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200:. The fruiting bodies of lichen typically make up one of two shapes. Apothecia which look like disk or cup shaped and produce their spores on their upper surface. And perithecia which are shaped like flasks that enclose a spore producing layer with a hole at the top ( Brodo, Sharnoff, and Sharnoff). Since sexual reproduction is inefficient, lichen will reproduce asexually by
111:, typically located near the lichen's centre. Lichens with this structure are called "umbilicate". In general, medium to large epiphytic foliose lichens are moderately sensitive to air pollution, while smaller or ground-dwelling foliose lichens are more tolerant. The term "foliose" derives from the Latin word
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The reproduction of foliose lichen can occur either asexually or sexually. The sexual reproduction requires both a fungal and photosynthetic partner. The photobiont once in symbionce with its fungal partner will not produce recognisable reproductive structures therefore it is up to the fungal partner
87:; some, however, lack a lower cortex. The photobiont layer lies just below the upper cortex. Where present, the lower cortex is usually dark (sometimes even black), but occasionally white. Foliose lichens are attached to their substrate either by hyphae extending from the cortex or
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which are cylindrical finger like protuberances from the upper cortex in which algal and fungal tissue is incorporated into. They are easily broken off and transported by wind where they will relocate and propagate forming a new lichen.
159:. This reacts with minerals in the rock, dissolving them and weakening the rock. As a result of this many rocks that have or once had lichen growth exhibit extensive surface corrosion. By-products of this weathering are poorly ordered
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that must then also find a compatible photobiont. This photobiont will fuse with the zygote and live within the fungi creating a lichen. The fungal partner in most foliose lichen are ascomytes with spores called
103:. The latter, which are found only in foliose lichens, come in a variety of shapes, the specifics of which can aid in species identification. Some foliose lichens attach only at a single stout peg called a
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by the growth of lichens on exposed rock surfaces. This can be attributed to both physical and chemical processes. Lichen can chemically weather minerals such as calcite by producing
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to continue reproduction for the lichen. In order for lichen reproduction to take place the fungal partner must produce millions of germinating spores which fuse to form a
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gels, the neoformation of crystalline metal oxalates and secondary clay minerals. Lichen physically weather rocks by penetrating the rock's small crevasses with their
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A direct correlation exists between pollution and the abundance and distribution of lichen. Foliose lichens are extremely sensitive to
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182:(calcium carbonate) used as filler and their rhizoids expanding cracks which develop in the shingles over time.
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of lichens. It typically has distinct upper and lower surfaces, each of which is usually covered with a
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308:"Experimental Study of the Effect of Sulphite on Lichens with Reference to Atmospheric Pollution"
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465:(2nd ed.). St. Paul, Minnesota: The American Phytopathological Society.
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Growth form as flattened sheets, partly attached to the substrate on the underside
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Cross section diagram of foliose lichen with layers: 1. Thick layers of
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Brodo, Irwin M.; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran; Sharnoff, Stephen (2001).
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443:"National Lichens & Air Quality Database and Clearinghouse"
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3. Loosely packed hyphae 4. Anchoring hyphae called
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178:, with foliose lichen byproducts dissolving the
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346:(Chen, Jie, Hans P. Blume, and Lothar Beyer)
356:BOWLER, P. A.; RUNDEL, P. W. (1975-06-01).
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461:Ulloa, Miguel; Hanlin, Richard T. (2012).
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427:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
362:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
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358:"Reproductive strategies in lichens"
95:, or by root-like structures called
270:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
258:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
243:Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001
463:Illustrated Dictionary of Mycology
374:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1975.tb01653.x
325:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1971.tb02583.x
204:when possible. Foliose lichen use
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404:. Slough: Richmond Publishing.
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447:United States Forest Service
282:United States Forest Service
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306:Hill, D. J. (1971-09-01).
131:in lichen, which produces
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147:Minerals in rocks can be
423:Lichens of North America
294:Ulloa & Hanlin 2012
202:vegetative reproduction
51:, called the cortex 2.
400:Baron, George (1999).
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36:Flavoparmelia caperata
402:Understanding Lichens
71:with flat, leaf-like
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143:Weathering of rocks
115:, meaning "leafy".
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472:978-0-89054-400-6
434:978-0-300-08249-4
411:978-0-85546-252-9
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186:Reproduction
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81:growth forms
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491:Lichenology
452:14 December
161:iron oxides
157:oxalic acid
133:phaeophytin
129:chlorophyll
53:Green algae
226:Baron 1999
213:References
382:0024-4074
334:0028-646X
180:limestone
149:weathered
119:Pollution
485:Category
198:ascomata
169:rhizoids
113:foliosus
107:holdfast
99:rhizines
57:rhizines
393:Sources
91:medulla
18:Foliose
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206:isidia
193:zygote
85:cortex
69:lichen
49:hyphae
155:like
75:lobes
67:is a
467:ISBN
454:2022
429:ISBN
406:ISBN
378:ISSN
330:ISSN
137:ions
370:doi
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