Foreign policy of the Bashar al-Assad administration

1840:, and said that "they tried to kill the principles of all religions with the same mentality in which they betrayed Jesus Christ and the same way they tried to betray and kill the Prophet Muhammad". Responding to accusations that his comment was antisemitic, Assad said that "We in Syria reject the term antisemitism. ... Semites are a race and not only belong to this race, but are its core. Judaism, on the other hand, is a religion which can be attributed to all races." He also stated that "I was talking about Israelis, not Jews. ... When I say Israel carries out killings, it's the reality: Israel tortures Palestinians. I didn't speak about Jews," and criticised Western media outlets for misinterpreting his comments. 467: 5924:

of border crossing? Look, I'm outside Syria now. I'm in conflict with the present regime. But I can assure you no insurgent crossed the border from Syria to Iraq by the decision or with the knowledge of any Syrian government. There were some border crossings for sure. We have a Syrian law that any Arab passport holder can get into Syria without a visa. Maybe there were some Arab nationals who got into Syria and illegally crossed the border to Iraq. During the war, there were a lot of Syrians who went into Iraq for jihad. Some thousands. But what happened with them? They came back, and they said they were deceived by the very bad treatment they received from the people of Saddam Hussein.

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Under his rule, Syria became a totalitarian police state based on the tripartite control of the Ba'ath Party, security apparatus, and military, yet power was centralized in the presidency. Hafez al-Assad titled himself as "the Eternal Leader" or "the Sanctified One." His portrait and statues decorated buildings and the main squares of cities and towns. Hafez al-Assad rose from modest origins to the state personified. From schools to national events, carefully choreographed spectacles of public worship were used to reinforce the cult of the president and enforce the conformity and submission of the populace, without ever needing to win over individuals' private thoughts or convictions.

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a "boom and influential role for Egyptian construction companies in Syria and to open the door for other companies — in the electricity, building material, steel, aluminum, ceramics and sanitary material fields among others — to work in the Syrian market and participate in rebuilding cities and facilities that the war has destroyed." On 25 February 2018, Syrian state news reported that an Egyptian delegation composed of "members of the Islamic and Arab Assembly for supporting Resistance and Future Pioneers movement as well as a number of figures", including Jamal Zahran and Farouk Hassan, visited the Syrian consulate in Cairo to express solidarity with the Syrian government.

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Judaism. Welcoming John Paul, Assad compared the suffering of the Palestinians to that of Jesus Christ. The Jews, he said, "tried to kill the principles of all religions with the same mentality in which they betrayed Jesus Christ and the same way they tried to betray and kill the Prophet Muhammad." The pope was taken on a detour to the town of Quneitra, flattened by the Israelis in their partial withdrawal from the Golan Heights, and called upon to bless the president's vision of a Christian-Islamic alliance to vanquish the common threat of colonising Jews.

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its only naval facility in the Mediterranean region and Russia´s only remaining, military installation outside the former Soviet Union. Furthermore, in close-by Latakia Russia has established its biggest "signals intelligence base" outside Russian territory. Apart from safeguarding its military bases Russia´s support to the Assad regime may be considered as a move to recast Russia as a decisive player in the region, reviving its image as a major rival to the USA in the management of global affairs.

1824:, Assad said: "There is a big difference between talking about a peace treaty and peace. A peace treaty is like a permanent ceasefire. There's no war, maybe you have an embassy, but you actually won't have trade, you won't have normal relations because people will not be sympathetic to this relation as long as they are sympathetic with the Palestinians: half a million who live in Syria and half a million in Lebanon and another few millions in other Arab countries." During the visit of 323: 1069: 2024: 1923: 1662: 751:. He also said regarding Egypt's stance in the conflict: "Our stance in Egypt is to respect the will of the Syrian people, and that a political solution to the Syrian crisis is the most suitable way, and to seriously deal with terrorist groups and disarm them". In late-November 2016, some Arab media outlets reported Egyptian pilots arrived in mid-November to Syria to help the Syrian government in its fight against the 2001:

while "the regime is focusing its airstrikes where it has some real expectations of advancing" claims that it "has not hit ISIS strongholds" are "untrue". He concluded: "Attempting to prove an ISIS-regime conspiracy without any conclusive evidence is unhelpful, because it draws attention away from the real reasons why ISIS grew and gained such prominence: namely, rebel groups tolerated ISIS." Similarly,

1288:, "Russian and Syrian government forces appear to have deliberately and systematically targeted hospitals and other medical facilities." Academic political scientist Laura Neack wrote that "the Assad regime and its Russian ally used scorched-earth tactics of siege and bombardment to clear opposition-held cities and neighborhoods." According to Anna Borshchevskaya, a senior fellow at 1907:, who was using Syrian territory to bring foreign fighters and suicide bombers into Iraq", with later cables adding that Petraeus thought that "in time, these fighters will turn on their Syrian hosts and begin conducting attacks against Bashar al-Assad's regime itself". Allegations of Syrian government support to Iraqi insurgents have been denied by Assad, former Syrian 1732: 2301:

eventually becoming an occupying power. And it also built close ties to revolutionary Iran, facilitating Tehran's efforts to undermine Israel and assist militant groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas. Syria under Hafez al-Assad came to be regarded as one of the most repressive, dangerous, and destabilizing states in the Arab world.

1983:(who was killed in a May 2015 raid by US forces), that "Abu Sayyaf's boss requested guidance on establishing investment relationships with businessmen linked to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad." In 2017, US and European officials said that oil sales to the Syrian government were ISIL's largest source of revenue. 5678:

Was soll denn das? Wir Araber sind doch selbst Semiten, als Nachfahren von Sem, einem der drei Söhne Noahs. Kein Mensch sollte gegen irgendeine Rasse eingestellt sein, gegen die Menschheit oder Teile von ihr. Wir in Syrien lehnen den Begriff Antisemitismus ab, weil dieser Begriff diskriminierend ist.

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The pope's pilgrimage in the steps of St Paul was widely seen as a success, even if it did not elicit an apology to the Muslim world for the medieval crusades. Syria's president, Bashar Assad, basked in international praise for his religious tolerance. But, notably, this tolerance was not extended to

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Syria as a Pariah State in International Relations.. One of the most interesting examples in the modern international system is Syria. For over half a century, it's been a repressive dictatorship seen as a destabilizing actor in the broader Middle East... In addition to aligning with the Soviet Union

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database analysis showed that only 6% of Syrian government forces attacks were targeted at ISIL from January to November 2014, while in the same period only 13% of all ISIL attacks targeted government forces. Academics who interviewed ISIL defectors in 2015–16 said their interviewees "observed regime

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to government-controlled areas at the cost of a 25% levy. ISIL defectors interviewed by academics in 2015 and 2016 reported being "disillusioned by... upsetting alliances that included the sale of wheat stores and oil to Assad." A businessman operating in both government and ISIL-controlled territory

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factions over other rebels. The Syrian opposition have also accused Assad of having intelligence operatives within the ranks of ISIS, and even directing ISIS attacks. However, "despite repeated announcements by opposition figures", there exists "no solid evidence ... that the jihadists as a whole are

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in August 2006, Assad said that Hezbollah had "hoisted the banner of victory", hailing its actions as a "successful resistance." In April 2008, Assad told a Qatari newspaper that Syria and Israel had been discussing a peace treaty for a year. This was confirmed in May 2008, by a spokesman for Israeli

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province. Syria has cooperated with China regarding the issue of Uyghur militants joining Syrian rebel groups fighting the Assad government, with some sources indicating as many as 5,000 Uyghurs from Xinjiang having traveled to Syria in recent years. China has also allegedly increased direct military

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Do you have a sense as to how the regime was supporting the infiltrators in the beginning? I don't have a clear sense. We all knew that whoever wanted to go was welcome and sometimes the authorities would help them. Everyone was talking about it; it was normal. Then after a short period, it suddenly

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which mandated refugees from Syria be indefinitely suspended from being able to resettle in the US, Assad appeared to defend the measure, stating "It's against the terrorists that would infiltrate some of the immigrants to the West... I think the aim of Trump is to prevent those people from coming,"

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Egypt has also expressed great interest in rebuilding postwar Syria, with many Egyptian companies and businessmen discussing investment opportunities in Syria as well as participation in the reconstruction effort. Tarik al-Nabrawi, president of Egypt's Engineers Syndicate said that 2018 will witness

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Second, as far as the Baath Party was concerned, there were no communications or contacts between the Baath Party of Iraq and the Baath Party in Damascus. There were open relations between the two governments for economic reasons, but not at the political or at the Baath level in any way. The issue

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The American government accuses you of smoothing the way for the insurgents through Syria to Iraq. It also accused Saddam of having weapons of mass destruction. But seriously: if someone asks the Americans whether they are successful in sealing the border with Mexico they say it is very difficult.

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In August 2017, the Syrian opposition was informed by the Saudi foreign minister that the Kingdom was disengaging from them. Subsequently, Saudi Arabia has taken a more conciliatory stance towards the Syrian government. On 9 May 2023, Saudi Arabia decided to resume work of its diplomatic mission in

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the most powerful ally of Bashar al-Assad, Syria´s current president, is Russia that with full military force on 30 September 2015 interfered in Syria´s internal conflicts... since 1971 the Soviet Union/Russia has an agreement with the Syrian Government to maintain a naval base in Tartus, actually

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The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party came to power in 1963 through a military coup. It was founded on an ideology incorporating elements of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism, both witnessing popular resurgence in the wave of decolonization...Hafez al-Assad came to power in 1970 in an internal coup..

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report, ISIS fought Syrian government forces more than any other opponent between 1 April 2016 and 31 March 2017: "43 percent of all Islamic State fighting in Syria was directed against President Assad's forces, 17 against the U.S.-backed Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) and the remaining 40 percent

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had disputed such assertions in 2014, arguing that "ISIS has a record of fighting the regime on multiple fronts", many rebel factions have engaged in oil sales to the Syrian regime because it is "now largely dependent on Iraqi oil imports via Lebanese and Egyptian third-party intermediaries", and

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resulted in international backlash against his government, leading to Syrian military withdrawal from Lebanon in 2005. Assad's military support to Hezbollah and Iran-backed proxies in Lebanon became the "central component of his security doctrine" and the Syrian government backed Hezbollah in the

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When Hafez al-Assad died in 2000, Bashar assumed power, surprising everyone by making Syria's "link with Hezbollah – and its patrons in Teheran – the central component of his security doctrine", while he continued his father´s outspoken critic of the United States, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and

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To this end, Damascus began supporting militant Palestinian groups—a step that saw Syria become the first country to be designated as a state sponsor of terrorism by the U.S state Department; a status it still retains. Additionally, it sent troops into Lebanon during the country's Civil War,

1373:, which began in 2011, damaged relations between the two countries, due to Saudi Arabia sending funds and weapons to antigovernment rebel forces. King Abdullah was the first Arab leader to condemn the Assad government in August 2011. As a result, Saudi Arabia withdrew its delegation from the 1808:

an "uninvited guest" and said "If you want me to be effective and active, I have to have a relationship with all parties. Hamas is Muslim Brotherhood, but we have to deal with the reality of their presence," comparing Hamas to the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood which was crushed by his father,

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These men, from the former governing party of deposed president Saddam Hussein, are "operating out of Syria with impunity and providing direction and financing for the insurgency," said Gen. George W. Casey Jr., the U.S. commander in Iraq. "That needs to stop," Casey said at a Pentagon

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In addition to maintaining strict control over domestic politics, he kept up the country's hardline foreign policy. Syria opposed the continued existence of Israel, and helped militant Islamic fighters travel to Iraq to join the anti-American Insurgency following the U.S. invasion in

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The decision to beatify Pius IX, the pope who kidnapped a Jewish child in Bologna and who put Rome's Jews back in their ghetto, was one question mark. John Paul's silence in 2001 when Syrian President Bashar al-Assad said Jews had killed Christ and tried to kill Mohammad was

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became extremely dangerous. You would hear stories about accidents and forced disappearances, as in people would set out for Iraq and they would never make it, which of course means that they were arrested before they reached the border. Then the campaign of arrests began.

