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405:. Although both sides demonstrated early on in the conflict that they could use the technique effectively, in many subsequent battles, British commanders nonetheless ordered artillery to be "less timid" and to move forward to address troops' concerns about their guns abandoning them. The British used improvised gun arcs with howitzers; the sighting arrangements used by the Boers with their German and French guns is unclear.
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concealment aspect remains important, but from World War I equally important was the capability to concentrate the fire of many artillery batteries at the same target or set of targets. This became increasingly important as the range of artillery increased, allowing each battery to have an ever-greater area of influence, but required command and control arrangements to enable concentration of fire. The physical laws of
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for elevation already existed. The
Germans solved this problem by inventing the lining-plane in about 1890. This was a gun-mounted rotatable open sight, mounted in alignment with the bore, and able to measure large angles from it. Similar designs, usually able to measure angles in a full circle, were
483:
Indirect fire needs a command and control arrangement to allot guns to targets and direct their fire. The latter may involve ground or air observers or technical devices and systems. Observers report where shots fall so that aim may be corrected. In the First World War an important task for aircraft
408:
The early goniometric devices suffered from the problem that the layer (gun aimer) had to move around to look through the sight. This was very unsatisfactory if the aiming point was not to the front, particularly on larger guns. The solution was a periscopic panoramic sight, with the eyepiece to the
256:
NATO defines indirect fire as "Fire delivered at a target which cannot be seen by the aimer." The implication is that azimuth and/or elevation 'aiming' is done using instrumental methods. Hence indirect fire means applying 'firing data' to azimuth and elevation sights and laying these sights. Longer
519:
The other method was to set the sight at the actual grid bearing in which the gun was oriented, and firing data was the actual bearing to the target. The latter reduces sources of mistakes and made it easier to check that the guns were correctly laid. By the late 1950s, most armies had adopted the
424:
to measure a vertical angle from the horizontal plane. These could be separate instruments placed on a surface parallel to the axis of the bore or physically integrated into some form of sight mount. Some guns had clinometers graduated in distances instead of angles. Clinometers had several other
317:
were fired indirectly because their fixed elevation meant range was determined by the amount of propelling powder. It is also reasonable conjecture that if these mortars were used from inside fortifications their targets may have been invisible to them and therefore met the definition of indirect
270:
It is reasonable to assume that original purpose of indirect fire was to enable fire from a 'covered position', one where gunners can not be seen and engaged by their enemies (that and as the range of artillery lengthened, it was impossible to see the target past all the intervening terrain). The
476:(United States), became widespread and eventually the primary method of orienting guns in most if not all armies. After being oriented and pointed in the required direction a gun recorded angles to one or more aiming points. Such early directors were the progenitors of the later general class of
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that described a better method of indirect laying (instead of aiming points in line with the target). In essence, this was the geometry of using angles to aiming points that could be in any direction relative to the target. The problem was the lack of an azimuth instrument to enable it;
283:, without moving the firers. If the target cannot be seen from the gun position, there has to be a means of identifying targets and correcting aim according to fall of shot. The position of some targets may be identified by a headquarters from various sources of information (spotters):
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There are two approaches to the azimuth that orients the guns of a battery for indirect fire. Originally "zero", meaning 6400 mils, 360 degrees or their equivalent, was set at whatever the direction the oriented gun was pointed. Firing data was a deflection or switch from this zero.
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means that guns firing larger and heavier projectile can send them farther than smaller-calibre guns firing lighter shells. By the end of the 20th century, the typical maximum range for the most common guns was about 24 to 30 km, up from about 8 km in World War I.
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rear and the rotatable top of the sight above the height of the layer's head. The German Goertz 1906 design was selected by both the
British and the Russians. The British adopted the name "Dial Sight" for this instrument; the US used "Panoramic Telescope"; the Russia used "
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provided a means of pointing gun or launcher in any required azimuth and elevation, thereby enabling indirect fire without using external aiming points. These devices use gyros in all three axes to determine current elevation, azimuth and trunnion tilt.
