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information transfer (these would be simpler versions called "turret tables" in the Royal Navy). Guns could then be fired in planned salvos, with each gun giving a slightly different trajectory. Dispersion of shot caused by differences in individual guns, individual projectiles, powder ignition sequences, and transient distortion of ship structure was undesirably large at typical naval engagement ranges. Directors high on the superstructure had a better view of the enemy than a turret mounted sight, and the crew operating them were distant from the sound and shock of the guns. Gun directors were topmost, and the ends of their optical rangefinders protruded from their sides, giving them a distinctive appearance.
994:(HUD). The pipper shows the pilot where the target must be relative to the aircraft in order to hit it. Once the pilot maneuvers the aircraft so that the target and pipper are superimposed, he or she fires the weapon, or on some aircraft the weapon will fire automatically at this point, in order to overcome the delay of the pilot. In the case of a missile launch, the fire-control computer may give the pilot feedback about whether the target is in range of the missile and how likely the missile is to hit if launched at any particular moment. The pilot will then wait until the probability reading is satisfactorily high before launching the weapon.
633:, then "consented" to release the weapon, and the computer then did so at a calculated "release point" some seconds later. This is very different from previous systems, which, though they had also become computerized, still calculated an "impact point" showing where the bomb would fall if the bomb were released at that moment. The key advantage is that the weapon can be released accurately even when the plane is maneuvering. Most bombsights until this time required that the plane maintain a constant attitude (usually level), though dive-bombing sights were also common.
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telescope measured elevation and the other bearing. Rangefinder telescopes on a separate mounting measured the distance to the target. These measurements were converted by the Fire
Control Table into the bearings and elevations for the guns to fire upon. In the turrets, the gunlayers adjusted the elevation of their guns to match an indicator for the elevation transmitted from the Fire Control table—a turret layer did the same for bearing. When the guns were on target they were centrally fired.
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simultaneously, such as tracking the target or flying the aircraft. Even if the system is unable to aim the weapon itself, for example the fixed cannon on an aircraft, it is able to give the operator cues on how to aim. Typically, the cannon points straight ahead and the pilot must maneuver the aircraft so that it oriented correctly before firing. In most aircraft the aiming cue takes the form of a "
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725:. A conceptual diagram of the flow of fire control data in the Coast Artillery (in 1940). The set forward point of the target was generated by using the plotting board (1). This position was then corrected for factors affecting range and azimuth (2). Finally, fire was adjusted for observations of the actual fall of the shells (3), and new firing data were sent to the guns.
644:. The principle of calculating the release point, however, was eventually integrated into the fire control computers of later bombers and strike aircraft, allowing level, dive and toss bombing. In addition, as the fire control computer became integrated with ordnance systems, the computer can take the flight characteristics of the weapon to be launched into account.
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focus of battleship fleet operations. Corrections are made for surface wind velocity, firing ship roll and pitch, powder magazine temperature, drift of rifled projectiles, individual gun bore diameter adjusted for shot-to-shot enlargement, and rate of change of range with additional modifications to the firing solution based upon the observation of preceding shots.
254:, widely regarded as Britain's leading scientist first proposed using an analogue computer to solve the equations which arise from the relative motion of the ships engaged in the battle and the time delay in the flight of the shell to calculate the required trajectory and therefore the direction and elevation of the guns.
762:
bristled with a variety of armament, ranging from 12-inch coast defense mortars, through 3-inch and 6-inch mid-range artillery, to the larger guns, which included 10-inch and 12-inch barbette and disappearing carriage guns, 14-inch railroad artillery, and 16-inch cannon installed just prior to and up
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The use of director-controlled firing, together with the fire control computer, removed the control of the gun laying from the individual turrets to a central position; although individual gun mounts and multi-gun turrets would retain a local control option for use when battle damage limited director
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The increasing range of the guns also forced ships to create very high observation points from which optical rangefinders and artillery spotters could see the battle. The need to spot artillery shells was one of the compelling reasons behind the development of naval aviation and early aircraft were
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and range-finders can give the system the direction to and/or distance of the target. Alternatively, an optical sight can be provided that an operator can simply point at the target, which is easier than having someone input the range using other methods and gives the target less warning that it is
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Modern fire-control computers, like all high-performance computers, are digital. The added performance allows basically any input to be added, from air density and wind, to wear on the barrels and distortion due to heating. These sorts of effects are noticeable for any sort of gun, and fire-control
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Directors were largely unprotected from enemy fire. It was difficult to put much weight of armour so high up on the ship, and even if the armour did stop a shot, the impact alone would likely knock the instruments out of alignment. Sufficient armour to protect from smaller shells and fragments from
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for such factors as weather conditions, the condition of powder used, or the Earth's rotation. Provisions were also made for adjusting firing data for the observed fall of shells. As shown in Figure 2, all of these data were fed back to the plotting rooms on a finely tuned schedule controlled by a
170:
Naval gun fire control potentially involves three levels of complexity. Local control originated with primitive gun installations aimed by the individual gun crews. Director control aims all guns on the ship at a single target. Coordinated gunfire from a formation of ships at a single target was a
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The degree of updating varied by country. For example, the US Navy used servomechanisms to automatically steer their guns in both azimuth and elevation. The
Germans used servomechanisms to steer their guns only in elevation, and the British began to introduce Remote Power Control in elevation and
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travels, the more the wind, temperature, air density, etc. will affect its trajectory, so having accurate information is essential for a good solution. Sometimes, for very long-range rockets, environmental data has to be obtained at high altitudes or in between the launching point and the target.