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Historically, Turkey has been described as a "bitter foe" of Syria, however initially under the presidency of Bashar al-Assad, relations between Syria and Turkey significantly improved. The first ever visit to Turkey by a Syrian head of state was made by Assad to

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While hosting an 8 March 2015 delegation from North Korea led by North Korean Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs Sin Hong Chol, Assad stated that Syria and North Korea were being "targeted" because they are "among those few countries which enjoy real independence".

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We say to the Americans in no uncertain terms that it is impossible to completely control the border with Iraq. Yet we also tell them that the basis for the chaos must be sought in the war. It is not fair to make a mistake oneself and then blame others for it.

1514:, Turkey in August 2008. In September 2009, Syria and Turkey formed a joint "senior strategic cooperation council." The following month, the two governments signed an agreement to remove cross-border visa restrictions and pledged to build "a common future." 442:

and its associated rebel groups in Syria. On the other hand, the Syrian government is politically and militarily supported by Iran, Russia, and Lebanon's Hezbollah. Since September 2015, Russia, at the request of the Assad government, has waged an intensive

1863:", rather than a comprehensive peace, so long as the Palestinian crisis remained unsettled. In February 2011, Assad backed an initiative to restore ten synagogues in Syria, which had a Jewish community numbering 30,000 in 1947, but only 200 Jews by 2011. 1995:

claimed that the recent Hezbollah offensive "has exposed the reality of the ISIL in Qalamoun; that it is operated by the Syrian regime's intelligence", after ISIS in the region engaged in probing attacks against FSA units at the outset of the fighting.

1113:. Syria completed its full withdrawal from Lebanon on 30 April 2005. Assad argued that Syria's gradual withdrawal of troops from Lebanon was a result of the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. According to testimony submitted to the 770:, "during his meeting with UN Special Envoy to Syria, Staffan de Mistura, on Saturday confirmed Egypt's rejection of any military intervention that would violate Syrian sovereignty and undermine opportunities of the standing political solutions." 1197:. U.S. officials claimed the reactor was probably "not intended for peaceful purposes", but American senior intelligence officials doubted it was meant for the production of nuclear weapons. The supposed nuclear reactor was destroyed by the 403:, support to Hezbollah and pursuing an anti-Zionist agenda. During the first decade of his rule, Assad focused on integrating Syria into the regional system, by balancing relations with neighbouring countries and preventing the blowback of 1879:, "in the years that preceded the uprising, Assad and his intelligence services took the view that jihad could be nurtured and manipulated to serve the Syrian government's aims". Iraqi leaders such as former national security advisor 1677:" in 1979, over its funding of Palestinian and other insurgent factions in the region. Syria is the only country from the original 1979 list to remain continuously on the list to the present day, in large part due to its support to 5170:

Turkish occupation "is an existential threat to the Assad government's ability to reclaim the entirety of its territory, which is a key argument that regime loyalists make in their support of Bashar al-Assad's government," Heras

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Assad met with US scientists and policy leaders during a science diplomacy visit in 2009, and he expressed interest in building research universities and using science and technology to promote innovation and economic growth.

989:, had close relations with Ba'athist Syria. Despite the historical differences between the two Ba'ath factions, al-Douri had reportedly urged Saddam to open oil pipelines with Syria, building a financial relationship with the 731:

is a banned organization and its membership is a capital offence in Syria. Egypt severed all relations with Syria in June 2013. Diplomatic relations were restored and the embassies were reopened after the Morsi government was

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using intermediates to supply electricity to both government and ISIS-held areas. A report in 2015 suggested that ISIL kept gas flowing to Assad regime-controlled power stations. Furthermore, ISIL allowed grain to pass from

836:. After Hafiz al-Assad's death in 2000, Bashar al-Assad continued the relationship by supporting Hezbollah and various Iranian proxies; with the alliance being described as "the central component of his security doctrine". 5524:"Territories in Lebanon, the Golan and Palestine have been occupied by those who killed the principle of equality when they claimed that God created a people distinguished above all other peoples," the Syrian leader said. 1594:, which the United Kingdom had participated in, stating that "e cannot accept what we see every day on our television screens - the killing of innocent civilians. There are hundreds dying every day." Assad also praised 1303:. During his visit to Moscow in March 2023, Assad officially declared his support of Russian military programs that might involve the establishment of additional military bases and deployment of more Russian troops in 1521:, relations greatly deteriorated between the two nations; with Turkey's declared intent to "cultivate a favorable relationship with whatever government would take the place of Assad." Turkey trained defectors of the 881:

fighters, backed by Iran's government, have taken direct combat roles since 2012. From the summer of 2013, Iran and Hezbollah provided important battlefield support to Syria, allowing it to make advances against

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Syria, which had been suspended since November 2011. On the same day, Syria has decided to resume the work of its diplomatic mission in Saudi Arabia. On 10 May 2023, Syrian state media reported that Saudi King

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covert operation to train and arm Syrian rebels seeking to overthrow the Syrian government. Since the summer of 2013, Saudi Arabia has emerged as the main group to finance and arm the rebels. A classified

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links to Syria's government, although more discreetly than Russia has done. Although China claims it has no military presence in Syria, there were reports of military cooperation in 2016, 2017, and 2018.

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Salim Idris, defense minister in the rebels' provisional government, said approximately 180 Syrian Army officers are currently serving with ISIS and coordinating the group's military operations with the

3726: 407:. Assad's military support to Hezbollah and Iran-backed militant groups has been described as the "central component of his security doctrine". Syria is also a prominent ally of Russia and its president 3992: 3786: 1144:

in 2005. There has also been pressure from the U.S. concerning claims that Syria is linked to terrorist networks, exacerbated by Syrian condemnation of the assassination of Hezbollah military leader,

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newspaper, Assad stated that "peace agreement" is simply "a piece of paper you sign. This does not mean trade and normal relations, or borders, or otherwise." Furthermore, he asserted that returning

422:, and others. From the early stages of the conflict in Syria, major Western countries such as the US, France, and the United Kingdom, as well as rival powers in the region allied with the US such as 4672: 1792:... there would be no direct negotiations with Israel until a new U.S. president takes office. The U.S. was the only party qualified to sponsor any direct talks, told the paper, but added that the 1542: 1484: 1148:, in Damascus in 2008. Interior Minister Bassam Abdul-Majeed stated that "Syria, which condemns this cowardly terrorist act, expresses condolences to the martyr family and to the Lebanese people." 877:, Iran has provided training, technical support, and combat troops to the Assad government. Estimates of the number of Iranian personnel in Syria range from hundreds to tens of thousands. Lebanese 4575: 2792: 1354:

In a start of rapprochement between the two countries, Saudi Arabia appointed an ambassador to Syria, Abdullah Al Eifan, on 25 August 2009. Assad visited Riyadh in September 2009, and in October,

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Hundreds of Alawite civilians have been killed, kidnapped or have disappeared during a rebel offensive on President Bashar al-Assad's heartland province of Latakia, local residents have reported.

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A top Army general said yesterday that the Iraqi insurgency was being run in part by former senior Iraqi Baath Party officials operating in Syria who call themselves the "New Regional Command."

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The project, which began in December, will be completed this month as part of a plan to restore 10 synagogues with the backing of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and funding from Syrian Jews.

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in the world. The military activities of Syria, Iran, and Russia during the war have been criticized by the US and its allies, as well as several journalists and human rights organizations.

5184: 1754:, and France accuse Assad of providing support to militant groups active against Israel and opposition political groups. The latter category would include most political parties other than 1681:. During the first decade of his rule, Assad sought the removal of Syria from the list by improving ties with the US and Western countries in general. Initially, Assad co-operated with the 2200:

and taking a fiercely anti-American position, he took an uncompromisingly hardline stance on Israel—especially after Egypt became the first Arab state to make peace with the Jewish state.

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and criticised Israeli treatment of Palestinians, stating that "territories in Lebanon, the Golan and Palestine have been occupied by those who killed the principle of equality when they

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The Syrian president maintained he was fighting to preserve his country and criticized the West for intervening. "Good government or bad, it's not your mission" to change it, he said.

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had "poured hundreds of millions of dollars and tens of thousands of tons of weapons into anyone who would fight against Al-Assad, except that the people who were being supplied were

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forces strangely giving up territory to ISIS without much of a fight, and even leaving their weapons for ISIS rather than destroying them." In May 2015, Mario Abou Zeid of the

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Asaad Al-Zoubi, head of the Syrian opposition's High Negotiations Committee delegation, accused North Korea of having sent army units to fight on behalf of Assad during the

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was not allowed to remain in office despite Hariri's objections; that incident was thought to be linked to Hariri's subsequent assassination. In early 2015, journalist and

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strategy in the region by strengthening Syrian military; which he integrated into the Ba'ath party by packing its officers with Ba'athist loyalists of Alawite background.

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Turkey trained army dissidents on its territory, and a group of them announced the birth of the Free Syrian Army under the supervision of Turkish military intelligence.

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Close relations with Soviet Union were a key element throughout Assad's rule... the two states became ideologically close when Ba'ath Party took power in March 1963.

1554: 4095: 4394: 3861: 3239: 1292:, "Moscow’s air campaign ran in tandem with that of the Syrian regime in terms of terrorizing and demoralizing the general population and anti-Assad opposition." 1117:, when talking to Rafic Hariri at the Presidential Palace in Damascus in August 2004, Assad allegedly said to him, "I will break Lebanon over your head and over 817: 3717: 2047:

civilians and executed captured Syrian Alawite soldiers, with most Alawites supporting Bashar al-Assad, himself an Alawite. ISIS, al-Nusra Front and affiliated

1962:

officials have accused Assad of being in partnership with ISIS. Western officials stated in 2015 that the Syrian government and ISIS jointly ran a gas plant in

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Semiten sind eine Rasse, wir gehören nicht nur zu dieser Rasse, sondern sind ihr Kern. Das Judentum dagegen ist eine Religion, die allen Rassen zuzuordnen ist.

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during the conference. British officials subsequently described Assad's political views as being more conciliatory in private, claiming that he criticized the

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due to "the extensive support that foreign states were providing to the Syrian opposition," and as well as to prevent the collapse of Syrian government.

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In 2004, Assad visited China, the first visit by a Syrian head of state since the establishment of diplomatic relations. Syria participates in the

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Jouejati, Murhaf (2009). "10: The Making of Syria's Strategic Culture". In Johnson, Jeannie L.; Kartchner, Kerry M.; Larsen, Jeffrey A. (eds.).

466: 5774: 6091:"Reports indicate that the regime is making air-strikes in support of #ISIL's advance on #Aleppo, aiding extremists against Syrian population" 2755: 6724: 5109: 4952: 4048: 2695: 2662: 2551: 2484: 2346: 2325: 2256: 1591: 1184: 567:, Assad preserved many of his father's hardline foreign policies such as alliance with Iran, support to Hezbollah in Lebanon and pursuing an 4339: 4073: 2131:

Recently, the invitation extended by Assad's government on behalf of the Syrian state to the Russians was unequivocally deemed to be lawful.

