions are 4660:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 4291:The Live Chart of Nuclides - IAEA 3965:Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 3495:Newton, Amos S. (1 January 1949). 2968:Current regimens for treatment of 51:it lacks sufficient corresponding 25: 4683:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 4582:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 3890:Environmental Health Perspectives 2933:substances can also be used as a 1516:, have a high neutron absorption 1244:while the other peak is at about 1170:, while actinides primarily emit 962:. The two smaller nuclei are the 6118: 6107: 6106: 6094: 5783:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 4284: 4127:10.1097/00043764-199904000-00006 3480:. 9 October 2007. Archived from 2763: 2751: 1508:Other fission products, such as 890: 889: 876: 104: 36: 4872:Historical stockpiles and tests 3773:H. Glänneskog. Interactions of 1844:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 1325:natural nuclear fission reactor 5773:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 4655:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 4213:. Food & Agriculture Org. 2856:(radioiodine) and I. Open air 2713:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 1544:produced from an atomic bomb. 954:, the release of heat energy ( 1: 6101:Nuclear technology portal 3818:"Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab" 3662:nuclearpowertraining.tpub.com 3658:"PROMPT AND DELAYED NEUTRONS" 3399:Fission products (by element) 3019:radioiodine bioaccumulation. 2184:Electrical resistance heating 1761:U.S. atomic bombings in Japan 1749:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant 968:Fission products (by element) 5963:Field-reversed configuration 5573:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 3789:Nucl. Engineering and Design 3675:Prompt and Delayed Neutrons 2987:of perchlorate in the body. 2929:The administration of known 1894:Persistent organic pollutant 1818:Air pollution from a factory 1125:) or less, except for seven 5920:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 4867:States with nuclear weapons 3404:Long-lived fission products 3110:to soils which are poor in 3074:. This compound acts as an 1586:. After about four months, 1127:long-lived fission products 670:High-energy nuclear physics 6198: 5758:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 4882:Tests in the United States 3568:10.1103/PhysRevC.97.034621 3098:have not been successful. 2875:collects and concentrates 2864:both released iodine-131. 1490: 1359: 1185: 6147:Radioactive contamination 6088: 5943: 5883:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 5778:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 5743: 5585:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 5115: 5100: 5087: 4335: 4223:– via Google Books. 4091:10.1089/10507250050137734 4055:10.1210/jcem.81.8.8768854 4004:10.1007/s00108-005-1508-4 3554:(3): 034621–1–034621–12. 3114:can reduce the uptake of 2439:War and environmental law 2059:Health effects from noise 1909:Volatile organic compound 1648:corrosion resistant layer 1394:are moved as the nuclear 1174:. Many of each also emit 1113:and release less energy. 5788:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 5404:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 4740:Electron-beam processing 2064:Marine mammals and sonar 1368:nuclear fission reactors 1015:, and therefore vary in 936:Nuclear fission products 5903:Organic nuclear reactor 5075:Nuclear power phase-out 4998:Nuclear decommissioning 4938:Reactor-grade plutonium 4688:Targeted alpha-particle 4567:Accidents and incidents 3938:Pharmacological Reviews 3582:"Nuclear Fission Yield" 2539:Freshwater salinization 2459:Agricultural wastewater 1787:Fallout countermeasures 1487:Nuclear reactor poisons 1117:Radioactivity over time 181:Interacting boson model 66:more precise citations. 4235:"Half-life, effective" 2841: 2758:Environment portal 1720: 1708: 1217: 1166:Fission products emit 5065:Anti-nuclear movement 3853:Facility in Russia", 3521:10.1103/PhysRev.75.17 3451:Chart of the Nuclides 3394:Fission product yield 2827: 2499:Industrial wastewater 2267:Municipal solid waste 2189:Soil guideline values 1714: 1698: 1195: 1188:Fission product yield 1153:Integral Fast Reactor 942:. Typically, a large 568:High-energy processes 266:– equal all the above 164:Models of the nucleus 5973:Reversed field pinch 5768:Traveling-wave (TWR) 5252:Supercritical (SCWR) 4750:Gemstone irradiation 3902:10.1289/ehp.02110927 3842:http://www.oism.org/ 3427:biological half life 3086:(different from the 3084:biological half-life 2985:biological half life 2708:Most polluted cities 2360:Overhead power lines 1655:corrosion inhibitors 1342:fuel element failure 1314:fission track dating 1142:nuclear reprocessing 958:of the nuclei), and 604:nuclear astrophysics 6172:Inorganic chemistry 5138:Aqueous homogeneous 4933:Reprocessed uranium 4606:Safety and security 4270:, chp 2.10.2, p 75 4239:www.euronuclear.org 3560:2018PhRvC..97c4621P 3513:1949PhRv...75...17N 3466:. 19 November 2019. 