262:
their genome size. During the early
Cretaceous period, only angiosperms underwent rapid genome downsizing, while genome sizes of ferns and gymnosperms remained unchanged. Smaller genomes—and smaller nuclei—allow for faster rates of cell division and smaller cells. Thus, species with smaller genomes can pack more, smaller cells—in particular veins and stomata—into a given leaf volume. Genome downsizing therefore facilitated higher rates of leaf gas exchange (transpiration and photosynthesis) and faster rates of growth. This would have countered some of the negative physiological effects of genome duplications, facilitated increased uptake of carbon dioxide despite concurrent declines in atmospheric CO
312:
336:
In 2013 flowers encased in amber were found and dated 100 million years before present. The amber had frozen the act of sexual reproduction in the process of taking place. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting
72:
green algae. A later terrestrial adaptation took place with retention of the delicate, avascular sexual stage, the gametophyte, within the tissues of the vascular sporophyte. This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release, as in non-seed plants. A current example of how
261:
Whereas the earth had previously been dominated by ferns and conifers, angiosperms quickly spread during the
Cretaceous. They now comprise about 90% of all plant species including most food crops. It has been proposed that the swift rise of angiosperms to dominance was facilitated by a reduction in
166:
Based on fossil evidence, some have proposed that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms in the
Triassic period (245–202 million years ago). Fossil angiosperm-like pollen from the Middle Triassic (247.2–242.0 Ma) suggests an older date for their origin,
1095:
Coiro, Mario; Chomicki, Guillaume; Doyle, James A. (30 July 2018). "Experimental signal dissection and method sensitivity analyses reaffirm the potential of fossils and morphology in the resolution of the relationship of angiosperms and
Gnetales".
154:. Gigantopterids are a group of extinct seed plants that share many morphological traits with flowering plants. Molecular evidence suggests that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late
830:
Taylor, David
Winship; Li, Hongqi; Dahl, Jeremy; et al. (March 2006). "Biogeochemical evidence for the presence of the angiosperm molecular fossil oleanane in Paleozoic and Mesozoic non-angiospermous fossils".
524:"A New Tree of Flowering Plants? For Spring? Groundbreaking. - By sequencing an enormous amount of data, a group of hundreds of researchers has gained new insights into how flowers evolved on Earth"
337:
it was carried by insects. In August 2017, scientists presented a detailed description and 3D model image of what the first flower possibly looked like, and suggested that it may have lived about
1060:
Qiu, Yin-Long; Li, Libo; Wang, Bin; et al. (June 2007). "A Nonflowering Land Plant
Phylogeny Inferred from Nucleotide Sequences of Seven Chloroplast, Mitochondrial, and Nuclear Genes".
1229:
533:
224:" that first appeared during the Triassic and went extinct in the Cretaceous, to be amongst the best candidates for a close relative of angiosperms. The fossil plant species
379:
of the other flowering plants, while morphological studies suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The orders
1190:
40:". Nonetheless, in April 2024, scientists reported an overview of the origin and development of flowering plants over the years based on extensive genetic studies.
402:, approximately 100 million years ago. However, a study in 2007 estimated that the divergence of the five most recent of the eight main groups, namely the genus
434:
in general, especially when this is associated with radical adaptations that seem to have required transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved on an
207:
perhaps created the ancestral line that led to all modern flowering plants. That event was studied by sequencing the genome of an ancient flowering plant,
167:
which is further supported by genetic evidence of the ancestors of angiosperms diverging during the
Devonian. A close relationship between angiosperms and
60:
sexually with flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved. An adaptation to terrestrial life was the development of upright
106:
Angiosperms appear suddenly and in great diversity in the fossil record in the Early
Cretaceous. This poses such a problem for the theory of gradual
1929:
925:
1139:
Jiao, Yuannian; Wickett, No4rman J.; Ayyampalayam, Saravanaraj; et al. (May 2011). "Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms".