1813:. He also said Hamas would disappear if peace was brought to the Middle East. However in 2022, Hamas and Assad reconciled and resumed ties. 5131: 4245: 3978: 3119: 2720: 1801: 1584: 1566: 1488: 982: 667: 347: 3834: 2950: 2854: 627:, Syria coordinated individually between 2011 and 2023 due to the suspension of its Arab League membership. In 2022, Syria joined China's 57: 5464: 2778: 1421:

coming from other parts of the world." In 2015, Assad's main regional opponents, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Turkey, were openly backing the

6748: 6559:"Bounty For Bashar Assad? Al Qaeda Nusra Front Offers $ 3.4M For Syrian President, $ 2.3M For Hezbollah's Hassan Nasrallah, Leader Says" 3157: 1763: 763: 716: 3530: 1626: 1578: 1295:

Assad further solidified his regime's alliance with Vladimir Putin by granting Russia permanent access to its Soviet-era naval base in

1212:

calling the incursion a "breach of airspace of the Syrian Arab Republic" and "not the first time Israel has violated" Syrian airspace.

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with Syria. In 2008, Turkey played a mediating role between Syria and Israel in an attempt to solve their dispute over control of the

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In 2006, Syria recognized the post-invasion Iraqi government and resumed ties. However relations still remained poor until 2011, when

5706: 3879: 3430: 3052: 2401: 2357: 2287: 2186: 1642: 1377:'s peacekeeping mission in Syria on 22 January 2012 and closed its embassy in Damascus in February, expelling the Syrian ambassador. 6705: 6684: 6663: 6058: 5908: 5636: 5159: 4817: 4023: 2382: 2232: 1615: 796:, and rejected sharing intelligence on terrorist threats with French authorities unless France altered its foreign policy on Syria. 560:, Syrian government lost its primary military supplier and geo-political ally, leading to its isolation in the international arena. 313: 308: 303: 298: 248: 79: 6536: 6380: 4714: 4593: 2335:

Khalidi, Ahmed S.; Agha, Hussein (2019). "The Syrian Doctrine of Strategic Parity". In Kipper, Judith; Saunders, Harold H. (eds.).

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worth millions of dollars for the killing of Assad. In the course of the conflict, ISIS has repeatedly massacred pro-government

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government in Iraq were critical of the potential rise of Saudi influence in Syria, a Sunni-majority country. Unlike most of the

455: 283: 6328: 5436: 4928: 3905: 3695: 3075: 2428: 2207: 1178: 964: 1366:, to Saudi Arabia the same month, restoring diplomatic relations. By January 2010, Assad had visited Saudi Arabia three times. 1344: 1267: 593: 557: 340: 278: 268: 5751: 3408: 733: 6197: 5937: 3127: 1656: 1595: 670:

at the United Nations in June 2020. In September 2023, Assad made a diplomatic visit to China and met with Chinese President

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made a state visit to Syria, hosting a joint press conference with Assad. During the conference, Assad condemned the recent

1537:(CIA), Saudi Arabia, and Qatar sent military and logistic support to Syrian rebels seeking to topple the Syrian government. 6479: 3559: 2508: 1247: 4370: 1336: 1110: 1014: 572: 213: 4308: 4194: 3214: 740:. In July 2013, the two countries agreed to reopen the Egyptian consulate in Damascus and the Syrian consulate in Cairo. 6563: 4458: 2078: 1793: 1739: 1682: 1130: 1114: 1084: 1059: 537: 487: 396:

posture in the region, based on its military doctrine of gaining "strategic parity" and forming joint Arab initiatives.

203: 4554: 1049: 5849: 4536: 3100: 2969: 2628: 1992: 1718: 1690: 1534: 1308: 789: 5054: 5028: 2872: 1474: 1232: 783: 50: 44: 1836:". He also compared the suffering of Palestinians at the hands of the Israelis to the suffering endured by Jesus in 3139:"Syria's crisis: The long road to Damascus: There are signs that the Syrian regime may become still more violent", 2068: 1546: 666:, China vetoed ten resolutions regarding Syria between 2010 and 2020 Syria was one of 53 countries that backed the 483: 418:, Syria became globally isolated and numerous sanctions were imposed by the European Union, the United States, the 369: 328: 238: 218: 1331:

Four months after Assad succeeded his father as Syrian president, he visited Saudi Arabia in October 2000 and met

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On 5 March 2005, Assad announced that Syrian forces would begin its withdrawal from Lebanon in his address to the

691: 610: 208: 5890:"Bashar al-Asad, place and date not given entitled "Bashar al-Asad Interview in German news magazine Der Spiegel" 4980: 4791: 3494: 1833: 1401:

militant forces globally, and some American officials worried that the Syrian rebels being supported had ties to

994: 921: 6275: 5185:"In northern Syria, defeated Isis fighters leave behind only scorched earth, trenches – and a crucifixion stand" 4139: 2158: 903: 805: 400: 61: 6753: 5374: 4199: 1355: 960: 870: 705: 628: 553: 5889: 1987: 6630: 5226: 4165: 3236: 2509:"Syria joins China's Belt and Road Initiative - Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East" 5515: 5303: 4422: 3592: 1908: 1558: 1499: 1458: 1194: 1103: 1092: 1077: 1028:

erupted, during which hundreds of thousands of protestors took to the streets; demanding the overthrowal of

891: 643: 712:, this tactic inadvertently "facilitated the spread of chants and phrases" that called for Assad's ouster. 5864: 5810: 3564: 2052: 1997: 1845: 1837: 1622: 1607: 1550: 978: 937: 568: 273: 258: 4576:"Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria" 3808: 3015: 2997: 1705: 1694: 1285: 944: 253: 952: 886:. As of 2023, Iran maintains 55 military bases in Syria and 515 other military points, the majority in 6433: 5596: 5207: 5195:

You can't mistake the front line between the Syrian army and Turkey's occupation force east of Aleppo.

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China's rise in the Global South : the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order

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China's rise in the Global South : the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order

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China's rise in the Global South : the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order

2477:

China's rise in the Global South : the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order

2146: 1816:

In his interviews, Assad has indicated that the peace treaty that he envisions may not be the same as

1136:

Assad's position was considered by some to have been weakened by the withdrawal of Syrian troops from

6480:"The pundits were wrong about Assad and the Islamic State. As usual, they're not willing to admit it" 6094: 6004: 2882: 1726: 1611: 1562: 1503: 1454: 1410: 744: 737: 5960: 2011:

in December 2017 that "The evidence of Assad sponsoring Islamic State... was about as strong as for

1853:

to Syria was a pre-condition to entering any peace deal. In an interview given to Italian newspaper

747:

said in 2016 that his nation's priority is "supporting national armies", which he said included the

6615: 6588: 4809: 4463: 4109: 3219: 2056: 1974: 1963: 1943: 1912: 1603: 1599: 1462: 1390: 1099: 968: 748: 663: 508: 475: 170: 1510:, but these talks were abandoned after four rounds, which included a visit by Assad to Erdoğan in 1425:, an umbrella rebel group that reportedly included the al-Qaeda linked al-Nusra Front and another 1068: 820:". The relationship between the Iranian and Syrian governments has sometimes been described as an 571:

agenda. Although he made attempts to integrate Syria into the regional system, events such as the

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that Rafic Hariri's attempts to reduce tensions with Syria were considered a "mockery" by Assad.

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after 1979. Syrian strategy during this period was based on the doctrine of "strategic parity" ("

152: 17: 5938:"Razan Zeitouneh Interviewed by Joe Pace: Syria's Preemptive War against Infiltrators into Iraq" 4873: 4255: 3116: 2827:"Egypt and Syria to keep consulate relations: FM spokesperson – Politics – Egypt – Ahram Online" 1098:

who opposed Assad's plans was assassinated in 14 March 2005, triggering international backlash.

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and allowed volunteers through Syria to fight the Americans. Syrian pressure for reviewing the

6720: 6701: 6680: 6659: 6484: 6239: 5632: 5441: 5352: 5261: 5234: 4962: 4883: 4813: 4044: 4019: 3951: 3508: 2877: 2701: 2691: 2668: 2658: 2602: 2557: 2547: 2490: 2480: 2378: 2342: 2321: 2262: 2252: 2228: 2122: 2023: 2007: 1935: 1922: 1825: 1751: 1743: 1300: 1202: 1198: 1190: 1025: 986: 909: 874: 856: 793: 759:. In response, the Egyptian government officially denied having a military presence in Syria. 708:

against Mubarak to "demonize the pro-US axis in the region." According to political scientist

647: 471: 439: 415: 6507:"Study Shows Islamic State's Primary Opponent in Syria Is Government Forces, IHS Markit Says" 5348: 540:. He also gave support to Palestinian insurgent organizations and developed an alliance with 6057: 5408: 5280: 5164: 4431: 4222: 3943: 2771:"Leaders of Syria and China announce strategic partnership as part of Asian Games diplomacy" 2114: 1931: 1872: 1770: 1526: 1518: 1422: 1370: 1363: 1278: 1220: 1141: 1073: 1063: 1002: 792:, but accused France of contributing to the spread of terrorism through its support for the 679: 639: 581: 576: 526: 451: 198: 6354: 5321: 4485: 4285: 3643: 1972:

has claimed that "out of necessity" the Assad government has "had dealings with ISIS." The

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Protesters take to the streets during Lebanon's "Independence Intifada", also known as the

6531: 5918: 5714: 5566: 5189: 5127: 4639:"Syria conflict: BBC exclusive interview with President Bashar al-Assad" with Jeremy Bowen 4626: 4605: 4600: 4250: 3887: 3534: 3434: 3243: 3164: 3123: 3060: 2725: 2409: 2365: 2295: 2194: 2048: 2040: 1939: 1916: 1884: 1652: 1426: 1394: 1385: 1087:

politics by various means. In 2004, he sought the extension of the Presidency of his ally

1033: 990: 839: 564: 499: 373: 188: 180: 143: 138: 133: 116: 6090: 3931: 2102: 1311:, describing Ukrainian regions captured by Russia as "historically Russian territories". 1122: 1088: 1032:. Both governments alongside Iran formed a tripartite regional alliance as both Iran and 743:

Although Egypt has not been vocal in support for any sides of Syria's ongoing civil war,

454:

has resulted in over 600,000 deaths and millions of forced displacements; triggering the

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programme. They also reportedly helped Syria develop a suspected nuclear reactor in the

1169:

years in jail for his role in a terrorist bomb plot that he claimed Assad was aware of.

682:, where China and Syria jointly announced the establishment of a strategic partnership. 5779: 5136: 4799: 4795: 4677: 4559: 2032: 1892: 1810: 1465:, and they discussed improving bilateral relations and developments in the Arab arena. 1414: 1263: 1251: 1145: 1118: 1010: 933: 929: 829: 816:

Syria and Iran are historic and strategic allies, with Syria being regarded as Iran's "

756: 638:

China views counter-terrorism as a major concern to be addressed in the context of the

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Israel and Syria are holding indirect peace talks, with Turkey acting as a mediator...

4902: 2793:"China's Xi Jinping meets Syria's Bashar al Assad and announces strategic partnership" 894:

and the Damascus suburbs; these are 70% of the foreign military sites in the country.