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of the firing ship. Like the plotter, the primitive gyroscope of the time required substantial development to provide continuous and reliable guidance. Although the trials in 1905 and 1906 were unsuccessful, they showed promise. Pollen was encouraged in his efforts by the rapidly rising figure of
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Once the firing solution is calculated, many modern fire-control systems are also able to aim and fire the weapon(s). Once again, this is in the interest of speed and accuracy, and in the case of a vehicle like an aircraft or tank, in order to allow the pilot/gunner/etc. to perform other actions
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is an example of a system that was built to solve laying in "real time", simply by pointing the director at the target and then aiming the gun at a pointer it directed. It was also deliberately designed to be small and light, in order to allow it to be easily moved along with the guns it served.
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In a typical World War II British ship the fire control system connected the individual gun turrets to the director tower (where the sighting instruments were located) and the analogue computer in the heart of the ship. In the director tower, operators trained their telescopes on the target; one
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they were a critical part of an integrated fire-control system. The incorporation of radar into the fire-control system early in World War II provided ships the ability to conduct effective gunfire operations at long range in poor weather and at night. For U.S. Navy gun fire control systems, see
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Unmeasured and uncontrollable ballistic factors, like high-altitude temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, wind direction and velocity, required final adjustment through observation of the fall of shot. Visual range measurement (of both target and shell splashes) was difficult prior to the
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powered capital ships were capable of perhaps 16 knots, but the first large turbine ships were capable of over 20 knots. Combined with the long range of the guns, this meant that the target ship could move a considerable distance, several ship lengths, between the time the shells were fired and
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were examples of a system that predicted based upon the assumption that target speed, direction, and altitude would remain constant during the prediction cycle, which consisted of the time to fuze the shell and the time of flight of the shell to the target. The USN Mk 37 system made similar
178:, would then be fed back out to the turrets for laying. If the rounds missed, an observer could work out how far they missed by and in which direction, and this information could be fed back into the computer along with any changes in the rest of the information and another shot attempted.
142:
guns of much larger size firing explosive shells of lighter relative weight (compared to all-metal balls) so greatly increased the range of the guns that the main problem became aiming them while the ship was moving on the waves. This problem was solved with the introduction of the
629:(LABS), began to be integrated into the systems of aircraft equipped to carry nuclear armaments. This new bomb computer was revolutionary in that the release command for the bomb was given by the computer, not the pilot; the pilot designated the target using the radar or other
292:. It was also able to co-ordinate the fire of the turrets so that their combined fire worked together. This improved aiming and larger optical rangefinders improved the estimate of the enemy's position at the time of firing. The system was eventually replaced by the improved "
612:
units were added in the post-war period to automate even this input, but it was some time before they were fast enough to make the pilots completely happy with them. The first implementation of a centralized fire control system in a production aircraft was on the
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and automatic plot of ranges and rates for use in centralised fire control. To obtain accurate data of the target's position and relative motion, Pollen developed a plotting unit (or plotter) to capture this data. To this he added a gyroscope to allow for the
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began to become inadequate to describe the increasingly complicated functions of rangekeeper. The Mk 1 Ballistic
Computer was the first rangekeeper that was referred to as a computer. Note the three pistol grips in the foreground. Those fired the ship's
216:, typically with various spotters and distance measures being sent to a central plotting station deep within the ship. There the fire direction teams fed in the location, speed and direction of the ship and its target, as well as various adjustments for
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Meanwhile, a group led by Dreyer designed a similar system. Although both systems were ordered for new and existing ships of the Royal Navy, the Dreyer system eventually found most favour with the Navy in its definitive Mark IV* form. The addition of
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185:. It involved firing a gun at the target, observing the projectile's point of impact (fall of shot), and correcting the aim based on where the shell was observed to land, which became more and more difficult as the range of the gun increased.