509:, originally called "map shooting", was introduced in World War I. It means that firing data is calculated to include corrections for the current prevailing conditions. It requires the target location to be precisely known relative to the gun location.
232:
is affected by atmospheric conditions, the velocity of the projectile, the difference in altitude between the firer and the target, and other factors. Direct fire sights may include mechanisms to compensate for some of these.
488:. In naval use several ships may be shooting at the same target, making identifying the fall of shot from a particular ship difficult; different-coloured dyes for each ship were often used to help with spotting.
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Fire may be "adjusted" or "predicted". Adjusting (originally "ranging") means some form of observation is used to correct the fall of shot onto the target; this may be required for several possible reasons:
425:
names including "gunner's level", "range scale", "elevation drum" and "gunner’s quadrant" and several different configurations. Those graduated in ranges were specific to a type of gun.
401:
The first incontrovertible, documented use of indirect fire in war using Guk's methods, albeit without lining-plane sights, was on 26 October 1899 by
British gunners during the
174:(although field artillery was originally and until after World War I a direct fire weapon, hence the bullet-shields fitted to the carriages of guns such as the famous
333:) in the 16th century introduced indirect fire guns because it enabled gunlaying by instrument instead of line of sight. This instrument was basically a carpenter's
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Adjusted and predicted fire are not mutually exclusive, the former may use predicted data and the latter may need adjusting in some circumstances.
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in 1759 where they fired over trees, and their instructions of the time indicate this was a normal practice. These methods probably involved an
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464:, or at least towards a target area. Initially, the angle between the aiming point and target area is deduced, or estimated, and set on the
123:
468:. Each gun is then laid on the aiming point, with this angle in order to keep them aimed roughly parallel to each other. However, for
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barrage against advancing French troops using corrections given by the commander of an adjacent battery with a direct line of sight.
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positioned in line with the target. The earliest example of indirect fire adjusted by an observer seems to be during the defence of
108:
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During World War I, covered positions moved farther back and indirect fire evolved to allow any point within range to be attacked,
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In the vertical plane (elevation), which is governed by the distance (range) to the target and the energy of the propelling charge.
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Calling and adjusting indirect artillery fire on a target unseen to the soldiers manning the guns, a modern United States example
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immensely simplified reporting, and enabled many widely dispersed firers to concentrate their fire on one target.
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Indirect arrow fire by archers was commonly used by ancient armies. It was used during both battles and sieges.
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range uses a higher trajectory, and in theory maximum range is achieved with an elevation angle of 45 degrees.
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These arrangements lasted for most of the 20th century until robust, reliable and cost-effectively accurate
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widely adopted over the following decade. By the early 1900s the open sight was sometimes replaced by a
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Modern indirect fire dates from the late 19th century. In 1882 a
Russian, Lt Col K. G. Guk, published
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The
History of the Royal Artillery from the Indian Mutiny to the Great War, Vol II, 1899–1914
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placed in the muzzle to measure an elevation. There are suggestions, based on an account in
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The trajectory of the projectile could not be altered once fired, until the introduction of
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779:"Definitions and Information about Naval Guns - Ammunition Definitions - Splash Colors"
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When Reason Fails: Portraits of Armies at War: America, Britain, Israel and the Future
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Lightning Over Water: Sharpening
America's Light Forces for Rapid-Reaction Missions
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Before a gun or launcher can be aimed, it must be oriented towards a known
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in the 16th century. The
Russians seem to have used something similar at
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Indirect fire trajectories for rockets, howitzers, field guns and mortars
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geospatial relationship between gun and target is not accurately known;
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another instrument, called either a director (United
Kingdom) or
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bearing method, the notable exception being the United States.
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good quality data for prevailing conditions is unavailable; or
241:, machine guns, anti-tank guns, tank main guns, many types of
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737:: discussed during the account of the Hougoumont action.
538: – Process of aiming an artillery piece or turret
690:, Brigadier O. F. G. Hogg, 1970, C. Hurst and Company
214:and by anti-aircraft guns against surface targets.