2524:Ocean acidification 2434:Unexploded ordnance 2355:Advertising clutter 2287:Post-consumer waste 2232:Foam food container 2217:Biodegradable waste 1874:Global distillation 1775:longer than a day. 1636:radioactive sources 1407:activation products 1294:spontaneous fission 1157:molten salt reactor 1036:Formation and decay 586:Photodisintegration 509:Capturing processes 423:Spontaneous fission 416:Internal conversion 347:Valley of stability 342:Island of stability 176:Nuclear shell model 6152:Nuclear technology 6052:Dense plasma focus 4967:Actinide chemistry 4432:Isotope separation 4329:Nuclear technology 3855:Radiation Research 3484:on 9 October 2007. 2955:aerospace industry 2920:saturated solution 2862:Chernobyl disaster 2846:isotopes of iodine 2842: 2770:Ecology portal 2395:Herbicidal warfare 1939:Introduced species 1879:Indoor air quality 1849:Chlorofluorocarbon 1781:nuclear detonation 1751:on day one of the 1721: 1717:Chernobyl disaster 1709: 1705:Chernobyl disaster 1557:neutron activation 1526:Chernobyl disaster 1372:prompt subcritical 1362:Spent nuclear fuel 1300:or reactions with 1218: 1146:nuclear fuel cycle 883:Physics portal 677:Quark–gluon plasma 460:Radiogenic nuclide 6157:Nuclear chemistry 6134: 6133: 6084: 6083: 6080: 6079: 6031:Magnetized-target 5928: 5927: 5891: 5890: 5722: 5721: 5718: 5717: 5662: 5661: 5546: 5545: 5478: 5477: 5083: 5082: 5038: 5037: 4907: 4906: 4894:Weapon-free zones 4721: 4720: 4713:Radiopharmacology 3548:Physical Review C 3385: 3384: 3088:nuclear half-life 2806: 2805: 2741: 2740: 2407:Nuclear holocaust 2330:Urban heat island 2144:Radioactive waste 1929:Biological hazard 1839:Air quality index 1678:nuclear submarine 1449:fuel reprocessing 1423:Three Mile Island 1348:, or the fuel is 1298:radioactive decay 933: 932: 619: 365:Radioactive decay 321:Nuclear stability 148:Nuclear structure 92: 91: 84: 16:(Redirected from 6189: 6182:Fission products 6122: 6121: 6110: 6109: 6099: 6098: 6097: 6009: 5968:Levitated dipole 5938: 5930: 5878:Helium gas (GFR) 5741: 5736: 5673: 5557: 5507: 5500: 5495: 5494: 5276: 5272: 5271: 5110: 5102: 5094:Nuclear reactors 5089: 4988:High-level (HLW) 4918: 4765: 4745:Food irradiation 4735:Atomic gardening 4628: 4611:Nuclear meltdown 4437:Nuclear material 4427:Fissile material 4422:Fertile material 4337: 4322: 4315: 4308: 4299: 4288: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4241:. 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Archived from 3578: 3572: 3571: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3492: 3486: 3485: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3460: 3454: 3447: 3430: 3420: 3146: 3106:The addition of 3036:caesium isotopes 2916:fallout shelters 2912:potassium iodide 2867:The short-lived 2834:Nevada Test Site 2814:fallout shelters 2798: 2791: 2784: 2768: 2767: 2766: 2756: 2755: 2687: 2390:Chemical warfare 2292:Waste management 2252:Industrial waste 2227:Electronic waste 2212:Advertising mail 2194:Phytoremediation 2169:Land degradation 2109:Depleted uranium 1994:Overillumination 1944:Invasive species 1816: 1806: 1791: 1626:that dominates. 1608:praseodymium-144 1503:delayed neutrons 1384:delayed critical 1376:delayed neutrons 1346:nuclear accident 1334:nuclear reactors 1262:thermal neutrons 1092:delayed neutrons 1019:. For instance, 975:ternary fissions 964:fission products 925: 918: 911: 898: 893: 892: 885: 881: 880: 757:Skłodowska-Curie 617: 433:Neutron emission 201:' classification 153:Nuclear reaction 108: 94: 87: 80: 76: 73: 67: 62:this article by 53:inline citations 40: 39: 32: 21: 6197: 6196: 6192: 6191: 6190: 6188: 6187: 6186: 6167:Nuclear fission 6162:Nuclear physics 6137: 6136: 6135: 6130: 6095: 6093: 6076: 6040: 6007: 5992: 5949: 5939: 5934: 5924: 5887: 5792: 5737: 5730: 5729: 5714: 5658: 5589: 5564: 5542: 5514: 5496: 5489: 5488: 5487: 5474: 5440: 5431: 5413: 5378: 5369: 5283: 5266: 5265: 5264: 5256: 5170:Natural fission 5124: 5123: 5111: 5106: 5096: 5079: 5055:Nuclear weapons 5034: 4993:Low-level (LLW) 4971: 4903: 4855: 4754: 4717: 4664: 4617: 4538: 4470: 4393: 4331: 4326: 4276: 4268:Neutron Physics 4264: 4259: 4258: 4248: 4246: 4233: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4206: 4205: 4201: 4191: 4189: 4180: 4179: 4175: 4160: 4156: 4147: 4146: 4142: 4111: 4110: 4106: 4076: 4075: 4071: 4035: 4034: 4027: 3998:(12): 1318–23. 3989: 3988: 3984: 3962: 3961: 3957: 3935: 3934: 3927: 3883: 3882: 3865: 3851: 3847: 3839: 3832: 3822: 3820: 3816: 3815: 3811: 3803: 3799: 3786: 3779: 3772: 3768: 3761: 3748: 3747: 3743: 3732: 3728: 3721:www.metamia.com 3715: 3714: 3710: 3700: 3698: 3689: 3688: 3684: 3673: 3669: 3656: 3655: 3651: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3623: 3621: 3620:on 12 July 2019 3617: 3610: 3606: 3605: 3601: 3591: 3589: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3541: 3540: 3536: 3501:Physical Review 3494: 3493: 3489: 3476: 3475: 3471: 3462: 3461: 3457: 3448: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3433: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3390: 3140: 3138:Health concerns 3104: 3032: 2997:bioaccumulation 2889:thyroid nodules 2858:nuclear testing 2848:are important. 