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control facilitated a full, practicable fire control system for World War I ships, and most RN capital ships were so fitted by mid 1916. The director was high up over the ship where operators had a superior view over any gunlayer in the
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was discovered in 1992 and showed that the entire bow section of the ship was missing. The
Japanese during World War II did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy and were at a significant disadvantage.
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For a complete description of fire control in the Coast
Artillery, see "FM 4-15 Coast Artillery Field Manual-Seacoast Artillery Fire Control and Position Finding," U.S. War Department, Government Printing Office, Washington,
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The reasons were for this slow deployment are complex. As in most bureaucratic environments, institutional inertia and the revolutionary nature of the change required caused the major navies to move slow in adopting the
778:, connected to coast defense radars, began to replace optical observation and manual plotting methods in controlling coast artillery. Even then, the manual methods were retained as a back-up through the end of the war.
699:'s M-9 was an electronic analog fire-control computer that replaced complicated and difficult-to-manufacture mechanical computers (such as the Sperry M-7 or British Kerrison predictor). In combination with the VT
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guns had similar predictive problems, and were increasingly equipped with fire-control computers. The main difference between these systems and the ones on ships was size and speed. The early versions of the
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during a 1945 test was able to maintain an accurate firing solution on a target during a series of high-speed turns. It is a major advantage for a warship to be able to maneuver while engaging a target.
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For early background, see "Fire
Control and Position Finding: Background" by Bolling W. Smith in Mark Berhow, Ed., "American Seacoast Defenses: A Reference Guide," CDSG Press, McLean, VA, 2004, p. 257.
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developed for use on the
Fabrique Nationale F2000 bullpup assault rifle. Fire-control computers have gone through all the stages of technology that computers have, with some designs based upon
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was set aflame, suffered a number of explosions, and was scuttled by her crew. She had been hit by at least nine 16-inch (410 mm) rounds out of 75 fired (12% hit rate). The wreck of
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cruise missiles with less than 100 shells per plane (thousands were typical in earlier AA systems). This system was instrumental in the defense of London and
Antwerp against the V-1.
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The rangekeeper in this exercise maintained a firing solution that was accurate within a few hundred yards (or meters), which is within the range needed for an effective rocking
1722:
Wright, Christopher C. (2004). "Questions on the
Effectiveness of U.S. Navy Battleship Gunnery: Notes on the Origin of U.S. Navy Gun Fire Control System Range Keepers".
608:. The only manual "input" to the sight was the target distance, which was typically handled by dialing in the size of the target's wing span at some known range. Small
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that accepted altitude and airspeed information to predict and display the impact point of a bomb released at that time. The best known United States device was the
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Even with as much mechanization of the process, it still required a large human element; the
Transmitting Station (the room that housed the Dreyer table) for HMS
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independently developed the first such systems. Pollen began working on the problem after noting the poor accuracy of naval artillery at a gunnery practice near
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calibre by the 1890s. These guns were capable of such great range that the primary limitation was seeing the target, leading to the use of high masts on ships.
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972:, etc.) in order to cut down or eliminate the amount of information that must be manually entered in order to calculate an effective solution. Sonar, radar,
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would take one to two minutes to reach its target. Calculating the proper "lead" given the relative motion of the two vessels was very difficult, and
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Submarines were also equipped with fire control computers for the same reasons, but their problem was even more pronounced; in a typical "shot", the
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as a way to artillery spot. Even today, artillery spotting is an important part of directing gunfire, though today the spotting is often done by
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1919:
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353:. The former were less able to range on an indistinct target but easier on the operator over a long period of use, the latter the reverse.
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Although listed in Land based fire control section anti-aircraft fire control systems can also be found on naval and aircraft systems.
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220:, weather effects on the air, and other adjustments. Around 1905, mechanical fire control aids began to become available, such as the
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the aim with any hope of accuracy. Moreover, in naval engagements it is also necessary to control the firing of several guns at once.
