415:
497:
427:
535:
474:
273:
249:
261:
198:, is laboriously washed, pounded and hand wrung to make soft for the skin. It is difficult to dye fibres made from harakeke, however paru (an iron-rich mud) can be used to dye the fabric black. The cords (muka whenu) form the base cloth for intricate cloaks or garments (kākahu) such as the highly prized traditional feather cloak (kahu huruhuru). Different type of cloaks, such as kahu kiwi and kahu kākā, were produced by adorning them with colourful feathers from different native birds, such as
569:
285:
116:
33:
1814:
470:
an engineman £1 15; 12 lads @ 12s, £7 4s; 24 tons of green flax @ 15s £18; packing, baling, etc. £4; 2 tons 8cwt. of coal, £2 8s and freight etc., £5. Machinery was estimated at £500 – 8 hp engine with
Cornish boiler £200; 4 strippers @ £22, £88; scutching hooks, £15; a screw press £12; building £185.
919:
every man in a native hapu of, say a hundred men, was absolutely forced on pain of death to procure a musket and ammunition at any cost, and at the earliest possible moment (for, if they did not procure them, extermination was their doom by the hands of those of their country-men who had), the effect
492:
built almost 100 flax machines in 1868 and, by August 1869, had sold 166. The fibre was coarser than hand-stripped flax, but by 1868 machines could produce about 250 kg (550 lb) per day, compared to about 1 kg (2.2 lb) by hand stripping. Improvements by 1910 increased that to 1.27
469:
In boom times flax was profitable. An 1870 news item said an acre, with 2 crops a year, could produce 2 tons of fibre, equating to £40 a year, or a net profit of £27 0s 3d, the cost being estimated at £12 19s 9d. For 4 tons the cost was calculated as depreciation 12s, 8 men's wages @ 25s a week, £10;
387:
was one of the largest customers. The flax trade burgeoned, especially after male Māori recognised the advantages of trade and adapted to helping in the harvesting and dressing of flax which had previously been done exclusively by females. Driven by the desperate need for muskets and ammunition, many
446:
From about the 1860s there was an active industry harvesting and processing flax for export, peaking at 32,000 tons in 1916, but the general depression of the 1930s brought the virtual collapse of this trade. In 1963 there were still 14 flax mills producing a total of almost 5,000 tons of fibre per
304:
For centuries, Māori have used nectar from the flowers for medicinal purposes and as a general sweetener. Boiled and crushed harakeke roots were applied externally as a poultice for boils, tumours and abscesses, as well as to varicose ulcers. Juice from pounded roots was used as a disinfectant, and
185:
Plaiting and weaving (raranga) the flax fibres into baskets were but only two of the great variety of uses made of flax by Māori who recognised nearly 60 varieties, and who carefully propagated their own flax nurseries and plantations throughout the land. Leaves were cut near the base of the plant
580:
By 1890 3,198 people were employed, but average pay was only £73 a year, among the lowest of average wage rates at the time. There were also frequent cases of workers caught in machines. Initially unions were resisted, as in the report of an 1891 strike, which said, "Mr Hall intends to proceed to
241:
which could be over one thousand metres long. The nets were woven from green flax, with stone weights and light wood or gourd floats, and could require hundreds of men to haul. It was also used to make rigging, sails and lengthy anchor warps, and roofs for housing. Frayed ends of flax leaves were
321:, and Māori traditionally applied the sap to boils and various wounds, to aching teeth, to rheumatic and associated pains, ringworm and various skin irritations, and scalds and burns. Splints were fashioned from korari (flower stalks) and leaves, and fine cords of muka fibre utilise the
233:), bags, mats, clothing, sandals (paraerae), buckets, food baskets (rourou), and cooking utensils etc. The handmade flax cording and ropes had such great tensile strength that they were used to successfully bind together sections of hollowed out logs to create huge ocean-going canoes (
174:
wrote: “Of the leaves of these plants, with very little preparation, they (the Māori) make all their common apparel; and of these they make also their strings, lines and cordage …”. They also made baskets, mats and fishing nets from undressed flax. Māori practised advanced
194:, or pounamu). The green fleshy substance of the leaf was stripped off (the waterproof para), again using a mussel shell, right through to the fibre which went through several processes of washing, bleaching, fixing, softening, dyeing and drying. The flax fibre, called
587:
A few years ago flax milling was largely done by boys who received a few shillings per day, now in these more enlightened (?) days a boy gets a man’s wage. For instance the minimum wage paid this season at Mr
Rutherford's Te Aoterei mill has been 11s 3d for a ten-hour
380:, filled 14 large casks with flax, bought 1,100 lb (500 kg) of dressed flax, and took 25 flax plants. That trip was by way of an experiment to confirm the value of flax, but he continued trading until 1836 and several other traders followed his example.