2844:At least three 2822: 2802: 2764: 2762: 2750: 2743: 2742: 2642: 2634: 2633: 2607: 2599: 2598: 2534:Pharmaceuticals 2514:Nonpoint source 2454: 2444: 2443: 2412:Nuclear fallout 2385: 2375: 2374: 2345: 2335: 2334: 2325: 2315: 2314: 2305: 2297: 2296: 2282:Packaging waste 2247:Hazardous waste 2207: 2199: 2198: 2159: 2149: 2148: 2119:Nuclear fallout 2114:Nuclear fission 2094: 2084: 2083: 2049: 2039: 2038: 2014: 2006: 2005: 1979: 1977:Electromagnetic 1969: 1968: 1959: 1951: 1950: 1924: 1914: 1913: 1884:Ozone depletion 1829: 1819: 1804: 1789: 1765:stable isotopes 1723:For fission of 1693: 1674:decontamination 1662: 1641: 1632: 1537:Nuclear weapons 1534: 1532:Nuclear weapons 1499: 1491:Main articles: 1489: 1364: 1358: 1290: 1223:ternary fission 1198:thermal neutron 1190: 1184: 1176:gamma radiation 1172:alpha radiation 1119: 1107:gamma radiation 1096:nuclear reactor 1040:The sum of the 1038: 940:nuclear fission 929: 888: 875: 874: 867: 866: 702: 692: 691: 672: 662: 661: 606: 602: 599:Nucleosynthesis 591: 590: 569: 561: 560: 510: 502: 501: 475: 473:Nuclear fission 465: 464: 438:Proton emission 367: 357: 356: 322: 314: 313: 215: 202: 191: 190: 166: 98:Nuclear physics 88: 77: 71: 68: 58:Please help to 57: 41: 37: 28: 23: 22: 18:Fission product 15: 12: 11: 5: 6195: 6193: 6185: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6139: 6138: 6132: 6131: 6129: 6128: 6116: 6104: 6089: 6086: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6062:Muon-catalyzed 6059: 6054: 6048: 6046: 6042: 6041: 6039: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6011: 6002: 6000: 5994: 5993: 5991: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5959: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5944: 5941: 5940: 5933: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5922: 5917: 5916: 5915: 5910: 5899: 5897: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5886: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5802: 5800: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5753:Integral (IFR) 5750: 5744: 5738: 5727: 5724: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5716: 5715: 5713: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5681: 5679: 5670: 5664: 5663: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5656: 5655: 5654: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5617: 5612: 5611: 5610: 5599: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5568: 5566: 5562: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5519: 5517: 5512: 5504: 5497: 5483: 5480: 5479: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5472: 5471: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5444: 5442: 5438: 5433: 5432: 5430: 5429: 5423: 5421: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5400: 5399: 5394: 5383: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5370: 5368: 5367: 5366: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5344: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5323: 5318: 5317: 5316: 5311: 5308: 5305: 5302: 5288: 5286: 5281: 5273: 5258: 5257: 5255: 5254: 5249: 5248: 5247: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5233: 5232: 5227: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5172: 5167: 5166: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5140: 5134: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5117: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5105: 5098: 5097: 5092: 5085: 5084: 5081: 5080: 5078: 5077: 5072: 5070:Uranium mining 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5033: 5032: 5027: 5026: 5025: 5020: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4979: 4977: 4973: 4972: 4970: 4969: 4964: 4963: 4962: 4952: 4947: 4946: 4945: 4943:Minor actinide 4940: 4935: 4924: 4922: 4915: 4909: 4908: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4885: 4884: 4879: 4869: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4853: 4852: 4851: 4841: 4836: 4835: 4834: 4829: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4808: 4807: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4771: 4769: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4753: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4731: 4729: 4723: 4722: 4719: 4718: 4716: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4674: 4672: 4666: 4665: 4663: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4640:Autoradiograph 4636: 4634: 4625: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4615: 4614: 4613: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4591: 4590: 4589: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4548: 4546: 4540: 4539: 4537: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4480: 4478: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4468: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4449: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4403: 4401: 4395: 4394: 4392: 4391: 4390: 4389: 4384: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4362:Atomic nucleus 4359: 4354: 4349: 4343: 4341: 4333: 4332: 4327: 4325: 4324: 4317: 4310: 4302: 4296: 4295: 4282: 4275: 4274:External links 4272: 4263: 4260: 4257: 4256: 4245:on 9 July 2014 4226: 4219: 4199: 4173: 4165:report on the 4154: 4140: 4104: 4069: 4025: 3982: 3955: 3925: 3863: 3845: 3830: 3809: 3797: 3784: 3777: 3766: 3759: 3741: 3726: 3708: 3682: 3667: 3649: 3631: 3599: 3588:on 28 May 2007 3573: 3534: 3487: 3469: 3455: 3441: 3440: 3438: 3435: 3432: 3431: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3407: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3389: 3386: 3383: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3351: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3341: 3331: 3330: 3327: 3324: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3311: 3308: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3283: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3263: 3260: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3241: 3231: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3205: 3203:Promethium-147 3199: 3198: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3183: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3163: 