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computers have started appearing on smaller and smaller platforms. Tanks were one early use that automated gun laying had, using a
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Accurate fire control systems were introduced in the early 20th century. Pictured, a cut-away view of a destroyer. The below deck
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147:, which corrected this motion and provided sub-degree accuracies. Guns were now free to grow to any size, and quickly surpassed
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113:). In fact, most naval engagements before 1800 were conducted at ranges of 20 to 50 yards (20 to 50 m). Even during the
756:, were used to estimate targets' positions and derive firing data for batteries of coastal guns assigned to interdict them.
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to measure turn rates, and moved the gunsight's aim-point to take this into account, with the aim point presented through a
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The early history of naval fire control was dominated by the engagement of targets within visual range (also referred to as
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deflection of 4-inch, 4.5-inch and 5.25-inch guns in 1942, according to Naval Weapons of WW2, by Campbell. For example
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data could be input to the rangekeeper. The effectiveness of this combination was demonstrated in November 1942 at the
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weapon engagement. These systems can be found on weapons ranging from small handguns to large artillery weapons.
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were increasingly unmanned, with gun laying controlled remotely from the ship's control centre using inputs from
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Rapid technical improvements in the late 19th century greatly increased the range at which gunfire was possible.
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897:—any kind of weapon that can have its launch or firing parameters varied. They are typically installed on
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232:, but these devices took a number of years to become widely deployed. These devices were early forms of
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in Boston Harbor for a summary of artillery assets and fire control systems typical of these defenses.
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being tracked. Typically, weapons fired over long ranges need environmental information—the farther a
748:) to find and track targets attacking American harbors. Data from these stations were then passed to
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1954:
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1636:"Fire-Control and Human-Computer Interaction: Towards a History of the Computer Mouse (1940-1965)"
1287:. The rocking salvo was used by the US Navy to get the final corrections needed to hit the target.
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During their long service life, rangekeepers were updated often as technology advanced, and by
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The last combat action for the analog rangekeepers, at least for the US Navy, was in the 1991
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Between Human and Machine: Feedback, Control, and Computing Before Cybernetics – Google Books
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began to be developed at the end of the 19th century and progressed on through World War II.
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and a barrel-distortion meter. Fire-control computers are useful not just for aiming large
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assumptions except that it could predict assuming a constant rate of altitude change. The
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279:. Pollen continued his work, with occasional tests carried out on Royal Navy warships.
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used to spot the naval gunfire points of impact. In some cases, ships launched manned
196:, were made in fire control. There were also procedural improvements, like the use of
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is shown in the centre of the drawing and is labelled "Gunnery Calculating Position".
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Fire control in the Coast Artillery became more and more sophisticated in terms of
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s 5.25-inch guns had been upgraded to full RPC in time for her Pacific deployment.
1024:
List of U.S. Army fire control and sighting material by supply catalog designation
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By the start of the Vietnam War, a new computerized bombing predictor, called the
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system to target, track, and hit a target. It performs the same task as a human
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system of time interval bells that rang throughout each harbor defense system.
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was used to direct air defense artillery since 1943. The MIT Radiation Lab's
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and 1905, numerous small improvements, such as telescopic sights and optical
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1597:"Design hindsight from the tail-gunner position of a WWII bomber, Part one"
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The LABS system was originally designed to facilitate a tactic called
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The performance of the analog computer was impressive. The battleship
1977:
1766:
1701:
Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer, Part III".
1065:"The Mechanical Analog Computers of Hannibal Ford and William Newell"
987:
937:
894:
874:
139:
1680:
Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer, Part II".
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were added to dramatically improve the speed of these calculations.
1578:
Naval Firepower: Battleship Guns and Gunnery in the Dreadnought Era
1409:"Defending the Superbomber: The B-29's Central Fire Control System"
982:
Often, satellites or balloons are used to gather this information.
87:
firing a weapon, but attempts to do so faster and more accurately.
51:
with its fire-control computer from World War II. Displayed in the
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1299:"The Evolution of Battleship Gunnery in the U.S. Navy, 1920–1945"
703:, this system accomplished the astonishing feat of shooting down
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to manually predict the position of a ship during an engagement.
2179:
1235:
For a description of an Admiralty Fire Control Table in action:
973:
914:
910:
898:
614:
1778:
1755:
BASIC programs for battleship and antiaircraft gun fire control
801:
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also made their appearance inside aircraft late in the war as
500:
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which greatly increased the performance of the ships. Earlier
135:
was often conducted at less than 100 yards (90 m) range.
640:, to allow the aircraft to remain out of range of a weapon's
106:
The original fire-control systems were developed for ships.