399:

After coming to power in 2000, Assad maintained his father's foreign policies such as

6742: 4833: 4696: 3913: 3387: 3141: 3083: 2436: 2215: 1959: 1896: 1855: 1850: 1779: 1735: 1722: 1686: 1507: 1430: 1152: 883: 844: 767: 752: 724: 701: 4673:"Syria and Saudi Arabia to potentially reconcile after UAE reopens Damascus embassy" 1796:"does not have the vision or will for the peace process. It does not have anything." 6027: 5759: 4933: 4805: 4737:"Saudi King invites Syria's Assad to attend Arab League summit -Syrian state media" 4656: 1821: 1784: 1630: 1438: 1340: 1273:

In September 2015, Russia, at the invitation of the Assad government, launched its

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had increased its "level of technical support and personnel support" to strengthen

861: 709: 585: 522: 518: 427: 393: 389: 385: 5624:

Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 107th Congress, First Session

1820:, where there is a legal border crossing and open trade. In a 2006 interview with 619:(CASCF), which is the primary multilateral cooperation body between China and the 6695: 6674: 6653: 5980:"From Jail to Jihad: Former Prisoners Fight in Syrian Insurgency – International" 5622: 5068: 4088:"Assad meets Putin in Moscow as Syrians mark 12 years since anti-regime uprising" 2336: 1461:

in Jeddah on 19 May. On the sidelines of the summit, Assad met with Crown Prince

5664: 5437:"Syria's Assad seems to suggest backing for Hamas negotiable, leaked cables say" 3569: 2970:"Syria's Assad says no intelligence sharing with France unless change in policy" 2227:. Washington DC, USA: Washington Institute for Near East Policy. pp. 1–17. 2002: 1904: 1775: 1731: 1666: 1522: 1446: 1374: 1209: 1037: 697: 624: 549: 419: 193: 2933:"Egyptian delegation visits Syrian consulate to announce solidarity with Syria" 2377:. Washington DC, USA: Washington Institute for Near East Policy. pp. 7–8. 936:. The ascendance of Bashar in 2000 boosted this process, and Syria ignored the 6511: 4766: 4652:"Victory for Assad looks increasingly likely as world loses interest in Syria" 4638: 4490: 4316: 2993: 2748:"China's Xi hails 'strategic partnership' with Syria in Bashar al-Assad visit" 2705: 2672: 2561: 2513: 2494: 2016: 1980: 1587: 971:, accused Syria of hosting Iraqi insurgent leaders who were co-ordinating the 671: 620: 6243: 5265: 5238: 4966: 4887: 4395:"How Saudi Arabia can contain Iran – and other benefits from Syria's turmoil" 3955: 2126: 1887:

have accused Assad of harbouring and supporting jihadist insurgents in Iraq.

1441:, Assad asserted that ISIL and al-Qaeda's extremist ideology is derived from 6302: 6228:"The ISIS Emni: Origins and Inner Workings of ISIS's Intelligence Apparatus" 5811:"LRB · Peter Neumann · Suspects into Collaborators: Assad and the Jihadists" 5775:"Jews in Damascus Restore Synagogues as Syria Tries to Foster Secular Image" 1950:

prisoners during the start of the Syrian crisis in an attempt to strengthen

1755: 1678: 1442: 1406: 1348: 1332: 963:

in Iraq suspended oil supplies to Syria. In 2004, The U.S. commander of the

878: 859:

in 2011, Iran began politically and militarily aiding the Assad government.

6407:"Syria, ISIS Have Been 'Ignoring' Each Other on Battlefield, Data Suggests" 3947: 3932:"Rethinking the Legality of Intervention by Invitation: Toward Neutrality" 2118: 2103:"Rethinking the Legality of Intervention by Invitation: Toward Neutrality" 1525:

on its territory, and a group of those trained announced the birth of the

5913: 5570: 5413: 3405:"An Intelligence Vet Explains ISIS, Yemen, and "the Dick Cheney of Iraq"" 3179:"Iran and Syria at the Crossroads: The Fall of the Tehran-Damascus Axis?" 3016:"Syria and Iran: Alliance Cooperation in a Changing Regional Environment" 2044: 2036: 1951: 1947: 1876: 1829: 1434: 1418: 1402: 1359: 1189:

North Korea is alleged to have aided Syria in developing and enhancing a

998: 925: 913: 848: 727:

as the next Egyptian president, relations became extremely strained. The

675: 655: 623:. Although the Arab states primarily coordinate in the CASCF through the 404: 377: 6251: 6122:"New leader of the Free Syrian Army: We warned the Americans about ISIS" 4443: 4016:

National, International, and Human Security: Protection Against Violence

2529:"Syria participates in Arab-Chinese Cooperation Forum in Chengdu, China" 824:. Historically, the two countries shared a common animosity towards the 6227: 6106: 5730:"Assad: "I see a new Middle EastSyria ready to negotiate on the Golan"" 5536: 5208:"Blair gets a public lecture on the harsh realities of the Middle East" 5083:"Turkey shells Syria's Afrin region, minister says operation has begun" 4985: 2460: 1834:

claimed that God created a people distinguished above all other peoples

1137: 651: 632: 5833:"Iraq asked Syria's Assad to stop aiding 'jihadists': Former official" 4486:"Saudi Arabia shuts embassy in Syria, withdraws staff as deaths mount" 4366:"The danger that Saudi Arabia will turn Syria into an Islamist hotbed" 6276:"ISIS's Revenues include Sales of Oil to the al-Assad Regime – Icsve" 6171:"Oil middleman between Syria and Isil is new target for EU sanctions" 3256: 2951:"France suffers from savage terror as Syrian people have been: Assad" 2546:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 118–119. 2166: 1968: 1511: 1495: 1296: 431: 423: 5304:"Assad says Trump travel ban targets terrorists, not Syria's people" 5227:"Assad's father-in-law: the man at the heart of UK-Syrian relations" 3993:"Syrian and Russian forces targeting hospitals as a strategy of war" 3101:"Iran helping Syrian regime crack down on protesters, say diplomats" 1895:

would claim: "Bashar al-Asad was well aware that his brother-in-law

1005:

militant groups and co-ordinated major combat operations during the

6028:"Assad's cooperation with ISIS could push U.S. into Syria conflict" 4981:"Exclusive: Obama authorizes secret U.S. support for Syrian rebels" 4435: 3392:

The Terrorists of Iraq: Inside the Strategy and Tactics of the Iraq

2897:"Egypt reaffirms support for political solution to crisis in Syria" 2479:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 56–58. 1689:" efforts, and the Syrian intelligence shared information with the 1449:, that is globally propagated by the Saudi monarchical government. 588:'s successor state Russia and Assad has formed close alliance with 6355:"Oil and Gas Sales to Assad Are Now ISIS' Largest Source of Funds" 5490:"Experts Weigh in on Regional Impact of Syria-Hamas Rapprochement" 4018:(3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 172. 3696:"Report: Iran, North Korea Helping Syria Resume Building Missiles" 2577:"China envoy says no accurate figure on Uighurs fighting in Syria" 2266: 1860: 1805: 1759: 1730: 1660: 1398: 1347:

in 2006 further damaged relations due to Syria's overt support to

1304: 1246: 1067: 838: 766:

spokesperson, Ahmed Abu Zeid, said that Egyptian foreign minister

465: 435: 6717:

Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization

6221: 6219: 4697:"Saudi Arabia says work at diplomatic mission in Syria to resume" 3466: 3464: 3337: 3335: 3307: 3305: 3292: 3290: 873:'s "ability to deal with protesters". Since the beginning of the 2690:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 207. 2657:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 120. 2074:

List of international presidential trips made by Bashar al-Assad

1828:

to Syria in 2001, Assad requested an apology to Muslims for the

866: 541: 5804: 5802: 5800: 2932: 2896: 2528: 1859:

in May 2010, Assad described the proposed "peace treaty" as a "

438:

have provided political, military, and logistic support to the

4763:"Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince meets Syria's al-Assad in Jeddah" 3971:"What has Russia gained from five years of fighting in Syria?" 2456:"Syria's Assad in China, seeks exit from diplomatic isolation" 1381: 29: 4518:"U.S. Relies Heavily on Saudi Money to Support Syrian Rebels" 3835:"Assad: Syria, North Korea Targeted Over 'Real Independence'" 1343:, an ally of Saudi Arabia, adversely affected relations. The 6405:

Vinograd, Cassandra; Omar, Ammar Cheikh (11 December 2014).

2721:"The 53 countries supporting China's crackdown on Hong Kong" 1258:

Assad also revived his government's strategic alliance with

3215:"Israel at UN: Iran has more than 80,000 fighters in Syria" 2603:"AP Exclusive: Uighurs fighting in Syria take aim at China" 1903:, had detailed knowledge of the activities of facilitator 959:

was despised by the new Iraqi government. As a result, the

6381:"Islamic State Steps Up Oil and Gas Sales to Assad Regime" 4953:"C.I.A. Said to Aid in Steering Arms to Syrian Opposition" 4459:"Saudi Arabia, Italy and Holland close embassies in Syria" 3873: 3871: 3257:"Syria has 830 foreign military sites. 70% belong to Iran" 2915:"Egypt Eyes Broad Participation in Syria's Reconstruction" 1498:

in January 2004, and in late 2004, Turkish Prime Minister

1129:

Lebanese-Syrian intermediary Ali Hamade stated before the

1040:

countries, Iraq rejected calls for al-Assad to step down.

650:

as partially due to the TIP, particularly via its ties to

6457:"The Assad Regime and Jihadis: Collaborators and Allies?" 5134:[Syria: Welcome to the Turkish occupation zone]. 4039:

Borshchevskaya, Anna (2022). "6: The Military Campaign".

3858:"N. Korean army units fighting for Syria regime: al-Zubi" 3718:"North Korea violating sanctions, according to UN report" 2248:

No pasarán! Antifascist Dispatches from a World in Crisis

1533:. Beginning in 2012, Turkey, in coordination with the US 1485:

Syrian–Turkish border clashes during the Syrian civil war

6697:

Shocks and Rivalries in the Middle East and North Africa

6329:"The Rise and Deadly Fall of Islamic State's Oil Tycoon" 4620:'Army of Conquest' rebel alliance pressures Syria regime 4066:"Syria's Assad would like more Russian bases and troops" 3750:"White House: Syria reactor not for 'peaceful' purposes" 3322: 3320: 635:

as member of Arab League for the first time since 2011.

6611:"Syria's Assad thinks he is winning. He could be wrong" 3153: 3151: 1926:

Military situation of the Syrian civil war in July 2015

832:, with Syria providing military aid to Iran during the 631:. In May 2023, Syria participated in a CASCF summit in 5110:"Turkey launches military operation in northern Syria" 4715:"Saudi Arabia, Syria agree to restore diplomatic ties" 4215:"Syrian president appoints ambassador to Saudi Arabia" 3778:"Syria: North Korean military 'advising Assad regime'" 3237:

Iran boosts military support in Syria to bolster Assad

2953:. Xinhua News Agency. 14 November 2015. Archived from 2320:. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 157–169. 6673:

Hinnebusch, Raymond; Ehteshami, Anoushiravan (2002).

5850:"Maliki blames Syria for attacks, Assad denies claim" 5132:"Syrien: Willkommen in der türkischen Besatzungszone" 4278:"Dr. Mahdi Dakhlallah is Syria's ambassador to Saudi" 2855:"Egypt's Sisi expresses support for Syria's military" 2629:"Is China Increasing Its Military Presence in Syria?" 1629:, was established in London by Assad's father-in-law 6198:"Rebels are close to Raqqa – but what happens next?" 4929:"Syria's opposition has been led astray by violence" 2998:"Iran Calls on Syria to Recognize Citizens' Demands" 1709:

adding that it was "not against the Syrian people".