920:
was that this small hapu, or clan, had to manufacture, spurred by the penalty of death, in the shortest possible time, one hundred tons of flax, scraped by hand with a shell, bit by bit, morsel by morsel, half-a-quarter of an ounce at a time.
462:. Dougall was an exception in declining to patent his stripper. Many others patented variations, but the basic design was that leaves were fed between rollers, then hit by iron beaters, revolving faster than the feeder, thus stripping the
392:. A burgeoning flax industry developed with the fibres being used for rope, twine, matting, carpet under felt, and wool packs. Initially wild stands of flax were harvested but plantations were established with three in existence by 1851.
1783:
388:
Māori moved to unhealthy swamplands where flax could be grown, and there devoted insufficient labour to the production of food, until any survivors were fully equipped, first with musket and ammunition, and then with iron tools.
973:
1199:
560:
With extensive burning of bush, few fire brigades, and little piped water, fire was a hazard for most buildings and flax was no exception. In 1890 a report on a fire in a large quantity of growing flax said,
1537:
1731:
272:
1411:
1078:
1251:
1225:
383:
Thus, by the early 19th century, the quality of rope materials made from New
Zealand flax was known internationally, as was the quality of New Zealand trees which were used for spars and masts. The
1277:
1757:
414:
242:
fashioned into torches and lights for use at night. The dried flower stalks, which are extremely light, were bound together with flax twine to make river rafts called mokihi.
563:
These fires in most cases arise from gross carelessness, which might easily be avoided. Already in the past the quantity of green flax destroyed by this agency is very great.
107:
Both species and their cultivars have now been widely distributed to temperate regions of the world as ornamental garden plants – and to lesser extent for fibre production.
488:
So the inventions were quickly taken up, flax mills increasing from 15 in 1867, to 110 in 1874, though another source says there were 161 mills by 1870, employing 1,766.
582:
496:
458:
had six of their patent strippers by 1868. Johnstone
Dougall (1822–1892), a carpenter, also invented a flax-stripper about 1868, which he put in his first mill at
305:
taken internally to relieve constipation or expel worms. The pulp of pounded leaves was applied as dressings to bullet, bayonet or other wounds. The gum-like
426:
1867:
534:
395:
A Parliamentary
Commission in 1870 reported on all aspects of the flax industry. It listed up to 24 varieties, with many regional variations in names.
1902:
1828:
1824:
1654:
1846:
473:
325:
properties of the gel before being used to stitch wounds. Harakeke is used as bandages and can secure broken bones much as plaster is used today.
248:
1706:
1872:
748:
661:"Māori archaeological textiles: a structural analysis of Māori raranga 'woven' basketry from the Waitakere Ranges in Auckland Museum"
284:
852:
1907:
1519:
329:
811:
772:
507:
Flax leaves were cut, bundled, taken to the mill and fed through a stripping machine. The slimy fibre was bunched, washed and the
170:
was predominant, due to its wide availability, long strands and the ability to create a range of strip widths from the plants.