30:
For the process of suppressing or extinguishing a fire, see
1659:
Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer".
1329:"Located/Surveyed Shipwrecks of the Imperial Japanese Navy"
786:
Land based fire control systems can be used to aid in both
671:
661:, aircraft altitude performance had increased so much that
424:
Night naval engagements at long range became feasible when
1273:
Handbook of The Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mark I and I*
1112:"Chronology of the USS Monitor: From Inception to Sinking"
774:
It was only later in World War II that electro-mechanical
154:
Another technical improvement was the introduction of the
1709:(3). International Naval Research Organization: 221–233.
1688:(2). International Naval Research Organization: 164–201.
275:
and the Director of Naval Ordnance and Torpedoes (DNO),
67:) is a number of components working together, usually a
2216:
Armoured fighting vehicle vision and sighting equipment
1617:
The Great Gunnery Scandal — The Mystery of Jutland
1667:(1). International Naval Research Organization: 6–29.
2064:
RIM-174 Standard Extended Range Active Missile (SM-6)
695:
was the first radar system with automatic following,
181:
At first, the guns were aimed using the technique of
1333:
Mysteries/Untold Sagas Of The Imperial Japanese Navy
2149:
2072:
2036:
2006:
1970:
1963:
1907:
1866:
1810:
1595:Hans, Mort; Taranovich, Steve (10 December 2012).
740:Early systems made use of multiple observation or
451:at a range of 8,400 yards (7.7 km) at night.
1160:-class battleships involved in shore bombardment.
936:Fire-control systems are often interfaced with
752:, where analog mechanical devices, such as the
398:hits to other parts of the ship was the limit.
228:(which was also part of the Dreyer Table), and
1930:Joint Tactical Information Distribution System
1357:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. pp. 262–263.
2019:Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS)
1993:AN/SPY-6 Air and Missile Defense Radar (AMDR)
1790:
8:
1241:. Ahoy: Naval, Maritime, Australian History.
1187:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. pp. 25–28.
572:An early use of fire-control systems was in
345:availability of radar. The British favoured
1464:Bennett, "A History of Control Engineering"
836:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
535:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1967:
1797:
1783:
1775:
1435:"BLOW HOT-BLOW COLD - The M9 never failed"
1379:"Older weapons hold own in high-tech war"
1039:Tartar Guided Missile Fire Control System
856:Learn how and when to remove this message
555:Learn how and when to remove this message
782:Direct and indirect fire control systems
731:United States Army Coast Artillery Corps
1072:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
1058:
1056:
1054:
1050:
2236:Fire-control computers of World War II
1920:Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System
493:directed their last rounds in combat.
1407:Moore, Christopher (12 August 2020).
174:The resulting directions, known as a
7:
1118:. USS Monitor Center. Archived from
834:adding citations to reliable sources
735:Coast Artillery fire control systems
533:adding citations to reliable sources
2221:Applications of control engineering
2014:Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS)
1925:Active electronically scanned array
1559:Principles of Naval Weapons Systems
257:Pollen aimed to produce a combined
2024:Space Surveillance Telescope (SST)
588:World War II aerial gunnery sights
25:
2059:RIM-161 Standard Missile 3 (SM-3)
1482:See for example, the write-up on
1455:Baxter, "Scientists Against Time"
806:
689:M-9/SCR-584 Anti-Aircraft System
653:Anti-aircraft based fire control
505:
208:Then increasingly sophisticated
79:, which is designed to assist a
1767:National Fire Control Symposium
929:which were later replaced with
349:while the Germans favoured the
306:in the transmitting station of
27:Ranged weapon assistance system
1998:Sea-based X-band Radar (SBX-1)
1531:Naval Weapons of World War Two
1510:Baxter, James Phinney (1946).
296:" for ships built after 1927.
1:
1514:. Little, Brown and Company.
1413:National Air and Space Museum
1034:Ship gun fire-control systems
483:when the rangekeepers on the
361:Ford Mk 1 Ballistic Computer.
335:ship gun fire-control systems
2125:Mark 8 Fire Control Computer
2120:Mark I Fire Control Computer
2105:Comprehensive Display System
1858:Ship gun fire-control system
1385:. 1991-02-10. Archived from
1239:"A Glimpse at Naval Gunnery"
990:" which is projected on the
714:Coast artillery fire control
576:, with the use of computing
394:s main guns housed 27 crew.