3162: 3156: 3153: 3150: 3139: 3136: 3128:soil chemistry 3103: 3100: 3094:grade used in 3031: 3028: 3024:hypothyroidism 2970:thyrotoxicosis 2893:thyroid cancer 2885:hypothyroidism 2821: 2818: 2804: 2803: 2801: 2800: 2793: 2786: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2773: 2772: 2760: 2745: 2744: 2739: 2738: 2737: 2736: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2722: 2721: 2720: 2715: 2710: 2705: 2703:Law by country 2700: 2692: 2691: 2685: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2643: 2640: 2639: 2636: 2635: 2632: 2631: 2630: 2629: 2624: 2614: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2601: 2600: 2597: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2574:Surface runoff 2571: 2566: 2561: 2556: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2474:Eutrophication 2471: 2466: 2461: 2455: 2450: 2449: 2446: 2445: 2442: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2429:Scorched earth 2426: 2425: 2424: 2422:Nuclear winter 2419: 2417:Nuclear famine 2414: 2404: 2403: 2402: 2392: 2386: 2381: 2380: 2377: 2376: 2373: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2346: 2341: 2340: 2337: 2336: 2333: 2332: 2326: 2321: 2320: 2317: 2316: 2313: 2312: 2306: 2303: 2302: 2299: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2289: 2284: 2279: 2274: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2254: 2249: 2244: 2239: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2197: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2174:Bioremediation 2171: 2166: 2160: 2155: 2154: 2151: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2126: 2121: 2116: 2111: 2106: 2104:Bioremediation 2101: 2095: 2090: 2089: 2086: 2085: 2082: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2054:Transportation 2050: 2045: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2021: 2015: 2012: 2011: 2008: 2007: 2004: 2003: 2001:Radio spectrum 1998: 1997: 1996: 1991: 1980: 1975: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1967: 1966: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1953: 1952: 1949: 1948: 1947: 1946: 1936: 1931: 1925: 1920: 1919: 1916: 1915: 1912: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1869:Global dimming 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1830: 1825: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1817: 1809: 1808: 1800: 1799: 1788: 1785: 1692: 1689: 1660: 1639: 1631: 1628: 1620:promethium-147 1533: 1530: 1522:impede restart 1493:Nuclear poison 1488: 1485: 1357: 1356:Power reactors 1354: 1336:. In current 1330:nuclear weapon 1312:) are used in 1289: 1286: 1186:Main article: 1183: 1180: 1168:beta radiation 1118: 1115: 1103:beta particles 1037: 1034: 994:beta particles 956:kinetic energy 931: 930: 928: 927: 920: 913: 905: 902: 901: 900: 899: 886: 869: 868: 865: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 703: 698: 697: 694: 693: 690: 689: 684: 679: 673: 668: 667: 664: 663: 660: 659: 658: 657: 652: 647: 638: 637: 636: 635: 630: 625: 614: 613: 611:Nuclear fusion 607: 597: 596: 593: 592: 589: 588: 583: 582: 581: 570: 567: 566: 563: 562: 559: 558: 557: 556: 551: 541: 540: 539: 534: 524: 523: 522: 511: 508: 507: 504: 503: 500: 499: 494: 493: 492: 482: 476: 471: 470: 467: 466: 463: 462: 457: 452: 447: 441: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 419: 418: 413: 403: 398: 397: 396: 391: 390: 389: 374: 368: 363: 362: 359: 358: 355: 354: 352:Stable nuclide 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 327:Binding energy 323: 320: 319: 316: 315: 312: 311: 310: 309: 299: 294: 289: 283: 282: 268: 267: 260: 259: 243: 242: 230: 229: 217: 216: 203: 197: 196: 193: 192: 189: 188: 183: 178: 173: 167: 162: 161: 158: 157: 156: 155: 150: 145: 140: 138:Nuclear matter 135: 134: 133: 128: 118: 110: 109: 101: 100: 90: 89: 44: 42: 35: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6194: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6144: 6142: 6127: 6126: 6117: 6115: 6114: 6105: 6103: 6102: 6091: 6090: 6087: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6049: 6047: 6043: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6020: 6019:electrostatic 6017: 6016: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6004: 6003: 6001: 5999: 5995: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5942: 5937: 5931: 5921: 5918: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5905: 5904: 5901: 5900: 5898: 5894: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5808: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5799: 5798:Generation IV 5795: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5748:Breeder (FBR) 5746: 5745: 5742: 5739: 5734: 5725: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5682: 5680: 5678: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5665: 5653: 5650: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5627: 5626: 5623: 5622: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5609: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5592: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5574: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5565: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5549: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5520: 5518: 5516: 5508: 5505: 5501: 5498: 5493: 5486: 5481: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5450: 5449: 5446: 5445: 5443: 5441: 5434: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5420: 