1463:
260:
1147:
1062:
1024:
665:
1818:
1602:
1563:
1493:
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1173:
454:
for a flax machine. It took a ton of leaves a day and produced about 0.2 long tons (200 kg) of fibre. A large mill at
1680:
1437:
1121:
133:
1628:
39:(centre) wearing a short checked flax and feather cloak and flax skirt. His uncle Kawiti is on the right in a flax cloak.
1892:
1882:
74:
respectively. Although given the common name 'flax' they are quite distinct from the
Northern Hemisphere plant known as
1104:
1578:"Full text of "Flax mills : their machinery, accidents occurring therein, with suggestions for their prevention""
660:
1304:"Papers Past — Timaru Herald — 2 February 1870 — The Timaru Herald. WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 2, 1870. LATEST TELEGRAMS"
604:
599:
1833:
1887:
743:. Kolokesa Uafā Māhina-Tuai, Damian Skinner, Rigel Sorzano. Wellington, New Zealand: Te Papa Press. p. 111.
1303:
624:
Extraction, content, strength, and extension of
Phormium variety fibres prepared for traditional Maori weaving
550:
528:
931:
406:
has been investigated, but currently it is used only by artists and craftsmen producing handmade papers.
1877:
1105:"Rangitahi Peninsula Archaeological and Cultural Survey and Assessment – Report for Raglan Land Company"
352:, Māori used large, thickly woven flax mats to cover entrances and lookout holes in their "gunfighter's
96:
is endemic to New
Zealand. They have played an important part in the cultural and economic history of
637:"The Flax Industry | Saint Helena Island Info: All about St Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean"
291:
878:
539:
481:
466:
from the fibre. Patents included
Ritchie in 1862, Gibbons and Nelson in 1870, and Williams in 1893.
573:
431:
373:
139:
24:
999:
766:
698:
690:
463:
143:
827:
740:
Crafting
Aotearoa : a cultural history of making in New Zealand and the wider Moana Oceania
1837:
1058:
807:
754:
744:
682:
568:
167:
63:
58:
1386:
933:
A dangerous people whose only occupation is war: Maori and Pakeha in 19th century New Zealand
1360:
955:
946:
Critchfield, Howard J. (April–June 1951). "Phormium tenax–New Zealand's Native Hard Fiber".
706:
674:
524:
349:
115:
1577:
554:
786:
101:
585:
and growth of unions improved the low pay and conditions. By 1913 a commentator wrote, "
19:
This article is about the fibre. For the genus of plants the fibre is sourced from, see
1471:
489:
377:
333:
179:
163:
159:
151:
89:
52:
1897:
1861:
702:
520:
230:
390:"The taking of slaves increased – slaves who could be put to work dressing flax..."
477:
234:
171:
36:
1842:
914:
Old New Zealand: being Incidents of Native Customs and Character in the Old Times
546:
399:
345:
318:
226:
199:
97:
47:
758:
384:
314:
686:
203:
710:
512:
238:
32:
898:
738:
678:
215:
207:
1813:
138:
Although the Māori made textiles from a number of other plants, including
1851:
636:
576:, in the early 1900s. This boiler was placed beside the boardwalk in 2008
516:
455:
437:
419:
361:
222:
20:
912:
694:
1854:
at Naturatomica: The Encyclopedia of Alternative & Natural Medicine
1361:"4. – Flax and flax working – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand"
959:
322:
278:
Māori woman wearing the traditional costume made of flax fibre, c. 1880
1707:"Arbitration Act becomes law | NZHistory, New Zealand history online"
501:
459:
451:
310:
187:
155:
147:
23:. For the plant found predominantly in the Northern Hemisphere, see
581:
Auckland for the purpose of procuring fresh men to work the mill."
519:
for local production. Production peaked between 1901 and 1918, but
567:
533:
495:
472:
425:
413:
353:
114:
31:
1385:
Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu.