324:Ship gun fire-control system
304:Admiralty Fire Control Table
294:Admiralty Fire Control Table
163:landed. One could no longer
97:Ship gun fire-control system
1552:. The Lord Baltimore Press.
1171:US Naval Fire Control, 1918
798:Modern fire control systems
627:Low Altitude Bombing System
497:Aircraft based fire control
430:Third Battle of Savo Island
2252:
2100:Naval Tactical Data System
1805:NATO naval weapons systems
1557:Frieden, David R. (1985).
950:infra-red search and track
760:U.S. Coast Artillery forts
321:
94:
29:
2175:
1838:Combat information center
1576:Friedman, Norman (2008).
1561:. Naval Institute Press.
1533:. Naval Institute Press.
1415:. Smithsonian Institution
1355:Between Human and Machine
1327:Anthony P. Tully (2003).
1185:Between Human and Machine
668:High Angle Control System
621:Post-World War II systems
592:Simple systems, known as
212:were employed for proper
2138:USN early guided weapons
1548:Fairfield, A.P. (1921).
1445:(12): 454–456. Dec 1946.
1439:Bell Laboratories Record
1305:(3): 255. Archived from
1146:unmanned aerial vehicles
568:World War II bomb sights
347:coincidence rangefinders
1615:Pollen, Antony (1980).
1529:Campbell, John (1985).
1512:Scientists Against Time
1353:Mindell, David (2002).
1183:Mindell, David (2002).
648:Land based fire control
600:. These devices used a
244:Frederic Charles Dreyer
149:10 inches (250 mm)
2049:RIM-67 Standard (SM-2)
1894:Close-in weapon system
1226:Pollen 'Gunnery' p. 36
1217:Pollen 'Gunnery' p. 23
1148:. For example, during
1063:A. Ben Clymer (1993).
1029:Predicted impact point
877:, but also for aiming
768:correcting firing data
763:through World War II.
726:
410:
378:torpedo data computers
369:
314:
210:mechanical calculators
56:
2157:Ground-based systems:
2090:Torpedo Data Computer
2080:Radar in World War II
1724:Warship International
1703:Warship International
1682:Warship International
1661:Warship International
1303:Warship International
1297:Jurens, W.J. (1991).
1156:spotted fire for the
1009:Counter-battery radar
721:
594:lead computing sights
404:
359:
302:
40:
18:Fire control computer
2226:Artillery components
1142:observation balloons
1116:The Mariner's Museum
830:improve this section
529:improve this section
273:Arthur Knyvet Wilson
160:reciprocating engine
2211:Artillery operation
2115:Specific equipment:
1955:List of radar types
1935:Historical systems:
1915:Aegis Combat System
1833:Director (military)
1823:Fire-control system
1646:on 15 February 2020
1640:Stanford University
1383:Dallas Morning News
1335:. CombinedFleet.com
1014:Director (military)
954:laser range-finders
923:analogue technology
476:and other sources.
259:mechanical computer
61:fire-control system
53:Canadian War Museum
2206:Military computers
2167:Kerrison Predictor
1828:Fire-control radar
1760:2012-10-03 at the
1019:Fire-control radar
1004:Target acquisition
917:—for example, the
776:gun data computers
727:
681:Kerrison Predictor
411:
370:
315:
190:American Civil War
183:artillery spotting
115:American Civil War
91:Naval fire control
57:
2231:Coastal artillery
2193:
2192:
2162:Gun data computer
2032:
2031:
1587:978-1-84415-701-3
1169:See, for example
1084:10.1109/85.207741
913:and even on some
881:, small cannons,
871:laser rangefinder
866:
865:
858:
742:base end stations
565:
564:
557:
351:stereoscopic type
119:famous engagement
69:gun data computer
16:(Redirected from
2243:
2142:
2136:
2054:MIM-104F (PAC-3)
1968:
1908:Specific systems
1799:
1792:
1785:
1776:
1739:
1718:
1697:
1676:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1642:. Archived from
1630:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1591:
1572:
1553:
1544:
1525:
1497:
1493:
1487:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1462:
1456:
1453:
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1404:
1398:
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1395:
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1375:
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1350:
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1315:
1314:
1294:
1288:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1263:
1261:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1237:Cooper, Arthur.