1673:

The United States added Syria to its first list of "

1397:

reported that Saudi donors were a major support for

932:

began reestablishing relations with Iraqi president

642:. China views some Syrian rebel groups, such as the 6379:Faucon, Benoit; Omran, Ahmed Al (19 January 2017). 6270: 6268: 5160:"Skirmishes Mar Fight Against IS in Northern Syria" 4537:"Saudi edges Qatar to control Syrian rebel support" 3281: 1205:. Following the airstrike, Syria wrote a letter to 6581: 6005:"Has Assad infiltrated rebel forces inside Syria?" 5865:"Slain Syrian official supported al Qaeda in Iraq" 5567:"Polish experience shaped Pope's Jewish relations" 5537:"Syria and Judaism: The disappearance of the Jews" 4064:Faulconbridge, Guy; Davis, Caleb (16 March 2023). 3776: 3716: 3619:"Assad considered Hariri's conciliation a mockery" 1262:'s successor state Russia, with firm backing from 1083:During his early years, Assad attempted to deepen 6327:Faucon, Benoit; Coker, Margaret (24 April 2016). 5055:"Turkey Strikes Islamic State And Kurds in Syria" 4420:"Chronology: January 16, 2012 – April 15, 2012". 4132:"The Syrian Crisis and the Saudi-Iranian Rivalry" 3809:"Syria complains to U.N. about Israeli airstrike" 2318:Strategic culture and Weapons of Mass Destruction 2020:involved fighting rival Sunni opposition groups". 4555:"Joe Biden Is the Only Honest Man in Washington" 4516:Mazzetti, Mark; Apuzzo, Matt (23 January 2016). 4246:"A Rapprochement Between Syria and Saudi Arabia" 1843:Outlining his objectives in a 2009 interview to 1266:, who regularly provides cover for Assad in the 592:, who regularly provides cover for Assad in the 6576: 6574: 6478:Abrahms, Max; Glaser, John (10 December 2017). 4130:Benedetta Berti; Yoel Guzansky (October 2012). 3670:"Assad knew about Samaha plot, video indicates" 3560:"An hour with Syrian president Bashar al-Assad" 3470: 3455: 3431:"US giving security support to Yemen: Petraeus" 3356:"General: Iraqi Insurgents Directed From Syria" 3341: 3311: 3296: 3232: 3230: 1790: 646:(TIP), as terrorist organizations, attributing 470:Vladimir Putin and Bashar al-Assad in Russia's 3433:. Al Arabiya. 13 December 2009. Archived from 3103:, Simon Tisdall and foreign staff in Damascus 3046: 3044: 2627:Pauley, Logan; Marks, Jesse (20 August 2018). 1417:, and al Qaeda, and the extremist elements of 1017:, stated that al-Douri was residing in Syria. 6631:"Syria: Executions, Hostage Taking by Rebels" 6148:"French leader calls Assad a 'jihadist ally'" 6059:"Assad's Forces May Be Aiding New ISIS Surge" 4852:"Syria's Assad meets Erdogan for peace talks" 4043:. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. pp. 76, 77. 3481: 3479: 1979:citing documents captured from ISIS oil boss 1649:American intervention in the Syrian civil war 1056:Syrian intervention in the Lebanese Civil War 662:In its position as a permanent member of the 392:. During this period, Syria adopted a strong 388:and aligned Ba'athist Syria closely with the 380:-era policies of his father and predecessor, 348: 8: 6694:Mansour, Imad; Thompson, William R. (2020). 6583:"Syrian rebels accused of sectarian murders" 6455:Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad (11 February 2014). 5728:Bonanni, Andrea; Buren, Alix (24 May 2010). 5465:"Assad denies responsibility for Syrian war" 5409:"Assad: Iran won't attack Israel with nukes" 5373:Walker, Peter; News Agencies (21 May 2008). 5029:"Turkey Launches Fresh Incursion into Syria" 4874:"Turkey and Syria Signal Improved Relations" 4340:"Time to Back the Syrian National Coalition" 4110:"On President Assad's visit to Saudi Arabia" 3925: 3923: 3531:"Retrait syrien total fin avril au plus tar" 1693:. However, Syria changed tune following the 1539:Turkey's involvement in the Syrian civil war 1243:Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war 812:Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war 700:, Syrian state media focused primarily upon 556:capabilities with Soviet support. After the 4786: 4784: 4511: 4509: 4166:"Saudi Arabia appoints ambassador to Syria" 3130:, Executive Summary + Full report, May 2013 2096: 2094: 1778:. As well as the treaty, the future of the 1481:Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war 1299:, the only major Russian naval base in the 1239:Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war 384:. Hafiz al-Assad was a strong supporter of 6676:The Foreign Policies of Middle East States 5707:"Bashar Assad the peacemaker? Think again" 4903:"Syria and Turkey: A Complex Relationship" 3899: 3897: 3509:"Assad announces Lebanon troop withdrawal" 1988:IHS Jane's Terrorism and Insurgency Center 355: 341: 91: 6238:(1). Terrorism Research Institute: 2–16. 6226:Speckhard, Anne; Yayla, Ahmet S. (2017). 5959:Speakwell Cordall, Simon (21 June 2014). 4014:Neack, Laura (2023). "8:Human Security". 2873:"Egypt denies military presence in Syria" 1938:and some analysts have accused President 1782:was being discussed. Assad was quoted in 1409:stated that Turkey, Saudi Arabia and the 1327:Saudi involvement in the Syrian civil war 447:against anti-government forces in Syria. 80:Learn how and when to remove this message 5773:Derhally, Massoud A. (7 February 2011). 5375:"Olmert confirms peace talks with Syria" 5069:"Turkey sends tanks into northern Syria" 4125: 4123: 3554: 3552: 2849: 2847: 2022: 1921: 1867:Allegations of state-sponsored terrorism 1102:was widely blamed for orchestrating the 940:, helping Iraq to illegally import oil. 43:This article includes a list of general 5692:"Syrian's Assad defends Jewish comment" 5279:Turekian, Vaughan (22 September 2014). 4195:"New chapter for Syria-Saudi relations" 4159: 4157: 3856:Yusuf, Mohamed Sheikh (27 March 2016). 3487:"Syria: Between oppression and freedom" 2090: 1405:. In October 2014, U.S. Vice President 1307:. Assad also maintained his backing of 584:. Syria also revived its alliance with 94: 6596:from the original on 11 January 2022. 5907:Dickey, Christopher (5 January 2006). 5662:[Sharon is planning the war]. 4867: 4865: 4834:"Warm welcome for Assad's Turkey trip" 3930:Nguyen, Quoc Tan Trung (1 July 2019). 3326: 2813: 2101:Nguyen, Quoc Tan Trung (1 July 2019). 2051:groups reportedly took the lead in an 865:reported in May 2011 that the Iranian 552:co-operation and strengthening of its 548:"), which involved the achievement of 5961:"How Syria's Assad Helped Forge ISIS" 4338:Bröning, Michael (17 December 2012). 4244:Andrew Lee Butters (8 October 2009). 2338:The Middle East In Global Perspective 1592:United States invasion of Afghanistan 1185:Syria and weapons of mass destruction 997:in 2003, al-Douri reportedly fled to 7: 6432:. Yahoo News Maktoob. Archived from 4671:Aboufadel, Leith (7 November 2018). 4219:BBC Monitoring International Reports 3936:Journal of Conflict and Security Law 3880:"Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State?" 3878:Ker-Lindsay, James (27 April 2023). 3789:from the original on 11 January 2022 3729:from the original on 11 January 2022 3354:Thomas E. Ricks (17 December 2004). 3195:from the original on 22 October 2015 3053:"Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State?" 3051:Ker-Lindsay, James (27 April 2023). 2769:Moritsugu, Ken (22 September 2023). 2402:"Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State?" 2400:Ker-Lindsay, James (27 April 2023). 2358:"Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State?" 2356:Ker-Lindsay, James (27 April 2023). 2288:"Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State?" 2286:Ker-Lindsay, James (27 April 2023). 2187:"Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State?" 2185:Ker-Lindsay, James (27 April 2023). 2107:Journal of Conflict and Security Law 1567:Turkish occupation of northern Syria 1545:, and direct military interventions 1489:Turkish occupation of northern Syria 1433:. In a February 2015 interview with 1362:. Syria appointed a new ambassador, 928:. However by 1997, Syrian president 517:. Hafiz allied Syria closely to the 6527:"Gulf allies and 'Army of Conquest" 6303:"Why Bashar Assad Won't Fight ISIS" 6089:U.S. Embassy Syria (1 June 2015). 5978:Salloum, Raniah (10 October 2013). 5302:Angus McDowall (16 February 2017). 5108:McKernan, Bethan (9 October 2019). 4901:Epatko, Larisa (15 November 2012). 4307:Bassel Oudat (21–27 January 2010). 3591:Bergman, Ronen (10 February 2015). 3511:. www.theguardian.com. 5 March 2005 3014:Goodarzi, Jubin M. (January 2013). 2799:. 22 September 2023. Archived from 2754:. 22 September 2023. Archived from 1764:Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine 1625:, an association set up to promote 1393:cable signed by Secretary of State 908:Syria was a prominent adversary of 617:China-Arab States Cooperation Forum 503: 6353:Solomon, Feliz (20 January 2017). 6070:from the original on 16 April 2023 6007:. Channel Four News. 24 April 2014 5322:"Assad sets conference conditions" 5252:Hersh, Seymour M. (20 July 2003). 4594:Gulf allies and 'Army of Conquest' 3969:Petkova, Mariya (1 October 2020). 3756:from the original on 10 April 2017 2027:Military situation in January 2019 2013:Saddam Hussein sponsoring Al Qaeda 1022:American troops withdrew from Iraq 1013:, who was at the time heading the 532:In 1976, Hafiz al-Assad ordered a 49:it lacks sufficient corresponding 25: 5863:Joscelyn, Thomas (24 July 2012). 5407:Roee Nahmias (30 November 2010). 4393:Saab, Bilal Y. (31 August 2011). 4136:Foreign Policy Research Institute 3644:"Bomb kills top Hezbollah leader" 2575:Blanchard, Ben (20 August 2018). 1616:legitimacy of the State of Israel 1380:Saudi Arabia was involved in the 1151:In May 2015, Lebanese politician 1091:, triggering a political crisis. 513:'the Sanctified') by the 484:foreign policy of Ba'athist Syria 18:Foreign Policy of Bashar al-Assad 6428:Abou Zeid, Mario (11 May 2015). 6301:Baker, Aryn (26 February 2015). 6120:Hullah, Henry (29 August 2014). 5603:from the original on 29 May 2011 5597:"Pope appeals for Mideast peace" 5522:. Associated Press. 6 May 2001. 5463:King, Esther (2 November 2016). 5385:from the original on 21 May 2008 5349:"Lebanon: the war after the war" 5347:Rogers, Paul (11 October 2006). 4872:Arsu, Sebnem (14 October 2009). 4284:. 1 October 2009. Archived from 3837:. Voice of America. 