1359:
Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu.
482:
http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/dbtw-wpd/HeritageImages/index.htm
190:
shell or specially shaped rocks, more often than not greenstone (
508:
211:
195:
191:
176:
75:
356:" fortifications. Some warriors wore coats of heavily plaited
306:
229:(kupenga) and lines, bird snares, cordage for ropes, baskets (
360:, which gave defense characteristics similar to a medieval
572:
George Rutherford built a flax mill beside Kaitoke Creek,
364:, slowing musket balls to be wounding rather than deadly.
1520:"Miranui – The Story of New Zealand's Largest Flax Mill"
725:
World Textiles: A Visual Guide to Traditional Techniques
626:, New Zealand Journal of Botany, 2000, Vol. 38: pg. 469.
935:
Journal of Pacific History, 1997, Christina A. Thompson
237:). With the help of wakas, pre-European Māori deployed
1200:"Report Of The Committee Of The Industrial Exhibition"
418:
1902 cut flax being floated downstream to the mill at
531:, resulted in almost all mills closing by the 1930s.
802:
Brooker, S. G; R. C Cambie; Robert C Cooper (1987).
583:
The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894
450:In 1860 Purchas and Ninnis got the country's first
853:"Wharariki, Phormium – The University of Auckland"
654:
652:
650:
538:Linton steam-powered flaxmill after fire in 1911
317:qualities to help healing processes. It is a mild
1057:. Wilson & Horton for Raglan County Council.
221:Fibres of various strengths were used to fashion
727:, London: Thames & Hudson, 2004, p. 64, 220.
954:(2). New York Botanical Garden Press: 172–184.
511:hung to dry. About ten days later the muka was
1000:"Designing the Future – Celebrating the Past"
500:A worker harvesting green flax leaves with a
8:
899:"History of the Phormium Fibre Export Trade"
515:and baled for export, though some mills had
398:Several times the possibility of commercial
1564:"THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR – BOOK 1893"
1025:"Private Acts. The Purchas And Ninnis Flax"
885:. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand.
447:year, but the last of them closed in 1985.
1329:"Progress Of New Zealand In Manufactures"
1029:Nelson Examiner and New Zealand Chronicle
440:G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington
1829:Department of Conservation (New Zealand)
1053:CW Vennell & Susan Williams (1976).
901:, 1966 "An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand"
894:
892:
790:Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
328:Chemical analysis shows the antifungal,
1847:Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
911:Maning, Frederick Edward (1863). "13".
616:
244:
764:
438:– Photograph taken by Gilmour Brothers
1354:
1352:
1350:
1278:"New Flax South And Hackling Machine"
1055:Raglan County Hills and Sea 1876–1976
1048:
1046:
7:
430:Water-powered Okete flax mill, near
88:occurs naturally in New Zealand and
16:Flax fibre (Phormium) in New Zealand
1758:"Widespread Flax Strike Threatened"
883:Dictionary of New Zealand Biography
857:www.nzplants.preview.auckland.ac.nz
336:are in common and mountain flaxes.
1868:Crops originating from New Zealand
254:Māori stone pestle for flax fibers
14:
1838:Manaaki Whenua: Landcare Research
480:steam-powered flax mill in 1906 [
104:and the later European settlers.