1233:
1227:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1180:
1174:
1167:
1161:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1108:
1102:
1101:
1099:
1098:
1069:
1060:
992:heads-up display
919:grenade launcher
861:
854:
850:
847:
841:
810:
802:
687:The radar-based
657:By the start of
631:targeting system
582:Norden bombsight
560:
553:
549:
546:
540:
509:
501:
481:Persian Gulf War
393:
21:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2171:
2145:
2140:
2134:
2068:
2044:Harpoon missile
2028:
2002:
1959:
1903:
1879:Guided missiles
1874:Naval artillery
1862:
1806:
1803:
1772:
1762:Wayback Machine
1746:
1721:
1700:
1679:
1658:
1649:
1647:
1633:
1627:
1614:
1605:
1603:
1594:
1588:
1575:
1569:
1556:
1547:
1541:
1528:
1522:
1509:
1506:
1504:Further reading
1501:
1500:
1494:
1490:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1433:
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1195:
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1123:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1096:
1094:
1067:
1062:
1061:
1052:
1047:
1000:
883:guided missiles
862:
851:
845:
842:
827:
811:
800:
784:
716:
697:Bell Laboratory
655:
650:
623:
606:reflector sight
590:
574:bomber aircraft
570:
561:
550:
544:
541:
526:
510:
499:
466:
407:analog computer
391:
326:
320:
218:Coriolis effect
206:
198:plotting boards
176:firing solution
104:
99:
93:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2074:
2070:
2069:
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2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2037:Naval missiles
2034:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1952:
1950:List of radars
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
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1868:
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1855:
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1804:
1802:
1801:
1794:
1787:
1779:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1752:
1745:
1744:External links
1742:
1741:
1740:
1719:
1698:
1677:
1656:
1631:
1625:
1612:
1592:
1586:
1573:
1567:
1554:
1550:Naval Ordnance
1545:
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1502:
1499:
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1488:
1475:
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1457:
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1103:
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1016:
1011:
1006:
999:
996:
864:
863:
814:
812:
805:
799:
796:
783:
780:
754:plotting board
750:plotting rooms
715:
712:
701:proximity fuze
670:, or HACS, of
654:
651:
649:
646:
622:
619:
598:gyro gunsights
589:
586:
569:
566:
563:
562:
513:
511:
504:
498:
495:
465:
462:
417:North Carolina
322:Main article:
319:
316:
205:
202:
103:
100:
92:
89:
49:88 mm Flak gun
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2248:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
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2186:
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2178:
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2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2095:Ship systems:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2062:
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2042:
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2035:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2005:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1975:
1973:
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1966:
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1956:
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1951:
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1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1889:Depth charges
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1856:
1854:
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1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1818:Naval warfare
1816:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1800:
1795:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1781:
1780:
1777:
1773:
1768:
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1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1626:0-00-216298-9
1622:
1618:
1613:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1568:0-87021-537-X
1564:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1542:
1540:0-87021-459-4
1536:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1521:0-26252-012-5
1517:
1513:
1508:
1507:
1503:
1492:
1489:
1485:
1479:
1476:
1470:
1467:
1461:
1458:
1452:
1449:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1427:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1400:
1389:on 2006-10-06
1388:
1384:
1380:
1374:
1371:
1366:
1364:0-8018-8057-2
1360:
1356:
1349:
1346:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1320:
1309:on 2006-11-20
1308:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1271:B.R. 901/43,
1268:
1265:
1258:
1257:
1248:
1245:
1240:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1194:0-8018-8057-2
1190:
1186:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1136:
1133:
1122:on 2006-07-13
1121:
1117:
1113:
1107:
1104:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1066:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1001:
997:
995:
993:
989:
983:
980:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
934:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
860:
857:
849:
839:
835:
831:
825:
824:
820:
815:This section
813:
809:
804:
803:
797:
795:
793:
792:Indirect fire
789:
781:
779:
777:
772:
769:
764:
761:
757:
755:
751:
747:
743:
738:
736:
732:
724:
720:
713:
711:
708:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
685:
682:
677:
673:
669:
664:
663:anti-aircraft
660:
652:
647:
645:
643:
639:
634:
632:
628:
620:
618:
616:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
587:
585:
583:
579:
575:
567:
559:
556:
548:
538:
534:
530:
524:
523:
519:
514:This section
512:
508:
503:
502:
496:
494:
492:
489:
487:
482:
477:
475:
471:
468:By the 1950s
463:
461:
458:
454:
450:
449:
445:
442:
438:
437:
431:
427:
422:
419:
418:
408:
403:
399:
395:
390:
385:
381:
379:
375:
366:
362:
358:
354:
352:
348:
342:
338:
336:
331:
325:
317:
312:
311:
305:
301:
297:
295:
291:
286:
280:
278:
277:John Jellicoe
274:
270:
269:Jackie Fisher
265:
260:
255:
253:
249:
245:
241:
240:Arthur Pollen
237:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
203:
201:
199:
195:
191:
186:
184:
179:
177:
172:
168:
166:
161:
157:
156:steam turbine
152:
150:
146:
141:
136:
134:
133:
127:
126:
120:
116:
112:
107:
101:
98:
90:
88:
86:
82:
81:ranged weapon
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
54:
50:
47:
46:anti-aircraft
44:
39:
33:
19:
2185:Naval combat
2156:
2141:}}
2135:{{
2129:
2114:
2094:
1944:
1934:
1852:
1822:
1771:
1730:(1): 55–78.