8 March 2015 3815:from the original on 12 May 2016 3617:Knutsen, Elise (14 April 2015). 2968:Irish, John (17 November 2015). 2601:Shih, Gerry (23 December 2017). 1529:(FSA), under the supervision of 538:Syrian occupation of the country 534:military intervention in Lebanon 376:is based on continuity from the 321: 99: 34: 27:Syrian foreign policy since 2000 6700:. Georgetown University Press. 5936:Joe, Pace (14 September 2005). 5809:Neumann, Peter (3 April 2014). 5225:Booth, Robert (15 March 2012). 4927:Manna, Haytham (22 June 2012). 4364:Joshua Jacobs (12 April 2012). 4094:. 15 March 2023. Archived from 3904:Lundius, Jan (21 August 2019). 3568:. 27 March 2006. Archived from 3407:. 22 April 2015. Archived from 3282:Hinnebusch & Ehteshami 2002 3177:Goodarzi, Jubin (August 2013). 3074:Lundius, Jan (21 August 2019). 2454:Cash, Joe (21 September 2023). 2427:Lundius, Jan (21 August 2019). 2375:Syria: Beyond the Peace Process 2225:Syria: Beyond the Peace Process 2206:Lundius, Jan (21 August 2019). 2165:. 15 March 2023. Archived from 1254:alongside Assad, September 2021 668:Hong Kong national security law 5758:. 22 June 2010. Archived from 5435:Meris Lutz (2 December 2010). 4951:Schmitt, Eric (21 June 2012). 4535:Mariam Karouny (31 May 2013). 4315:. No. 982. Archived from 3999:. 3 March 2016. Archived from 3128:Institute for the Study of War 2039:'s Syrian affiliate, issued a 2015:." According to an April 2017 2005:and John Glaser stated in the 1665:Assad meets with U.S. Senator 1657:Syrian Train and Equip Program 1627:Syria–United Kingdom relations 1579:Syria–United Kingdom relations 981:, former Vice Chairman of the 916:. Syria supported Iran in the 1: 6535:. 28 May 2015. Archived from 6196:Philps, Alan (25 June 2015). 6169:Blair, David (7 March 2015). 6056:Barnard, Anne (2 June 2015). 5705:Badran, Tony (9 April 2009). 5599:. Damascus: CNN. 5 May 2001. 5183:Robert Fisk (29 March 2017). 5158:Sirwan Kajjo (2 March 2017). 4717:. Digital Journal. 9 May 2023 4629:". Yahoo News. 28 April 2015. 4457:Yoe Goldman (15 March 2013). 4399:The Christian Science Monitor 4371:The Christian Science Monitor 3775:Ryall, Julian (6 June 2013). 3167:, telegraph, 21 February 2014 1788:as telling the Qatari paper: 1643:Syria–United States relations 1085:Syria's control over Lebanese 983:Revolutionary Command Council 961:American-installed government 945:American-led invasion of Iraq 648:the uptick in terror in China 573:assassination of Rafic Hariri 6679:. Lynne Rienner Publishers. 6655:Lebanon: A History, 600–2011 6564:International Business Times 6150:. Al Jazeera. 28 August 2014 5516:"Assad greets pope in Syria" 4574:Kim Sengupta (12 May 2015). 3158:Iran boosts support to Syria 2719:Lawler, Dave (2 July 2020). 2151:Council on Foreign Relations 2079:Presidency of Hafiz al-Assad 1915:, and human rights activist 1901:Syrian Military Intelligence 1321:Saudi Arabia–Syria relations 1131:Special Tribunal for Lebanon 1115:Special Tribunal for Lebanon 1060:Syrian occupation of Lebanon 943:Bashar al-Assad opposed the 920:and joined the American-led 738:General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi 678:, prior to the beginning of 204:Syrian occupation of Lebanon 6658:. Oxford University Press. 6652:Harris, William W. (2012). 6026:Bar'el, Zvi (3 June 2015). 5917:. p. 3. Archived from 5057:. Sky News. 23 August 2016. 4430:(3): 493–538. Summer 2012. 4193:Phil Sands (10 July 2009). 3533:(in French). Archived from 3471:Mansour & Thompson 2020 3456:Mansour & Thompson 2020 3342:Mansour & Thompson 2020 3312:Mansour & Thompson 2020 3297:Mansour & Thompson 2020 3246:, Reuters, 21 February 2014 2341:. New York, NY: Routledge. 2251:. Edinburgh, UK: AK Press. 1993:Carnegie Middle East Center 1955:controlled by the regime. 1946:of strategically releasing 1719:Status of the Golan Heights 1675:State Sponsors of Terrorism 1596:Palestinian militant groups 1535:Central Intelligence Agency 1502:flew to Damascus to sign a 1339:of Lebanese Prime Minister 1309:Russian invasion of Ukraine 1207:Secretary-General of the UN 1179:North Korea–Syria relations 975:from their bases in Syria. 790:November 2015 Paris attacks 515:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party 486:were formulated during the 414:Following its crackdown on 6770: 6749:Foreign relations of Syria 5631:. May 2001. p. 7912. 5629:Government Printing Office 4164:Alex Sorin (7 July 2009). 3860:. UPI News. Archived from 3593:"The Hezbollah Connection" 2069:Foreign relations of Syria 1883:and former Prime Minister 1716: 1646: 1640: 1576: 1478: 1472: 1324: 1318: 1236: 1230: 1182: 1176: 1053: 1047: 1001:, from where he organized 901: 855:Following the outbreak of 809: 803: 781: 689: 608: 6232:Perspectives on Terrorism 5660:"Scharon plant den Krieg" 4599:19 September 2015 at the 3117:Iranian Strategy in Syria 2059:of Syria in August 2013. 1457:had invited Assad to the 995:American invasion of Iraq 372:during the presidency of 161:Secretary-General of the 5668:(in German). 9 July 2001 2686:Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). 2653:Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). 2542:Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). 2475:Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). 1911:and opposition activist 1871:According to journalist 1290:The Washington Institute 973:anti-American insurgency 924:against Iraq during the 764:Egypt's Foreign Ministry 629:Belt and Road Initiative 600:Relations with countries 108:This article is part of 5285:Science & Diplomacy 5033:The Wall Street Journal 4423:The Middle East Journal 3242:22 October 2015 at the 3122:1 February 2016 at the 2245:Burkley, Shane (2022). 2055:on Alawite villages in 1541:gradually evolved into 1517:Since the start of the 1459:2023 Arab League summit 1195:Deir ez-Zor Governorate 1093:Lebanese Prime Minister 1078:killing of Rafic Hariri 1050:Lebanon–Syria relations 955:policy and support for 892:Deir Ezzor governorates 644:Turkistan Islamic Party 546:al-tawazun al-istratiji 64:more precise citations. 6715:Sadiki, Larbi (2014). 5815:London Review of Books 5071:. BBC. 24 August 2016. 2373:Pipes, Daniel (1996). 2223:Pipes, Daniel (1996). 2028: 1998:Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi 1927: 1802:leaked American cables 1798: 1769:In a speech about the 1750:The U.S., the EU, the 1747: 1670: 1623:British Syrian Society 1585:British Prime Minister 1543:border clashes in 2012 1475:Syria–Turkey relations 1255: 1233:Russia–Syria relations 1080: 1011:General David Petraeus 979:Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri 947:in 2003. He sheltered 938:sanctions against Iraq 852: 784:France–Syria relations 565:his succession in 2000 479: 456:largest refugee crisis 6430:"Assad's Last Battle" 6124:. CNN. Archived from 4685:on 28 September 2021. 4003:on 21 September 2021. 3997:Amnesty International 3884:World Politics Review 3057:World Politics Review 2803:on 23 September 2023. 2781:on 22 September 2023. 2758:on 23 September 2023. 2406:World Politics Review 2362:World Politics Review 2292:World Politics Review 2191:World Politics Review 2026: 1925: 1734: 1713:Arab–Israeli conflict 1706:Executive Order 13769 1664: 1286:Amnesty International 1275:military intervention 1250: 1071: 842: 692:Egypt–Syria relations 611:China–Syria relations 469: 370:Syrian foreign policy 209:Arab–Israeli conflict 6539:on 19 September 2015 6128:on 25 September 2014 5921:on 11 January 2006. 5869:The Long War Journal 5762:on 17 December 2021. 5694:. CNN. 27 June 2001. 4625:4 March 2016 at the 4494:. AFP. 14 March 2012 4309:"Testing the waters" 4041:Putin's War in Syria 3906:"The Syrian Tragedy" 3390:(18 December 2014), 3163:11 July 2018 at the 3076:"The Syrian Tragedy" 2957:on 17 November 2015. 2883:The Associated Press 2831:english.ahram.org.eg 2531:. SANA. 29 May 2023. 2429:"The Syrian Tragedy" 2208:"The Syrian Tragedy" 1727:Quneitra Governorate 1612:September 11 attacks 1531:Turkish intelligence 1504:free trade agreement 1500:Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 1455:Salman bin Abdulaziz 1445:, a movement within 1411:United Arab Emirates 1015:U.S. Central Command 904:Iraq–Syria relations 806:Iran–Syria relations 788:Assad condemned the 745:Abdel Fattah el-Sisi 704:of Egypt, using the 558:fall of Soviet Union 494:, who is revered as 6619:. 9 September 2014. 6616:The Washington Post 6589:The Daily Telegraph 6459:. Middle East Forum 6175:The Daily Telegraph 5717:on 13 January 2010. 5130:(14 October 2017). 4464:The Times of Israel 4288:on 11 December 2013 4225:. 30 September 2009 3948:10.1093/jcsl/krz004 3864:on 5 December 2021. 3411:on 28 December 2015 3360:The Washington Post 3220:The Times of Israel 3145:, 11 February 2012. 3086:on 5 October 2021. 3023:Middle East Studies 2939:. 25 February 2018. 2903:. 17 February 2018. 2885:. 27 November 2016. 2861:. 23 November 2016. 2439:on 5 October 2021. 2159:"Conflict in Syria" 2147:"Conflict in Syria" 2119:10.1093/jcsl/krz004 2057:Latakia Governorate 1975:Wall Street Journal 1930:During the ongoing 1913:Abdul Halim Khaddam 1794:Bush administration 1683:Bush administration 1569:since August 2016. 1565:, resulting in the 1463:Mohammed bin Salman 1429:coalition known as 1391:US State Department 1335:, however the 2005 1268:UN Security Council 1100:Syrian intelligence 969:George W. Casey Jr. 875:insurgency in Syria 847:alongside Assad in 749:Syrian Armed Forces 664:UN Security Council 594:UN Security Council 536:, resulting in the 171:Syrian Armed Forces 163:Syrian Ba'ath Party 6637:. 10 October 2013. 6635:Human Rights Watch 6592:. 11 August 2013. 6567:. 13 October 2015. 6064:The New York Times 5892:. 29 August 2009. 5835:. 20 October 2015. 5214:. 1 November 2001. 5035:. 3 September 2016 5007:The New York Times 4958:The New York Times 4879:The New York Times 4522:The New York Times 4258:on 11 October 2009 4171:The Jerusalem Post 3981:on 1 October 2020. 3916:on 5 October 2021. 3650:. 13 February 2008 3597:The New York Times 3572:on 28 January 2011 3002:The New York Times 2517:. 12 January 2022. 2218:on 5 October 2021. 2029: 1960:Western government 1928: 1881:Mowaffak al-Rubaie 1818:Camp David Accords 1748: 1671: 1345:Israel-Lebanon war 1256: 1191:ballistic missiles 1081: 953:de-Ba'athification 853: 843:Iranian president 826:Iraqi Ba'ath Party 822:Axis of Resistance 762:In February 2017, 729:Muslim Brotherhood 721:Muslim Brotherhood 480: 401:alliance with Iran 224:Presidential trips 153:President of Syria 6726:978-0-415-52391-2 6485:Los Angeles Times 5852:. 