497:) had already appeared by the late Cretaceous. Flowering plants appeared in Australia about 126 million years ago. This also pushed the age of
481:. The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later. Yet, many fossil plants recognisable as belonging to modern families (including
2199:
2162:
2078:
1696:
1205:
874:
523:
498:
2168:
2084:
430:
offers a possible explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants. It is believed to be a common source of
1736:
The presence of pollen grains on the style and calyx but not in the surrounding amber suggests that the grains may have been adhesive
103:
and cycads produce a pair of flagellated, mobile sperm cells that "swim" down the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs.
1510:
765:
2226:
987:
1634:
Sun, G.; Ji, Q.; Dilcher, D.L.; Zheng, S.; Nixon, K.C.; Wang, X. (May 2002). "Archaefructaceae, a new basal angiosperm family".
438:
or island chain, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a specialised relationship with a specific animal such as a
502:
28:, now the dominant group of plants on land. The history is controversial as flowering plants appear in great diversity in the
898:"Foliar physiognomy in Cathaysian gigantopterids and the potential to track Palaeozoic climates using an extinct plant group"
588:
1807:"Strategies for Partitioning Clock Models in Phylogenomic Dating: Application to the Angiosperm Evolutionary Timescale"
1011:"Angiosperm-like pollen and Afropollis from the Middle Triassic (Anisian) of the Germanic Basin (Northern Switzerland)"
477:
as the dominant trees close to the end of the
Cretaceous, 66 million years ago or even later, at the beginning of the
391:
diverged as separate lineages from the remaining angiosperm clade at a very early stage in flowering plant evolution.
286:
123:
269:
The oldest known fossils definitively attributable to angiosperms are reticulated monosulcate pollen from the late
454:, which evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. The paleontologist
1460:
Sokoloff, Dmitry D.; Remizowa, Margarita V.; El, Elena S.; Rudall, Paula J.; Bateman, Richard M. (October 2020).
447:
83:
was enclosing the female gamete in a case, the seed. The first seed-bearing plants were gymnosperms, like the
844:
1719:
787:
Bateman, Richard M. (2020-01-01). "Hunting the Snark: the flawed search for mythical
Jurassic angiosperms".
952:"Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms"
458:
has proposed that flowering plants might have evolved due to interactions with dinosaurs. He argued that
442:. Such a relationship, with a hypothetical wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much as modern
1302:
Shi, Gongle; Herrera, Fabiany; Herendeen, Patrick S.; Clark, Elizabeth G.; Crane, Peter R. (June 2021).
1184:
896:
Glasspool, Ian J.; Hilton, Jason; Collinson, Margaret E.; Wang, Shi-Jun; Li-Cheng-Sen (20 March 2004).
253:
angiosperm. Other researchers contend that the structures are misinterpreted decomposed conifer cones.
897:
182:
The evolution of seed plants and later angiosperms appears to be the result of two distinct rounds of
2221:
2117:
2106:
Bakker, Robert T. (17 August 1978). "Dinosaur Feeding Behaviour and the Origin of Flowering Plants".
2021:
1921:
1761:
1643:
1315:
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1105:
909:
209:
172:
143:
273:(Early or Lower Cretaceous - 140 to 133 million years ago) of Italy and Israel, likely representing
237:
seems to share many exclusively angiosperm features, such as flower-like structures and a thickened
32:, with scanty and debatable records before that, creating a puzzle for evolutionary biologists that
238:
662:
Herendeen, Patrick S.; Friis, Else Marie; Pedersen, Kaj Raunsgaard; Crane, Peter R. (2017-03-03).
68:
to new habitats. This feature is lacking in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives, the
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37:
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By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by
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2005:
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that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to conifers and other gymnosperms.
126:
of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing how flowers evolved.
2125:
2108:
2039:
2029:
2010:"Using plastid genome-scale data to resolve enigmatic relationships among basal angiosperms"
2001:
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455:
388:
1421:"How deep is the conflict between molecular and fossil evidence on the age of angiosperms?"