1812:
1629:"Accident At Opunake Flax Mills"
1206:. 30 December 1862. pp. 5 6
723:John Gillow and Bryan Sentance,
313:that give it blood clotting and
283:
271:
259:
247:
1903:Economic history of New Zealand
1687:. 12 September 1891. p. 2
1544:. 21 September 1895. p. 3
828:"Musizin | C13H12O3 – PubChem"
666:Records of the Auckland Museum
309:produced by harakeke contains
1:
1825:"Harakeke / New Zealand flax"
1764:. 20 February 1912. p. 3
1635:. 10 December 1883. p. 2
1418:. 22 February 1869. p. 3
1258:. 6 September 1870. p. 4
1085:. 22 February 1869. p. 3
771:: CS1 maint: date and year (
529:pasture replacing flax swamps
1873:History of Oceanian clothing
1661:. 24 October 1888. p. 2
1500:. 22 January 1900. p. 6
1444:. 6 February 1890. p. 2
1335:. 3 February 1877. p. 3
1154:. 4 December 1868. p. 5
1128:. 31 October 1906. p. 9
804:New Zealand medicinal plants
332:drug, musizin, and laxative
1468:www.ruralfirehistory.org.nz
787:"Te hī ika – Māori fishing"
1924:
1908:Agriculture in New Zealand
1655:"Accidents And Fatalities"
1609:. 5 August 1889. p. 6
1284:. 8 August 1893. p. 2
1180:. 19 April 1892. p. 4
980:. 7 May 1870. pp. 5–6
605:Environment of New Zealand
600:Agriculture in New Zealand
182:in phormium fibre cloaks.
134:Māori traditional textiles
131:
18:
1738:. 4 April 1908. p. 5
1308:paperspast.natlib.govt.nz
1232:. 15 June 1870. p. 7
1790:. 3 June 1913. p. 4
1538:"The Flax Trade Meeting"
1148:"Dougal's Fibre-machine"
1031:. 18 May 1861. p. 5
832:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
806:. Auckland, N.Z.: Reed.
565:" Mills were burnt too.
551:stationary steam engines
1843:"Flax and flax working"
792:. Updated 2 March 2009.
659:Mckendry, Lisa (2020).
372:In winter 1823 Captain
1174:"Death Of An Inventor"
879:"Kent, John Rodolphus"
737:Chitham, Karl (2019).
679:10.32912/RAM.2020.55.2
641:sainthelenaisland.info
577:
542:
504:
485:
443:
423:
124:
111:Traditional Māori uses
40:
1566:. p. Chapter 31.
1226:"The Flax Commission"
974:"The Flax Commission"
571:
545:Mills were driven by
537:
499:
476:
429:
417:
294:in a flax cloak, 1879
118:
46:describes the common
35:
1821:at Wikimedia Commons
1711:www.nzhistory.net.nz
1603:"Flax Mill Accident"
1494:"Fire At A Flaxmill"
1256:Daily Southern Cross
1152:Daily Southern Cross
402:from the fibre from
292:Rewi Manga Maniapoto
1893:Polynesian clothing
1883:New Zealand fashion
1819:Flax in New Zealand
1732:"Arbitration Court"
877:Begg, Neil (2002).
434:in 1910 (1868–1925)
374:John Rodolphus Kent
78:Linum usitatissimum
25:Linum usitatissimum
1498:New Zealand Herald
1474:on 21 January 2016
1412:"New Zealand Flax"
1333:New Zealand Herald
1252:"New Zealand Flax"
1079:"New Zealand Flax"
960:10.1007/bf02984775
578:
543:
540:AWNS-19111019-11-1
505:
486:
484:AWNS-19061108-16-1
444:
424:
266:Flax fibers (muka)
225:(hinaki), massive
125:
119:New Zealand flax (
41:
1817:Media related to
1659:Otago Daily Times
1391:www.teara.govt.nz
1365:www.teara.govt.nz
1204:Otago Daily Times
1178:Otago Daily Times
978:Otago Daily Times
750:978-0-9941362-7-5
442:
422:AWNS-19021009-2-4
344:During the early
330:anti-inflammatory
59:Phormium colensoi
50:perennial plants
1915:
1834:"Flax Cultivars"
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1470:. Archived from
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627:
621:
555:portable engines
436:
350:New Zealand Wars
287:
275:
263:
251:
44:New Zealand flax
1923:
1922:
1918:
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1524:Kete Horowhenua
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1464:"1907–08 Fires"
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1387:"Price, Alfred"
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948:Economic Botany
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