4 October 2009. 5496:. 20 October 2022 5442:Los Angeles Times 5089:. 19 January 2018 4840:. 6 January 2004. 4660:. 31 August 2017. 4641:(9 February 2015) 4563:. 7 October 2014. 4374:. Washington, D.C 4116:. 9 October 2000. 4098:on 30 April 2023. 4076:on 20 March 2023. 4050:978-0-7556-3463-7 3497:on 10 April 2022. 3188:. Wilson Center. 2921:. 8 January 2018. 2878:The Seattle Times 2697:978-1-5036-3060-4 2664:978-1-5036-3060-4 2553:978-1-5036-3060-4 2486:978-1-5036-3060-4 2348:978-0-367-29388-8 2327:978-1-349-37694-0 2258:978-1-84935-482-0 2153:. 28 August 2023. 2008:Los Angeles Times 1944:Syrian government 1936:Syrian opposition 1826:Pope John Paul II 1752:March 14 Alliance 1744:as part of Israel 1742:and administered 1614:and accepted the 1608:the Western world 1604:criticised Israel 1583:In October 2001, 1358:visited Assad in 1203:Operation Orchard 1199:Israeli Air Force 1155:was sentenced to 1111:Syrian parliament 1104:killing of Hariri 1026:Syrian revolution 857:Syrian revolution 794:Syrian opposition 512: 482:Major pillars of 472:Khmeimim Air Base 440:Syrian opposition 365: 364: 219:COVID-19 pandemic 126: 125: 90: 89: 82: 16:(Redirected from 6761: 6730: 6711: 6690: 6669: 6639: 6638: 6627: 6621: 6620: 6607: 6601: 6600: 6585: 6578: 6569: 6568: 6555: 6549: 6548: 6546: 6544: 6523: 6517: 6516: 6515:. 19 April 2017. 6503: 6497: 6496: 6494: 6492: 6475: 6469: 6468: 6466: 6464: 6452: 6446: 6445: 6443: 6441: 6425: 6419: 6418: 6416: 6414: 6402: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6391: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6365: 6350: 6344: 6343: 6341: 6339: 6324: 6318: 6317: 6315: 6313: 6298: 6292: 6291: 6289: 6287: 6272: 6263: 6262: 6260: 6258: 6223: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6209: 6204:. Abu Dhabi, UAE 6193: 6187: 6186: 6184: 6182: 6166: 6160: 6159: 6157: 6155: 6144: 6138: 6137: 6135: 6133: 6117: 6111: 6110: 6104: 6102: 6086: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6075: 6061: 6053: 6047: 6046: 6040: 6038: 6023: 6017: 6016: 6014: 6012: 6001: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5990: 5975: 5969: 5968: 5956: 5950: 5949: 5933: 5927: 5926: 5904: 5898: 5897: 5886: 5880: 5879: 5877: 5875: 5860: 5854: 5853: 5846: 5837: 5836: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5806: 5795: 5794: 5789: 5787: 5770: 5764: 5763: 5748: 5742: 5741: 5740:on 13 July 2010. 5736:. Archived from 5725: 5719: 5718: 5713:. Archived from 5702: 5696: 5695: 5688: 5682: 5681: 5675: 5673: 5656: 5650: 5649: 5647: 5645: 5619: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5593: 5587: 5586: 5580: 5578: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5550: 5548: 5533: 5527: 5526: 5512: 5506: 5505: 5503: 5501: 5486: 5480: 5479: 5474: 5472: 5460: 5454: 5453: 5451: 5449: 5432: 5426: 5425: 5423: 5421: 5404: 5398: 5397: 5392: 5390: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5361: 5359: 5344: 5338: 5337: 5335: 5333: 5328:. 1 October 2007 5318: 5312: 5311: 5299: 5293: 5292: 5276: 5270: 5269: 5254:"The Syrian Bet" 5249: 5243: 5242: 5222: 5216: 5215: 5204: 5198: 5197: 5180: 5174: 5173: 5165:Voice of America 5155: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5144: 5128:Sydow, Christoph 5124: 5118: 5117: 5105: 5099: 5098: 5096: 5094: 5079: 5073: 5072: 5065: 5059: 5058: 5051: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5025: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5014: 5000:Mackey, Robert. 4997: 4991: 4990: 4989:. 1 August 2012. 4977: 4971: 4970: 4948: 4942: 4941: 4924: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4913: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4869: 4860: 4859: 4858:. 5 August 2008. 4848: 4842: 4841: 4830: 4824: 4823: 4788: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4759: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4681:. 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Neumann 1771:2006 Lebanon War 1695:invasion of Iraq 1600:freedom fighters 1527:Free Syrian Army 1519:Syrian civil war 1423:Army of Conquest 1371:Syrian civil war 1364:Mahdi Dakhlallah 1279:Syrian civil war 1221:Syrian civil war 1168: 1167: 1163: 1160: 1142:Cedar Revolution 1076:, following the 1074:Cedar Revolution 1064:Cedar Revolution 1007:Iraqi insurgency 965:coalition forces 949:Iraqi Ba'athists 680:19th Asian Games 640:Syrian civil war 582:2006 Lebanon War 577:Cedar Revolution 507: 505: 452:Syrian civil war 450:As of 2023, the 416:protests in 2011 357: 350: 343: 325: 214:War against ISIS 199:Syrian civil war 122: 121: 119: 112: 111: 103: 96: 95: 92: 85: 78: 74: 71: 65: 60:this article by 51:inline citations 38: 37: 30: 21: 6769: 6768: 6764: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6759: 6758: 6754:Bashar al-Assad 6739: 6738: 6737: 6727: 6714: 6708: 6693: 6687: 6672: 6666: 6651: 6648: 6643: 6642: 6629: 6628: 6624: 6609: 6608: 6604: 6580: 6579: 6572: 6557: 6556: 6552: 6542: 6540: 6532:Al-Ahram Weekly 6525: 6524: 6520: 6505: 6504: 6500: 6490: 6488: 6477: 6476: 6472: 6462: 6460: 6454: 6453: 6449: 6439: 6437: 6427: 6426: 6422: 6412: 6410: 6404: 6403: 6399: 6389: 6387: 6378: 6377: 6373: 6363: 6361: 6352: 6351: 6347: 6337: 6335: 6326: 6325: 6321: 6311: 6309: 6300: 6299: 6295: 6285: 6283: 6282:. 27 April 2016 6274: 6273: 6266: 6256: 6254: 6225: 6224: 6217: 6207: 6205: 6195: 6194: 6190: 6180: 6178: 6168: 6167: 6163: 6153: 6151: 6146: 6145: 6141: 6131: 6129: 6119: 6118: 6114: 6100: 6098: 6088: 6087: 6083: 6073: 6071: 6055: 6054: 6050: 6036: 6034: 6025: 6024: 6020: 6010: 6008: 6003: 6002: 5998: 5988: 5986: 5977: 5976: 5972: 5958: 5957: 5953: 5935: 5934: 5930: 5909:"'Mafia State'" 5906: 5905: 5901: 5888: 5887: 5883: 5873: 5871: 5862: 5861: 5857: 5848: 5847: 5840: 5831: 5830: 5826: 5808: 5807: 5798: 5785: 5783: 5772: 5771: 5767: 5750: 5749: 5745: 5727: 5726: 5722: 5704: 5703: 5699: 5690: 5689: 5685: 5671: 5669: 5658: 5657: 5653: 5643: 5641: 5639: 5621: 5620: 5616: 5606: 5604: 5595: 5594: 5590: 5576: 5574: 5565: 5564: 5560: 5546: 5544: 5535: 5534: 5530: 5514: 5513: 5509: 5499: 5497: 5488: 5487: 5483: 5470: 5468: 5462: 5461: 5457: 5447: 5445: 5434: 5433: 5429: 5419: 5417: 5406: 5405: 5401: 5388: 5386: 5372: 5371: 5367: 5357: 5355: 5346: 5345: 5341: 5331: 5329: 5320: 5319: 5315: 5301: 5300: 5296: 5278: 5277: 5273: 5251: 5250: 5246: 5224: 5223: 5219: 5206: 5205: 5201: 5190:The Independent 5182: 5181: 5177: 5157: 5156: 5152: 5142: 5140: 5126: 5125: 5121: 5107: 5106: 5102: 5092: 5090: 5081: 5080: 5076: 5067: 5066: 5062: 5053: 5052: 5048: 5038: 5036: 5027: 5026: 5022: 5012: 5010: 4999: 4998: 4994: 4979: 4978: 4974: 4950: 4949: 4945: 4926: 4925: 4921: 4911: 4909: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4871: 4870: 4863: 4850: 4849: 4845: 4832: 4831: 4827: 4820: 4790: 4789: 4782: 4772: 4770: 4761: 4760: 4756: 4746: 4744: 4735: 4734: 4730: 4720: 4718: 4713: 4712: 4708: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4670: 4669: 4665: 4650: 4649: 4645: 4637: 4633: 4627:Wayback Machine 4617: 4613: 4606:Al-Ahram Weekly 4601:Wayback Machine 4591: 4587: 4580:The Independent 4573: 4572: 4568: 4553: 4552: 4548: 4534: 4533: 4529: 4515: 4514: 4507: 4497: 4495: 4484: 4483: 4479: 4469: 4467: 4456: 4455: 4451: 4419: 4418: 4414: 4404: 4402: 4401:. Washington DC 4392: 4391: 4387: 4377: 4375: 4363: 4362: 4358: 4348: 4346: 4344:Foreign Affairs 4337: 4336: 4332: 4322: 4320: 4313:Al Ahram Weekly 4306: 4305: 4301: 4291: 4289: 4276: 4275: 4271: 4261: 4259: 4243: 4242: 4238: 4228: 4226: 4213: 4212: 4208: 4192: 4191: 4187: 4177: 4175: 4163: 4162: 4155: 4145: 4143: 4129: 4128: 4121: 4108: 4107: 4103: 4086: 4085: 4081: 4063: 4062: 4058: 4051: 4038: 4037: 4033: 4026: 4013: 4012: 4008: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3968: 3967: 3963: 3929: 3928: 3921: 3903: 3902: 3895: 3890:on 2 June 2023. 3877: 3876: 3869: 3855: 3854: 3850: 3840: 3838: 3833: 3832: 3828: 3818: 3816: 3807: 3806: 3802: 3792: 3790: 3774: 3773: 3769: 3759: 3757: 3747: 3746: 3742: 3732: 3730: 3725:. 3 July 2012. 3715: 3714: 3710: 3700: 3698: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3679: 3677: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3653: 3651: 3642: 3641: 3637: 3627: 3625: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3601: 3599: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3575: 3573: 3558: 3557: 3550: 3540: 3538: 3537:on 16 June 2021 3529: 3528: 3524: 3514: 3512: 3507: 3506: 3502: 3485: 3484: 3477: 3469: 3462: 3454: 3450: 3440: 3438: 3429: 3428: 3424: 3414: 3412: 3403: 3402: 3398: 3386: 3385: 3381: 3373: 3372: 3364: 3362: 3353: 3352: 3348: 3340: 3333: 3325: 3318: 3310: 3303: 3295: 3288: 3280: 3276: 3266: 3264: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3244:Wayback Machine 3235: 3228: 3213: 3212: 3208: 3198: 3196: 3192: 3181: 3176: 3175: 3171: 3165:Wayback Machine 3156: 3149: 3138: 3134: 3124:Wayback Machine 3115: 3111: 3099: 3095: 3073: 3072: 3068: 3063:on 2 June 2023. 3050: 3049: 3042: 3032: 3030: 3018: 3013: 3012: 3008: 3004:, 8 August 2011 2992: 2988: 2978: 2976: 2967: 2966: 2962: 2949: 2948: 2944: 2931: 2930: 2926: 2919:Asharq al-Awsat 2913: 2912: 2908: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2871: 2870: 2866: 2853: 2852: 2845: 2835: 2833: 2825: 2824: 2820: 2812: 2808: 2791: 2790: 2786: 2768: 2767: 2763: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2731: 2729: 2718: 2717: 2713: 2698: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2665: 2652: 2651: 2647: 2637: 2635: 2626: 2625: 2621: 2611: 2609: 2600: 2599: 2595: 2585: 2583: 2574: 2573: 2569: 2554: 2541: 2540: 2536: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2507: 2506: 2502: 2487: 2474: 2473: 2469: 2453: 2452: 2448: 2426: 2425: 2421: 2399: 2398: 2394: 2385: 2372: 2368:on 2 June 2023. 2355: 2349: 2334: 2328: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2285: 2284: 2280: 2259: 2244: 2235: 2222: 2205: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2169:on 5 July 2023. 