1689:"When flowers reached Australia: First blooms made it to Australia 126 millions years ago"
1251:
Adams, Keith (December 2013). "Genomics. Genomic clues to the ancestral flowering plant".
718:
427:
398:, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-
183:
57:
950:
Stull, Gregory W.; Qu, Xiao-Jian; Parins-Fukuchi, Caroline; et al. (July 19, 2021).
2121:
2025:
1765:
1647:
1585:"Genome downsizing, physiological novelty, and the global dominance of flowering plants"
1534:"Genome downsizing, physiological novelty, and the global dominance of flowering plants"
1502:
1462:"Supposed Jurassic angiosperms lack pentamery, an important angiosperm-specific feature"
1319:
1264:
1152:
1109:
913:
757:
616:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
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2009:
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1952:
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1393:
1366:
1037:
1010:
636:
611:
409:
231:
111:
33:
129:
Several claims of pre-Cretaceous angiosperm fossils have been made, such as the upper
2215:
1351:
1303:
1288:
983:
951:
703:
556:
421:
404:
372:
329:
225:
151:
1225:
1125:
1081:
852:
345:
of 52 angiosperm taxa suggested that the crown group of angiosperms evolved between
2137:
1671:
1176:
380:
376:
69:
1718:
Poinar, George O. Jr.; Chambers, Kenton .L; Wunderlich, Joerg (10 December 2013).
266:
concentrations, and allowed the flowering plants to outcompete other land plants.
2151:
Sadava, David; Heller, H. Craig; Orians, Gordon H.; et al. (December 2006).
1601:
1550:
921:
470:
384:
281:
270:
246:
217:
75:
53:
25:
2014:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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319:
304:
295:
250:
221:
168:
80:
61:
29:
1951:
Vialette-Guiraud, A.C.; Alaux, M.; Legeai, F.; et al. (September 2011).
1335:
808:
687:
612:"The role of mid-palaeozoic mesofossils in the detection of early bryophytes"
2034:
1748:
Sauquet, Hervé; von Balthazar, M.; Magallón, S.; et al. (August 2017).
1720:"Micropetasos, a new genus of angiosperms from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber"
1655:
1272:
1027:
679:
478:
459:
366:
119:
107:
73:
this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination in
2053:
1986:
1907:
1840:
1791:
1663:
1620:
1569:
1487:
1446:
1402:
1365:
Fu, Qiang; Diez, Jose Bienvenido; Pole, Mike; et al. (December 2018).
1343:
1280:
1168:
1046:
975:
816:
742:
695:
645:
627:
99:). These did not produce flowers. The pollen grains (male gametophytes) of
1922:"South Pacific plant may be missing link in evolution of flowering plants"
1968:
1898:
1881:
1822:
1367:"An unexpected noncarpellate epigynous flower from the Jurassic of China"
800:
494:
443:
413:
291:
155:
139:
130:
1773:
1383:
1160:
1117:
734:
583:
450:
in both the plant and its partners. The wasp example is not incidental;
298:
period), whereas pollen considered to be of angiosperm origin takes the
474:
324:
147:
88:
1478:
1461:
1437:
1420:
56:) have existed for at least 475 million years. Early land plants
2129:
1304:"Mesozoic cupules and the origin of the angiosperm second integument"
435:
354:
347:
338:
299:
202:
195:
188:
84:
21:
1750:"The ancestral flower of angiosperms and its early diversification"
1073:
1731:
490:
482:
310:
242:
234:
79:, the spike-moss. The result for the ancestors of angiosperms and
65:
49:
466:
451:
439:
92:
1953:"Cabomba as a model for studies of early angiosperm evolution"
664:"Palaeobotanical redux: revisiting the age of the angiosperms"
486:
362:
96:
462:
dinosaurs provided a selective grazing pressure on plants.
138:, but none of these are widely accepted by paleobotanists.