5416: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5389: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5372: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5328: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5315: 5312: 5309: 5306: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5277: 5274: 5270: 5263: 5259: 5253: 5250: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5177: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5131: 5127: 5122: 5121: 5114: 5109: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5090: 5086: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5050:Nuclear power 5048: 5047: 5045: 5041: 5031: 5030:Transmutation 5028: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5016: 5015: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4974: 4968: 4965: 4961: 4958: 4957: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4930: 4929: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4910: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4850: 4847: 4846: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4827:high-altitude 4825: 4824: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4817:Proliferation 4815: 4813: 4810: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4772: 4770: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4757: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4724: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4703:Brachytherapy 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4673: 4671: 4667: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4604: 4600: 4597: 4596: 4595: 4592: 4588: 4585: 4584: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4541: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4499:Cross section 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4481: 4479: 4477: 4473: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4444: 4443: 4440: 4439: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4400: 4396: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4379: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4323: 4318: 4316: 4311: 4309: 4304: 4303: 4300: 4293: 4292: 4287: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4277: 4273: 4271: 4269: 4261: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4230: 4227: 4222: 4220:9789251035788 4216: 4212: 4211: 4203: 4200: 4188: 4187:cfpub.epa.gov 4184: 4177: 4174: 4171: 4168: 4164: 4158: 4155: 4150: 4144: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4121:(4): 248–60. 4120: 4116: 4108: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4085:(8): 659–63. 4084: 4080: 4073: 4070: 4065: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4048:(8): 2930–3. 4047: 4043: 4039: 4032: 4030: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3994:(in German). 3993: 3992:Der Internist 3986: 3983: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3959: 3956: 3951: 3947: 3944:(1): 89–105. 3943: 3939: 3932: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3896:(9): 927–37. 3895: 3891: 3887: 3880: 3878: 3876: 3874: 3872: 3870: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3849: 3846: 3843: 3837: 3835: 3831: 3819: 3813: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3783: 3776: 3770: 3767: 3762: 3760:80-7302-053-X 3756: 3752: 3745: 3742: 3739: 3737: 3730: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3712: 3709: 3696: 3692: 3686: 3683: 3680: 3679: 3671: 3668: 3663: 3659: 3653: 3650: 3645: 3644:Nuclear Power 3641: 3635: 3632: 3616: 3609: 3603: 3600: 3587: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3491: 3488: 3483: 3479: 3473: 3470: 3465: 3459: 3456: 3452: 3446: 3443: 3436: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3416: 3409: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3391: 3387: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3352: 3348: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3339:lanthanum-140 3336: 3333: 3332: 3328: 3325: 3322: 3320: 3317: 3316: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3300: 3296: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3287:Ruthenium-103 3285: 3284: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3261: 3258: 3256: 3253: 3252: 3248: 3245: 3242: 3240: 3236: 3235:Ruthenium-106 3233: 3232: 3228: 3225: 3222: 3220: 3217: 3216: 3212: 3209: 3206: 3204: 3201: 3200: 3196: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3184: 3180: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3168: 3165: 3164: 3160: 3157: 3154: 3151: 3148: 3147: 3144: 3137: 3135: 3134:of the land. 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3076:ion-exchanger 3073: 3072:prussian blue 3069: 3064: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3049: 3048:dairy farming 3044: 3042: 3037: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3020: 3018: 3012: 3008: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2988: 2986: 2980: 2978: 2973: 2971: 2966: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2927: 2925: 2924:reagent-grade 2921: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2865: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2811: 2799: 2794: 2792: 2787: 2785: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2776: 2771: 2761: 2759: 2754: 2749: 2748: 2747: 2746: 2735: 2732: 2731: 2730: 2729: 2724: 2719: 2716: 2714: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2699: 2696: 2695: 2694: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2644: 2638: 