2157: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2100: 2099: 2092: 2087: 2065: 1986:An unpublished 1940:Bashar al-Assad 1917:Razan Zaitouneh 1885:Nouri al-Maliki 1869: 1804:, Assad called 1774:Prime Minister 1729: 1715: 1704:In response to 1659: 1653:Timber Sycamore 1645: 1639: 1581: 1575: 1491: 1477: 1471: 1395:Hillary Clinton 1386:Timber Sycamore 1329: 1323: 1317: 1245: 1235: 1229: 1201:in 2007 during 1187: 1181: 1175: 1165: 1161: 1158: 1156: 1066: 1052: 1046: 906: 900: 871:Syrian military 814: 808: 802: 786: 780: 736:weeks later by 694: 688: 613: 607: 602: 521:and adopted an 464: 374:Bashar al-Assad 361: 318: 288: 228: 189:Damascus Spring 176: 166: 158: 148: 118:Bashar al-Assad 117: 115: 114: 113: 109: 107: 106: 86: 75: 69: 66: 56:Please help to 55: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6767: 6765: 6757: 6756: 6751: 6741: 6740: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6731: 6725: 6712: 6706: 6691: 6685: 6670: 6664: 6647: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6622: 6602: 6570: 6550: 6518: 6498: 6470: 6447: 6436:on 18 May 2015 6420: 6397: 6371: 6345: 6319: 6293: 6264: 6215: 6188: 6161: 6139: 6112: 6081: 6048: 6018: 5996: 5970: 5951: 5928: 5899: 5881: 5855: 5838: 5824: 5796: 5765: 5743: 5720: 5697: 5683: 5651: 5637: 5614: 5588: 5558: 5528: 5507: 5481: 5455: 5427: 5399: 5365: 5339: 5313: 5294: 5271: 5258:The New Yorker 5244: 5217: 5199: 5175: 5150: 5137:Spiegel Online 5119: 5100: 5074: 5060: 5046: 5020: 4992: 4972: 4943: 4919: 4893: 4861: 4843: 4825: 4818: 4801:The New Turkey 4780: 4754: 4728: 4706: 4688: 4678:Al-Masdar News 4663: 4643: 4631: 4611: 4609:. 28 May 2015. 4585: 4566: 4560:Foreign Policy 4546: 4527: 4505: 4477: 4449: 4436:10.3751/66.3.2 4412: 4385: 4356: 4330: 4299: 4269: 4236: 4206: 4185: 4153: 4142:on 20 May 2013 4119: 4101: 4079: 4056: 4049: 4031: 4024: 4006: 3984: 3961: 3942:(2): 201–238. 3919: 3893: 3867: 3848: 3826: 3800: 3767: 3740: 3708: 3687: 3674:The Daily Star 3661: 3635: 3623:The Daily Star 3609: 3583: 3548: 3522: 3500: 3475: 3473:, p. 122. 3460: 3458:, p. 121. 3448: 3422: 3396: 3388:Nance, Malcolm 3379: 3346: 3344:, p. 119. 3331: 3329:, p. 267. 3316: 3314:, p. 117. 3301: 3299:, p. 118. 3286: 3284:, p. 149. 3274: 3248: 3226: 3206: 3169: 3147: 3132: 3109: 3093: 3066: 3040: 3006: 2986: 2960: 2942: 2924: 2906: 2888: 2864: 2843: 2818: 2816:, p. 147. 2806: 2784: 2761: 2739: 2711: 2696: 2678: 2663: 2645: 2619: 2593: 2567: 2552: 2534: 2520: 2500: 2485: 2467: 2446: 2419: 2392: 2390: 2389: 2383: 2370: 2353: 2347: 2332: 2326: 2305: 2278: 2276: 2275: 2257: 2242: 2233: 2220: 2203: 2174: 2172: 2171: 2155: 2135: 2113:(2): 201–238. 2089: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2082: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2064: 2061: 2033:al-Nusra Front 1909:Vice President 1899:, Director of 1893:David Petraeus 1868: 1865: 1811:Hafiz al-Assad 1714: 1711: 1641:Main article: 1638: 1635: 1577:Main article: 1574: 1573:United Kingdom 1571: 1473:Main article: 1470: 1467: 1415:al-Nusra Front 1319:Main article: 1316: 1313: 1264:Vladimir Putin 1252:Vladimir Putin 1231:Main article: 1228: 1225: 1177:Main article: 1174: 1171: 1146:Imad Mughniyah 1140:following the 1119:Walid Jumblatt 1048:Main article: 1045: 1042: 987:Ba'athist Iraq 934:Saddam Hussein 930:Hafiz al-Assad 910:Ba'athist Iraq 902:Main article: 899: 896: 830:Saddam Hussein 804:Main article: 801: 798: 782:Main article: 779: 776: 757:al-Nusra Front 690:Main article: 687: 684: 609:Main article: 606: 603: 601: 598: 590:Vladimir Putin 492:Hafiz al-Assad 463: 460: 409:Vladimir Putin 382:Hafiz al-Assad 363: 362: 360: 359: 352: 345: 337: 334: 333: 327: 326: 317: 316: 311: 306: 301: 295: 294: 287: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 246: 241: 235: 234: 227: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 185: 184: 175: 174: 167: 157: 156: 147: 146: 141: 136: 128: 127: 124: 123: 110:a series about 104: 88: 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Routledge. 6718: 6713: 6709: 6707:9781626167681 6703: 6699: 6698: 6692: 6688: 6686:9781588260208 6682: 6678: 6677: 6671: 6667: 6665:9780190217839 6661: 6657: 6656: 6650: 6649: 6645: 6636: 6632: 6626: 6623: 6618: 6617: 6612: 6606: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6590: 6584: 6577: 6575: 6571: 6566: 6565: 6560: 6554: 6551: 6538: 6534: 6533: 6528: 6522: 6519: 6514: 6513: 6508: 6502: 6499: 6487: 6486: 6481: 6474: 6471: 6458: 6451: 6448: 6435: 6431: 6424: 6421: 6408: 6401: 6398: 6386: 6382: 6375: 6372: 6360: 6356: 6349: 6346: 6334: 6330: 6323: 6320: 6308: 6304: 6297: 6294: 6281: 6277: 6271: 6269: 6265: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6222: 6220: 6216: 6203: 6199: 6192: 6189: 6176: 6172: 6165: 6162: 6149: 6143: 6140: 6127: 6123: 6116: 6113: 6108: 6096: 6092: 6085: 6082: 6069: 6065: 6060: 6052: 6049: 6045: 6033: 6029: 6022: 6019: 6006: 6000: 5997: 5985: 5981: 5974: 5971: 5966: 5962: 5955: 5952: 5948: 5943: 5942:Syria Comment 5939: 5932: 5929: 5925: 5920: 5916: 5915: 5910: 5903: 5900: 5896: 5891: 5885: 5882: 5870: 5866: 5859: 5856: 5851: 5845: 5843: 5839: 5834: 5828: 5825: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5805: 5803: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5782: 5781: 5776: 5769: 5766: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5747: 5744: 5739: 5735: 5734:La Repubblica 5731: 5724: 5721: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5701: 5698: 5693: 5687: 5684: 5680: 5667: 5666: 5661: 5655: 5652: 5640: 5638:9780160729669 5634: 5630: 5626: 5625: 5618: 5615: 5602: 5598: 5592: 5589: 5585: 5572: 5568: 5562: 5559: 5555: 5543:. 10 May 2001 5542: 5541:The Economist 5538: 5532: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5511: 5508: 5495: 5491: 5485: 5482: 5478: 5466: 5459: 5456: 5444: 5443: 5438: 5431: 5428: 5416: 5415: 5410: 5403: 5400: 5396: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5369: 5366: 5354: 5353:openDemocracy 5350: 5343: 5340: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5314: 5309: 5305: 5298: 5295: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5275: 5272: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5248: 5245: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5221: 5218: 5213: 5209: 5203: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5191: 5186: 5179: 5176: 5172: 5167: 5166: 5161: 5154: 5151: 5139: 5138: 5133: 5129: 5123: 5120: 5115: 5111: 5104: 5101: 5088: 5084: 5078: 5075: 5070: 5064: 5061: 5056: 5050: 5047: 5034: 5030: 5024: 5021: 5009: 5008: 5003: 4996: 4993: 4988: 4987: 4982: 4976: 4973: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4959: 4954: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4923: 4920: 4908: 4904: 4897: 4894: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4880: 4875: 4868: 4866: 4862: 4857: 4853: 4847: 4844: 4839: 4835: 4829: 4826: 4821: 4819:1-86207-865-3 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4802: 4797: 4793: 4792:Morris, Chris 4787: 4785: 4781: 4769:. 19 May 2023 4768: 4764: 4758: 4755: 4743:. 10 May 2023 4742: 4738: 4732: 4729: 4716: 4710: 4707: 4703:. 9 May 2023. 4702: 4698: 4692: 4689: 4684: 4680: 4679: 4674: 4667: 4664: 4659: 4658: 4653: 4647: 4644: 4640: 4635: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4621: 4615: 4612: 4608: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4595: 4589: 4586: 4581: 4577: 4570: 4567: 4562: 4561: 4556: 4550: 4547: 4542: 4538: 4531: 4528: 4523: 4519: 4512: 4510: 4506: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4481: 4478: 4466: 4465: 4460: 4453: 4450: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4424: 4416: 4413: 4400: 4396: 4389: 4386: 4373: 4372: 4367: 4360: 4357: 4345: 4341: 4334: 4331: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4303: 4300: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4270: 4257: 4253: 4252: 4247: 4240: 4237: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4210: 4207: 4202: 4201: 4196: 4189: 4186: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4160: 4158: 4154: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4126: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4105: 4102: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4083: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4060: 4057: 4052: 4046: 4042: 4035: 4032: 4027: 4025:9781538168028 4021: 4017: 4010: 4007: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3988: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3965: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3926: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3911: 3910:Global Issues 3907: 3900: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3874: 3872: 3868: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3849: 3836: 3830: 3827: 3814: 3810: 3804: 3801: 3788: 3784: 3783:The Telegraph 3779: 3771: 3768: 3755: 3751: 3744: 3741: 3728: 3724: 3723:The Telegraph 3719: 3712: 3709: 3697: 3691: 3688: 3676:. 14 May 2015 3675: 3671: 3665: 3662: 3649: 3645: 3639: 3636: 3624: 3620: 3613: 3610: 3598: 3594: 3587: 3584: 3571: 3567: 3566: 3561: 3555: 3553: 3549: 3536: 3532: 3526: 3523: 3510: 3504: 3501: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3482: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3467: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3449: 3436: 3432: 3426: 3423: 3410: 3406: 3400: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3383: 3380: 3376: 3361: 3357: 3350: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3308: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3278: 3275: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3238: 3233: 3231: 3227: 3222: 3221: 3216: 3210: 3207: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3173: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3159: 3154: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3143: 3142:The Economist 3136: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3118: 3113: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3080:Global Issues 3077: 3070: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3045: 3041: 3028: 3024: 3017: 3010: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2990: 2987: 2975: 2971: 2964: 2961: 2956: 2952: 2946: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2928: 2925: 2920: 2916: 2910: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2889: 2884: 2880: 2879: 2874: 2868: 2865: 2860: 2856: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2832: 2828: 2822: 2819: 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