1419:
Coiro, Mario; Doyle, James A.; Hilton, Jason (July 2019).
175:
evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of
2194:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 498.
845:
10.1666/0094-8373(2006)32[179:BEFTPO]2.0.CO;2
867:"Oily Fossils Provide Clues To The Evolution Of Flowers"
663:
118:". Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular
1805:
Foster, Charles S.P.; Ho, Simon Y.W. (October 2017).
302:
record back to about 130 million years BP, with
200:. Another possible whole genome duplication event at
146:
produced by many flowering plants, has been found in
555:
Zuntini, Alexandre R.; et al. (24 April 2024).
2190:Stewart, Wilson Nichols; Rothwell, Gar W. (1993).
1882:"Amborella not a "basal angiosperm"? Not so fast"
902:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
758:"New light shed on Darwin's 'Abominable Mystery'"
2067:Buchmann, Stephen L.; Nabhan, Gary Paul (2012).
1532:Simonin, Kevin A.; Roddy, Adam B. (2018-01-11).
657:
655:
1683:
1681:
557:"Phylogenomics and the rise of the angiosperms"
308:representing the earliest flower at that time.
1206:"Shrub genome reveals secrets of flower power"
719:"The meaning of Darwin's "abominable mystery""
150:deposits of that age together with fossils of
1583:Simonin, K. A.; Roddy, A. B. (January 2018).
1414:
1412:
945:
943:
8:
1009:Hochuli, P. A.; Feist-Burkhardt, S. (2013).
1189:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1503:"How flowering plants conquered the world"
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1477:
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1392:
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1036:
1026:
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582:
424:, occurred around 140 million years ago.
284:confidently identified as an angiosperm,
24:and other distinctive structures of the
2192:Paleobotany and the evolution of plants
1062:International Journal of Plant Sciences
514:
322:created many flowering plants, such as
1182:
473:. Large canopy-forming trees replaced
2171:from the original on 23 December 2011
1699:from the original on 21 December 2019
873:. Stanford University. 5 April 2001.
717:Friedman, William E. (January 2009).
290:, is dated to about 125 million
7:
2087:from the original on 5 February 2016
1513:from the original on 2 February 2021
990:from the original on 10 January 2022
928:from the original on 4 November 2012
768:from the original on 30 January 2021
522:Greenwood, Veronique (11 May 2024).
877:from the original on 19 August 2010
1232:from the original on 21 April 2021
622:(1398): 733–54, discussion 754–5.
18:fossil history of flowering plants
14:
1932:from the original on 24 July 2021
216:Many paleobotanists consider the
2073:. Island Press. pp. 41–42.
1204:Callaway, Ewen (December 2013).
591:from the original on 12 May 2024
536:from the original on 11 May 2024
505:, to 126–110 million years old.
158:, about 365 million years ago.
1501:Briggs, H. (14 January 2018).
789:Journal of Experimental Botany
756:Briggs, H. (23 January 2021).
499:ancient Australian vertebrates
446:do, could cause the requisite
1:
245:, and thus might represent a
2157:. Macmillan. pp. 477–.
2154:Life: the science of biology
1811:Genome Biology and Evolution
1730:(2): 745–750. Archived from
1602:10.1371/journal.pbio.2003706
1551:10.1371/journal.pbio.2003706
922:10.1016/j.palaeo.2003.12.002
122:, have been proposed as the
2000:Moore, M. J.; Bell, C. D.;
371:, on the Pacific island of
287:Archaefructus liaoningensis
171:, proposed on the basis of
20:records the development of
2243:
1886:American Journal of Botany
1328:10.1038/s41586-021-03598-w
1015:Frontiers in Plant Science
968:10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4
723:American Journal of Botany
575:10.1038/s41586-024-07324-0
186:events. These occurred at
52:suggest that land plants (
2070:The Forgotten Pollinators
1218:10.1038/nature.2013.14426
610:Edwards, D. (June 2000).