2637: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2619: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2589:Water quality 2587: 2585: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2562: 2560: 2557: 2555: 2552: 2550: 2547: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2525: 2522: 2520: 2517: 2515: 2512: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2502: 2500: 2497: 2495: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2465: 2462: 2460: 2457: 2456: 2453: 2448: 2447: 2440: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2413: 2410: 2409: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2398: 2397: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2387: 2384: 2379: 2378: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2365:Traffic signs 2363: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2347: 2344: 2339: 2338: 2331: 2328: 2327: 2324: 2319: 2318: 2311: 2308: 2307: 2301: 2300: 2293: 2290: 2288: 2285: 2283: 2280: 2278: 2275: 2273: 2272:Nanomaterials 2270: 2268: 2265: 2263: 2260: 2258: 2255: 2253: 2250: 2248: 2245: 2243: 2240: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2209: 2203: 2202: 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2161: 2158: 2153: 2152: 2145: 2142: 2140: 2137: 2135: 2134:Radioactivity 2132: 2130: 2127: 2125: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2110: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2093: 2088: 2087: 2080: 2079:Soundproofing 2077: 2075: 2074:Noise control 2072: 2070: 2069:Noise barrier 2067: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2052: 2051: 2048: 2043: 2042: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2016: 2010: 2009: 2002: 1999: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1986: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1978: 1973: 1972: 1965: 1962: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1926: 1923: 1918: 1917: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1831: 1828: 1823: 1822: 1815: 1811: 1810: 1807: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1776: 1774: 1770: 1769:radioisotopes 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1718: 1713: 1706: 1702: 1699:The external 1697: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1670:nuclear waste 1667: 1663: 1656: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1644:pertechnetate 1637: 1629: 1627: 1625: 1624:technetium-99 1621: 1617: 1613: 1612:ruthenium-106 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1541: 1538: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1518:cross section 1515: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1498: 1494: 1486: 1484: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1397: 1396:fuel burns up 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1363: 1355: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1338:nuclear power 1335: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1287: 1285: 1283: 1277: 1275: 1274:shell effects 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1226: 1224: 1215: 1214:thorium cycle 1211: 1207: 1206:plutonium-239 1203: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1181: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1134: 1132: 1131:technetium-99 1128: 1124: 1116: 1114: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1087: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1047: 1043: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1017:radioactivity 1014: 1011:have varying 1010: 1009:radionuclides 1007:The produced 1005: 1003: 999: 998:antineutrinos 995: 991: 986: 984: 980: 976: 971: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 946:like that of 945: 941: 937: 926: 921: 919: 914: 912: 907: 906: 904: 903: 897: 887: 884: 879: 873: 872: 871: 870: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 704: 701: 696: 695: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 674: 671: 666: 665: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 642: 640: 639: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 620: 616: 615: 612: 609: 608: 605: 600: 595: 594: 587: 584: 580: 579:by cosmic ray 577: 576: 575: 572: 571: 565: 564: 555: 552: 550: 547: 546: 545: 542: 538: 535: 533: 530: 529: 528: 525: 521: 518: 517: 516: 513: 512: 506: 505: 498: 495: 491: 490:pair breaking 488: 487: 486: 483: 481: 478: 477: 474: 469: 468: 461: 458: 456: 455:Decay product 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 442: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 428:Cluster decay 426: 424: 421: 417: 414: 412: 409: 408: 407: 404: 402: 399: 395: 392: 388: 385: 384: 383: 380: 379: 378: 375: 373: 370: 369: 366: 361: 360: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 324: 318: 317: 308: 305: 304: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 284: 281: 277: 273: 272:Mirror nuclei 270: 269: 265: 262: 261: 258: 257: 254: − 253: 248: 245: 244: 241: 240: 235: 232: 231: 228: 227: 222: 219: 218: 214: 213: 208: 205: 204: 200: 195: 194: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 168: 165: 160: 159: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 143:Nuclear force 141: 139: 136: 132: 129: 127: 124: 123: 122: 119: 117: 114: 113: 112: 111: 107: 103: 102: 99: 95: 86: 83: 75: 72:November 2021 65: 61: 55: 54: 48: 43: 34: 33: 30: 19: 6177:Radiobiology 6123: 6111: 6092: 6072:Pyroelectric 6026:Laser-driven 5806:Sodium (SFR) 5733:fast-neutron 5572: 5118: 5008:Reprocessing 4954: 4889:WMD treaties 4708:Radiosurgery 4678:Fast-neutron 4650:Scintigraphy 4289: 4267: 4266:Paul Reuss, 4265: 4262:Bibliography 4247:. Retrieved 4243:the original 4238: 4229: 4209: 4202: 4190:. Retrieved 4186: 4176: 4157: 4143: 4118: 4114: 4107: 4082: 4078: 4072: 4045: 4041: 3995: 3991: 3985: 3971:(4): 453–6. 