715:"Red God of War" Soviet Artillery and Rocket Forces
202:, naval guns against shore targets, sometimes with
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
803:Red God of War" Soviet Artillery and Rocket Forces
349:of March 1908, that indirect fire was used by the
142:between the gun and its target, as in the case of
630:Artillery: An Illustrated History of its Impact
249:are examples of weapons primarily designed for
727:Against All Odds!: Dramatic Last Stand Actions
16:Weapons firing without line of sight on target
217:There are two dimensions in aiming a weapon:
158:the fall of shot and calculating new angles.
8:
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532: – Precision-guided artillery munition
382:Field Artillery Fire from Covered Positions
606:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 24.
484:— both heavier-than-air or balloons — was
688:Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline
502:the target is moving or expected to move.
138:a projectile without relying on a direct
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
398:had replaced "lining-plane" in English.
553:
452:plots the direction and elevation of a
166:Indirect fire is most commonly used by
705:, Major General Sir John Headlam, 1934
562:NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions
221:In the horizontal plane (azimuth); and
146:. Aiming is performed by calculating
7:
345:published in 1561 and reproduced in
154:, and may include correcting aim by
47:adding citations to reliable sources
287:on the ground, in aircraft, or in
178:75 mm). It is also used with
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579:. Rand Corporation. p. 196.
530:Cannon-launched guided projectile
777:DiGiulian, Tony (2 March 2021).
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729:. Perret, Brian. Cassell 2000.
34:needs additional citations for
756:. Backintyme. pp. 28–33.
753:The Evolution of Indirect Fire
416:Elevations were measured by a
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321:It could also be argued that
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600:Michael Goodspeed (2002).
633:. ABC-CLIO. p. 242.
337:with a graduated arc and
206:, and has been used with
192:multiple rocket launchers
293:electrical communication
750:Frank W. Sweet (2000).
573:John Matsumura (2000).
369:where a battery of the
245:, and guns mounted in
800:Chris Bellamy (1986).
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313:For several centuries
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717:, Chris Bellamy, 1986
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371:Royal Horse Artillery
291:. The development of
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627:Jeff Kinard (2007).
542:Prism paralleloscope
447:United States Marine
325:'s invention of the
289:observation balloons
43:improve this article
831:Artillery operation
655:Gabriel, Richard A.
420:, a device using a
486:artillery spotting
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373:fired an indirect
367:Battle of Waterloo
347:Revue d'Artillerie
343:Livre de Canonerie
281:firepower mobility
268:
200:ballistic missiles
129:
735:978-0-304-35456-6
674:978-0-313-33348-4
660:The Ancient World
640:978-1-85109-556-8
327:gunner's quadrant
323:Niccolò Tartaglia
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315:Coehorn mortars
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228:The projectile
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437:Related issues
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41:Please help
36:verification
33:
387:clinometers
351:Burgundians
162:Description
152:inclination
144:direct fire
794:References
536:Gun laying
430:gyroscopes
418:clinometer
396:goniometer
363:Hougoumont
335:set square
331:clinometer
273:ballistics
230:trajectory
69:newspapers
548:Footnotes
478:directors
470:artillery
392:telescope
339:plumb-bob
285:observers
184:howitzers
156:observing
825:Category
783:NavWeaps
657:(2007).
524:See also
375:Shrapnel
247:aircraft
235:Handguns
180:missiles
99:May 2009
462:azimuth
365:in the
355:Paltzig
306:History
172:mortars
148:azimuth
83:scholar
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560:AAP-6
454:mortar
318:fire.
253:fire.
251:direct
239:rifles
136:firing
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329:(see
176:M1897
90:JSTOR
76:books
808:ISBN
758:ISBN
731:ISBN
669:ISBN
635:ISBN
608:ISBN
581:ISBN
237:and
210:and
208:tank
170:and
150:and
62:news
413:".
45:by
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742:^
695:^
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445:A
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87:·
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