227:Nanjinganthus dendrostyla
1724:J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas
184:whole genome duplication
2227:Fossil record of plants
2035:10.1073/pnas.0708072104
1858:. PBS. April 17, 2007.
1656:10.1126/science.1069439
1273:10.1126/science.1248709
1028:10.3389/fpls.2013.00344
680:10.1038/nplants.2017.15
357: million years ago
350: million years ago
205: million years ago
198: million years ago
191: million years ago
628:10.1098/rstb.2000.0613
333:
1928:. AAAS. 17 May 2006.
1754:Nature Communications
503:south polar continent
501:, in what was then a
394:The great angiosperm
365:analysis showed that
339:140 million years ago
314:
162:Triassic and Jurassic
1899:10.3732/ajb.91.6.997
368:Amborella trichopoda
210:Amborella trichopoda
144:secondary metabolite
2122:1978Natur.274..661B
2026:2007PNAS..10419363M
1774:10.1038/ncomms16047
1766:2017NatCo...816047S
1734:on 5 January 2014.
1648:2002Sci...296..899S
1466:The New Phytologist
1425:The New Phytologist
1384:10.7554/eLife.38827
1320:2021Natur.594..223S
1265:2013Sci...342.1456A
1161:10.1038/nature09916
1153:2011Natur.473...97J
1118:10.1017/pab.2018.23
1110:2018Pbio...44..490C
914:2004PPP...205...69G
735:10.3732/ajb.0800150
280:The earliest known
1969:10.1093/aob/mcr088
1823:10.1093/gbe/evx198
801:10.1093/jxb/erz411
529:The New York Times
334:
316:Adaptive radiation
177:molecular evidence
135:Sanmiguelia lewisi
116:abominable mystery
38:abominable mystery
2201:978-0-521-23315-6
2164:978-0-7167-7674-1
2116:(5672): 661–663.
2080:978-1-59726-908-7
2008:(December 2007).
1817:(10): 2752–2763.
1642:(5569): 899–904.
1479:10.1111/nph.15974
1438:10.1111/nph.15708
1314:(7862): 223–226.
569:(8013): 843–850.
343:Bayesian analysis
275:basal angiosperms
64:for dispersal by
2234:
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2187:
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2180:
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2130:10.1038/274661a0
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1957:Annals of Botany
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1854:"First Flower".
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1259:(6165): 1456–7.
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1201:
1195:
1194:
1188:
1180:
1147:(7345): 97–100.
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1006:
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962:(8): 1015–1025.
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456:Robert T. Bakker
389:Austrobaileyales
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2020:(49): 19363–8.
1999:
1998:
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1950:
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1933:
1920:
1919:
1915:
1892:(6): 997–1001.
1872:
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1803:
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1760:(2017): 16047.
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1595:(1): e2003706.
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1544:(1): e2003706.
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410:Chloranthaceae
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1926:EurekAlert!
1860:Transcripts
1703:21 December
1236:21 February
881:28 February
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460:herbivorous
385:Nymphaeales
282:macrofossil
271:Valanginian
247:crown-group
218:Caytoniales
169:gnetophytes
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2216:Categories
1517:31 January
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932:9 November
772:31 January
509:References
432:speciation
420:, and the
418:magnoliids
400:Cretaceous
320:Cretaceous
305:Montsechia
296:Cretaceous
257:Cretaceous
251:stem-group
239:receptacle
222:seed ferns
120:seed ferns
58:reproduced
36:named an "
30:Cretaceous
2091:8 January
1352:235217720
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1289:206553839
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479:Paleogene
444:fig wasps
396:radiation
124:ancestors
108:evolution
91:(such as
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2175:4 August
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495:magnolia
475:conifers
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414:eudicots
292:years BP
156:Devonian
140:Oleanane
131:Triassic
89:conifers
2138:4162574
2118:Bibcode
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2022:Bibcode
1978:3170152
1832:5647803
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