3968: 3964: 3958: 3941: 3937: 3893: 3889: 3861:(5), 715-722 3858: 3854: 3848: 3821:. Retrieved 3812: 3800: 3792: 3788: 3769: 3750: 3744: 3735: 3729: 3720: 3711: 3699:. Retrieved 3695:the original 3685: 3676: 3670: 3661: 3652: 3643: 3634: 3622:. Retrieved 3615:the original 3602: 3590:. Retrieved 3586:the original 3576: 3551: 3547: 3537: 3507:(1): 17–29. 3504: 3500: 3490: 3482:the original 3472: 3458: 3450: 3445: 3418: 3271:Strontium-89 3255:Zirconium-95 3167:Strontium-90 3141: 3105: 3065: 3045: 3039:through the 3033: 3021: 3017:carcinogenic 3013: 3009: 2989: 2981: 2974: 2967: 2963: 2928: 2909: 2905:Soviet Union 2866: 2843: 2807: 2677:Point source 2622:Heavy metals 2584:Urban runoff 2569:Sulfur water 2544:Septic tanks 2400:Agent Orange 2310:Space debris 2164:Agricultural 2113: 2029:Volcanic ash 1889:Particulates 1777: 1722: 1682: 1633: 1600:strontium-89 1592:zirconium-95 1573: 1546: 1542: 1535: 1514:samarium-149 1507: 1500: 1481:control rods 1461:strontium-90 1446: 1442:reactor core 1432:If the fuel 1431: 1411: 1400: 1392:control rods 1388:fire dampers 1365: 1322: 1291: 1278: 1254: 1232:through the 1227: 1219: 1212:used in the 1165: 1150: 1135: 1123:samarium-151 1120: 1100: 1088: 1057: 1039: 1025:strontium-90 1021:strontium-89 1006: 987: 972: 966:. (See also 963: 935: 934: 497:Photofission 484: 445:Decay energy 372:Alpha α 279: 275: 255: 251: 238: 225: 211: 78: 69: 50: 29: 5983:Stellarator 5947:confinement 5841:Superphénix 5668:Molten-salt 5620:VHTR (HTGR) 5397:HW BLWR 250 5363:R4 Marviken 5292:Pressurized 5262:Heavy water 5246:many others 5175:Pressurized 5130:Light water 4832:underground 4790:Disarmament 4698:Tomotherapy 4693:Proton-beam 4557:Power plant 4519:Temperature 4352:Engineering 4249:25 December 3239:rhodium-106 3187:Caesium-137 3161:absorption 3059:containing 3057:Fertilizers 2951:Perchlorate 2935:prophylaxis 2881:thyroiditis 2838:Downwinders 2836:. See also 2647:Area source 2489:Groundwater 2242:Green waste 2222:Brown waste 2206:Solid waste 1964:Information 1859:Exhaust gas 1757:ground zero 1725:uranium-235 1630:Application 1616:rhodium-106 1549:caesium-134 1469:noble gases 1453:caesium-137 1398:over time. 1366:Commercial 1350:reprocessed 1234:lanthanides 1210:uranium-233 1202:uranium-235 1200:fission of 1161:uranium ore 1084:alpha decay 1064:uranium-235 1042:atomic mass 802:Oppenheimer 480:Spontaneous 450:Decay chain 401:K/L capture 377:Beta β 247:Isodiaphers 171:Liquid drop 64:introducing 6141:Categories 6008:(acoustic) 5625:PBR (PBMR) 5013:Spent fuel 5003:Repository 4983:Fuel cycle 4950:Activation 4727:Processing 4594:Propulsion 4552:by country 4484:Activation 3437:References 3378:12.3 years 3355:Iodine-131 3335:Barium-140 3319:Cerium-141 3303:Niobium-95 3219:Cerium-144 3171:yttrium-90 3155:Half-life 3152:Radiation 3053:gamma rays 3041:food chain 2943:iodine-131 2939:iodine-127 2926:crystals. 2830:iodine-131 2810:Evacuation 2734:By country 2726:Categories 2617:Pollutants 2594:Wastewater 2564:Stagnation 2509:Monitoring 2484:Freshwater 2350:Air travel 2237:Food waste 2179:Defecation 1989:Ecological 1922:Biological 1854:Combustion 1794:Part of a 1773:half-lives 1685:adsorption 1604:cerium-144 1596:niobium-95 1588:cerium-141 1584:barium-140 1580:iodine-131 1497:Iodine pit 1477:krypton-90 1465:beta decay 1457:Iodine-129 1419:decay heat 1380:bromine-87 1360:See also: 1302:cosmic ray 1288:Production 1090:so-called 1076:beta decay 1013:half-lives 1002:gamma rays 990:beta decay 960:gamma rays 832:Strassmann 822:Rutherford 700:Scientists 655:Artificial 650:Cosmogenic 645:Primordial 641:Nuclides: 618:Processes: 574:Spallation 47:references 5978:Spheromak 5677:Fluorides 5341:IPHWR-700 5336:IPHWR-540 5331:IPHWR-220 5120:Moderator 4800:Explosion 4775:Arms race 4562:Economics 4514:Reflector 4509:Radiation 4504:Generator 4459:Plutonium 4412:Deuterium 4377:Radiation 4347:Chemistry 3795:, 323-329 3362:8.05 days 3346:12.8 days 3294:39.7 days 3246:1.0 years 3210:2.6 years 3120:potassium 3116:strontium 3102:Strontium 3068:livestock 3061:potassium 2959:goitrogen 2931:goitrogen 2897:Chernobyl 2662:Garbology 2579:Turbidity 2529:Oil spill 2479:Firewater 2464:Biosolids 2370:Vandalism 2129:Poisoning 2124:Plutonium 2099:Actinides 2092:Radiation 1834:Acid rain 1805:Pollution 1759:sites of 1737:strontium 1576:atom bomb 1510:xenon-135 1473:xenon-137 1427:Fukushima 1403:actinides 1266:actinides 1250:neodymium 1246:tellurium 1242:ruthenium 1238:strontium 1138:actinides 1111:half-life 1072:strontium 1068:zirconium 981:(90%) or 837:Świątecki 752:Pi. Curie 747:Fr. Curie 742:Ir. Curie 737:Cockcroft 712:Becquerel 633:Supernova 337:Drip line 332:p–n ratio 307:Borromean 186:Ab initio 6113:Category 6067:Polywell 5998:Inertial 5955:Magnetic 5710:TMSR-LF1 5705:TMSR-500 5685:Fuji MSR 5645:THTR-300 5485:Graphite 5348:PHWR KWU 5314:ACR-1000 5242:IPWR-900 5225:ACPR1000 5220:HPR-1000 5210:CPR-1000 5185:APR-1400 4976:Disposal 4928:Actinide 4921:Products 4780:Delivery 4623:Medicine 4452:depleted 4447:enriched 4417:Helium-3 4382:ionizing 4135:10224590 4099:11014310 4020:13214666 4012:16231171 3920:12204829 3857:, 2006, 3791:, 2004, 3701:15 April 3678:reactor. 