1727:
1723:
1706:
1702:
1685:
1681:
1664:
1660:
1648:. Retrieved
1644:the original
1639:
1634:Roch, Axel.
1616:
1604:. Retrieved
1600:
1580:. Seaforth.
1577:
1558:
1549:
1530:
1511:
1491:
1484:Fort Andrews
1478:
1469:
1460:
1451:
1442:
1438:
1429:
1417:. Retrieved
1412:
1402:
1391:. Retrieved
1387:the original
1382:
1373:
1354:
1348:
1337:. Retrieved
1332:
1322:
1311:. Retrieved
1307:the original
1302:
1292:
1279:
1272:
1267:
1255:
1247:
1231:
1222:
1213:
1203:
1184:
1178:
1165:
1157:
1150:Desert Storm
1135:
1124:. Retrieved
1120:the original
1115:
1106:
1095:. Retrieved
1078:(2): 19–34.
1075:
1071:
984:
966:thermometers
935:
927:vacuum tubes
879:machine guns
867:
852:
843:
828:Please help
816:
785:
773:
765:
758:
745:
739:
728:
722:
709:
686:
659:World War II
656:
642:blast radius
638:toss bombing
635:
624:
593:
591:
571:
551:
542:
527:Please help
515:
485:
478:
467:
456:
452:
447:
439:engaged the
435:
423:
416:
412:
396:
388:
386:
382:
371:
364:
360:
343:
339:
330:World War II
327:
318:World War II
309:
281:
256:
238:
234:rangekeepers
222:Dreyer Table
207:
194:rangefinders
188:Between the
187:
180:
175:
173:
169:
164:
153:
137:
131:
124:
108:
105:
64:
60:
58:
32:Fire control
2085:Rangekeeper
1899:Naval mines
1853:Historical:
1619:. Collins.
1208:technology.
958:anemometers
931:transistors
788:Direct fire
491:battleships
470:gun turrets
365:rangekeeper
252:Lord Kelvin
204:World War I
111:direct fire
2200:Categories
2073:Historical
1393:2006-09-30
1339:2006-09-26
1313:2006-10-18
1126:2006-08-26
1097:2006-08-26
1045:References
970:barometers
962:wind vanes
925:and later
915:small arms
903:submarines
676:Royal Navy
578:bombsights
444:battleship
436:Washington
271:, Admiral
230:Argo Clock
214:gun laying
95:See also:
2130:Navboxes:
1940:Nike Zeus
1884:Torpedoes
1736:0043-0374
1715:0043-0374
1694:0043-0374
1673:0043-0374
1650:18 August
1606:18 August
1419:18 August
1254:HMS
940:(such as
846:July 2019
817:does not
602:gyroscope
516:does not
464:Post-1945
457:Kirishima
453:Kirishima
448:Kirishima
434:USS
432:when the
415:USS
363:The name
250:in 1900.
145:gyroscope
130:CSS
123:USS
1988:AN/SPY-3
1983:AN/SPY-1
1758:Archived
998:See also
979:munition
907:aircraft
891:grenades
746:Figure 1
723:Figure 2
545:May 2008
441:Japanese
285:director
267:Admiral
226:Dumaresq
132:Virginia
121:between
73:director
2150:Related
2007:Optical
1964:Sensors
1867:Weapons
1811:General
1707:XXXVIII
1686:XXXVIII
1665:XXXVIII
1092:6500043
938:sensors
895:rockets
875:cannons
838:removed
823:sources
729:In the
693:SCR-584
672:Britain
537:removed
522:sources
374:torpedo
310:Belfast
290:turrets
165:eyeball
125:Monitor
102:Origins
1978:OPS-24
1945:Lists:
1734:
1713:
1692:
1671:
1623:
1584:
1565:
1537:
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