3624:15 April 3529:93655149 3388:See also 3226:285 days 3194:30 years 3178:28 years 3149:Isotope 2947:isotopes 2869:isotopes 2860:and the 2718:Treaties 2698:Diseases 2554:Shipping 2519:Nutrient 2469:Diseases 2034:Wildfire 1755:and the 1753:accident 1434:cladding 1060:nucleons 1053:neutrons 979:helium-4 952:neutrons 896:Category 797:Oliphant 782:Lawrence 762:Davisson 732:Chadwick 628:Big Bang 515:electron 485:Products 406:Isomeric 297:Even/odd 274: – 249:– equal 236:– equal 234:Isotones 223:– equal 209:– equal 207:Isotopes 199:Nuclides 121:Nucleons 6125:Commons 6036:Z-pinch 6006:Bubble 5988:Tokamak 5851:FBR-600 5831:CFR-600 5826:BN-1200 5492:coolant 5419:Organic 5304:CANDU 9 5301:CANDU 6 5269:coolant 5230:ACP1000 5205:CAP1400 5143:Boiling 5108:Fission 4955:Fission 4899:Weapons 4839:Warfare 4822:Testing 4812:History 4805:effects 4760:Weapons 4670:Therapy 4645:RadBall 4632:Imaging 4524:Thermal 4489:Capture 4476:Neutron 4464:Thorium 4442:Uranium 4407:Tritium 4387:braking 4367:Fission 4357:Physics 4340:Science 4192:14 June 4079:Thyroid 4064:8768854 3977:4290684 3950:9549759 3911:1240994 3556:Bibcode 3509:Bibcode 3371:Tritium 3326:33 days 3310:35 days 3278:51 days 3262:65 days 3132:ecology 3112:calcium 3092:pigment 3080:cyanide 3030:Caesium 3007:drugs. 2873:thyroid 2612:History 2494:Hypoxia 2323:Thermal 2277:Plastic 2139:Uranium 2013:Natural 1958:Digital 1934:Genetic 1733:caesium 1565:neutron 1438:coolant 1306:apatite 1258:fissile 1046:fissile 983:tritium 948:uranium 944:nucleus 852:Thomson 842:Szilárd 812:Purcell 792:Meitner 727:N. Bohr 722:A. Bohr 707:Alvarez 623:Stellar 527:neutron 411:Gamma γ 264:Isomers 221:Isobars 116:Nucleus 60:improve 5936:Fusion 5896:Others 5836:Phénix 5821:BN-800 5816:BN-600 5811:BN-350 5640:HTR-PM 5635:HTR-10 5615:UHTREX 5580:Magnox 5575:(UNGG) 5468:Lucens 5463:KS 150 5200:ATMEA1 5180:AP1000 5163:Kerena 5043:Debate 4795:Ethics 4785:Design 4768:Topics 4599:rocket 4577:Fusion 4572:Policy 4534:Fusion 4494:Poison 4372:Fusion 4217: 4133: 4097: 4062: 4018: 4010: 3975: 3948: 3918: 3908: 3823:13 May 3757: 3592:13 May 3527: 3329:0.01% 3313:0.01% 3297:0.03% 3265:0.01% 3249:0.03% 3229:0.01% 3213:0.01% 3124:potash 3096:paints 3078:. The 3005:iodide 3001:iodate 2891:, and 2877:iodide 2820:Iodine 2672:Midden 2667:Legacy 2652:Debris 2606:Topics 2559:Sludge 2549:Sewage 2504:Marine 2343:Visual 2262:Mining 2257:Litter 1796:series 1745:barium 1729:iodine 1676:(e.g. 1652:anodic 1618:, and 1598:, and 1569:isobar 1561:isobar 1318:dating 1310:zircon 1080:proton 1000:, and 985:(7%). 894: 862:Wigner 857:Walton 847:Teller 777:Jensen 544:proton 287:Stable 49:, but 6057:Migma 6045:Other 6014:Fusor 5913:Piqua 5908:Arbus 5866:PRISM 5608:MHR-T 5603:GTMHR 5533:EGP-6 5528:AMB-X 5503:Water 5448:HWGCR 5387:HWLWR 5326:IPHWR 5297:CANDU 5158:ESBWR 4913:Waste 4877:Tests 4860:Lists 4844:Yield 4587:MMRTG 4544:Power 4016:S2CID 3618:(PDF) 3611:(PDF) 3525:S2CID 3410:Notes 3381:100% 3365:100% 3197:100% 2901:Mayak 2690:Lists 2682:Waste 2627:Paint 2452:Water 2304:Space 2047:Noise 2019:Ozone 1984:Light 1771:have 1741:xenon 1707:site. 1701:gamma 1691:Decay 1666:steel 1638:. TcO 1553:xenon 1344:or a 1308:and 1182:Yield 827:Soddy 807:Proca 787:Mayer 767:Fermi 717:Bethe 292:Magic 5873:Lead 5856:CEFR 5846:PFBR 5728:None 5538:RBMK 5523:AM-1 5453:EL-4 5427:WR-1 5409:AHWR 5353:MZFR 5321:CVTR 5310:AFCR 5237:VVER 5195:APWR 5190:APR+ 5153:ABWR 5023:cask 5018:pool 4960:LLFP 4849:TNTe 4529:Fast 4399:Fuel 4251:2012 4215:ISBN 4194:2019 4163:IAEA 4131:PMID 4095:PMID 4060:PMID 4008:PMID 3973:PMID 3946:PMID 3916:PMID 3825:2009 3780:and 3755:ISBN 3703:2018 3626:2018 3594:2009 3359:β, γ 3343:β, γ 3323:β, γ 3307:β, γ 3291:β, γ 3281:30% 3259:β, γ 3243:β, γ 3223:β, γ 3191:β, γ 3181:30% 3108:lime 2899:and 2657:Dust 2641:Misc 2157:Soil 1904:Soot 1899:Smog 1864:Haze 1743:and 1582:and 1512:and 1495:and 1425:and 1405:and 1230:zinc 1155:and 1049:atom 1029:beta 1023:and 817:Rabi 772:Hahn 682:RHIC 302:Halo 5945:by 5861:PFR 5652:PMR 5630:AVR 5552:Gas 5490:by 5458:KKN 5392:ATR 5307:EC6 5267:by 5215:EPR 5148:BWR 4123:doi 4087:doi 4050:doi 4000:doi 3906:PMC 3898:doi 3894:110 3859:166 3793:227 3564:doi 3517:doi 3349:5% 3066:In 3003:or 2993:ppm 2977:ppm 2949:). 2383:War 1827:Air 1664:on 1659:TcO 1467:of 1248:to 1240:to 1225:.) 1105:or 1086:.) 1062:in 970:). 687:LHC 601:and 6143:: 5595:He 5561:CO 5437:CO 5358:R3 4237:. 4185:. 4129:. 4119:41 4117:. 4093:. 4083:10 4081:. 4058:. 4046:81 4044:. 4040:. 4028:^ 4014:. 4006:. 3996:46 3967:. 3942:50 3940:. 3928:^ 3914:. 3904:. 3892:. 3888:. 3866:^ 3833:^ 3782:CH 3719:. 3660:. 3642:. 3562:. 3552:97 3550:. 3546:. 3523:. 3515:. 3505:75 3503:. 3499:. 3159:GI 3043:. 2907:. 2887:, 2852:, 1798:on 1739:, 1735:, 1731:, 1610:, 1590:, 1528:. 1483:. 1455:. 1429:. 1352:. 1276:. 1270:Fm 1204:, 1178:. 1163:. 1144:) 1098:. 996:, 554:rp 520:2× 387:0v 382:2β 278:↔ 5735:) 5731:( 5563:2 5515:O 5513:2 5511:H 5439:2 5379:O 5377:2 5375:H 5284:O 5282:2 5280:D 4321:e 4314:t 4307:v 4253:. 4196:. 4169:. 4151:. 4137:. 4125:: 4101:. 4089:: 4066:. 4052:: 4022:. 4002:: 3979:. 3969:2 3952:. 3922:. 3900:: 3827:. 3785:3 3778:2 3775:I 3763:. 3738:. 3723:. 3705:. 3664:. 3646:. 3628:. 3596:. 3570:. 3566:: 3558:: 3531:. 3519:: 3511:: 3375:β 3337:/ 3275:β 3237:/ 3207:β 3175:β 3169:/ 2854:I 2850:I 2840:. 2797:e 2790:t 2783:v 1661:2 1642:( 1640:4 1614:/ 1606:/ 1594:/ 1471:( 1216:. 924:e 917:t 910:v 549:p 537:r 532:s 394:β 280:N 276:Z 256:Z 252:N 239:N 226:A 212:Z 131:n 126:p 85:) 79:( 74:) 70:( 56:. 20:)

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