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in category A are considered the best for uniquely identifying an unknown material, followed by categories B and then C. To ensure the accuracy of identifications SWGDRUG recommends that multiple tests using different instruments be performed on each sample, and that one category A technique and at least one other technique be used. If a category A technique is not available, or the forensic chemist decides not to use one, SWGDRUG recommends that at least three techniques be used, two of which must be from category B. Combination instruments, such as GC-MS, are considered two separate tests as long as the results are compared to known values individually For example, the GC elution times would be compared to known values along with the MS spectra. If both of those match a known substance, no further tests are needed.
685:
1149:, which only comes from the breakdown of heroin. The constant creation of new drugs, both legal and illicit, forces toxicologists to keep themselves apprised of new research and methods to test for these novel substances. The stream of new formulations means that a negative test result does not necessarily rule out drugs. To avoid detection, illicit drug manufacturers frequently change the chemicals' structure slightly. These compounds are often not detected by routine toxicology tests and can be masked by the presence of a known compound in the same sample. As new compounds are discovered, known spectra are determined and entered into the databases that can be downloaded and used as reference standards. Laboratories also tend to keep in-house databases for the substances they find locally.
956:
FTIR instruments are loaded with databases that can be searched for known spectra that match the unknown's spectra. FTIR analysis of mixtures, while not impossible, presents specific difficulties due to the cumulative nature of the response. When analyzing an unknown that contains more than one substance, the resulting spectra will be a combination of the individual spectra of each component. While common mixtures have known spectra on file, novel mixtures can be difficult to resolve, making FTIR an unacceptable means of identification. However, the instrument can be used to determine the general chemical structures present, allowing forensic chemists to determine the best method for analysis with other instruments. For example, a
65:
1006:
910:. The coupling of a gas chromatograph with a mass spectrometer allowed for the identification of a wide range of substances. GC-MS analysis is widely considered the "gold standard" for forensic analysis due to its sensitivity and versatility along with its ability to quantify the amount of substance present. The increase in the sensitivity of instrumentation has advanced to the point that minute impurities within compounds can be detected potentially allowing investigators to trace chemicals to a specific batch and lot from a manufacturer.
598:
1321:, chemists are allowed to give their opinions on the evidence as opposed to just stating the facts. This can lead to competing opinions from experts hired by the opposing side. Ethical guidelines for forensic chemists require that testimony be given in an objective manner, regardless of what side the expert is testifying for. Forensic experts that are called to testify are expected to work with the lawyer who issued the summons and to assist in their understanding of the material they will be asking questions about.
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readouts of the controls with their known profiles the instrument can be confirmed to have been working properly at the time the unknowns were tested. Standards are also used to determine the instrument's limit of detection and limit of quantification for various common substances. Calculated quantities must be above the limit of detection to be confirmed as present and above the limit of quantification to be quantified. If the value is below the limit the value is not considered reliable.
33:
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might consider when performing an examination are the length of time a specific instrument will take to examine a substance and the destructive nature of that instrument. They prefer using nondestructive methods first, to preserve the evidence for further examination. Nondestructive techniques can also be used to narrow down the possibilities, making it more likely that the correct method will be used the first time when a destructive method is used.
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1075:(GC) performs the same function as liquid chromatography, but it is used for volatile mixtures. In forensic chemistry, the most common GC instruments use mass spectrometry as their detector. GC-MS can be used in investigations of arson, poisoning, and explosions to determine exactly what was used. In theory, GC-MS instruments can detect substances whose concentrations are in the
3933:
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1091:(10) range. GC-MS is also capable of quantifying the substances it detects; chemists can use this information to determine the effect the substance would have on an individual. GC-MS instruments need around 1,000 times more of the substance to quantify the amount than they need simply to detect it; the limit of quantification is typically in the
728:, the "father of toxicology", made great advancements to the field during the early 19th century. A pioneer in the development of forensic microscopy, Orfila contributed to the advancement of this method for the detection of blood and semen. Orfila was also the first chemist to successfully classify different chemicals into categories such as
568:. The range of different methods is important due to the destructive nature of some instruments and the number of possible unknown substances that can be found at a scene. Forensic chemists prefer using nondestructive methods first, to preserve evidence and to determine which destructive methods will produce the best results.
646:
would create a wider suspect list, since it is used by demolition companies as well as in the military. During poisoning investigations, the detection of specific poisons can give detectives an idea of what to look for when they are interviewing potential suspects. For example, an investigation that
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are necessary in the quality control of the various instruments used to test samples. Due to the nature of their work in the legal system, chemists must ensure that their instruments are working accurately. To do this, known controls are tested consecutively with unknown samples. By comparing the
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for the
Analysis of Seized Drugs (SWGDRUG) presents recommendations for the quality assurance and quality control of tested materials. In the identification of unknown samples, protocols have been grouped into three categories based on the probability for false positives. Instruments and protocols
1125:
for various pharmaceuticals. Toxicologists are tasked with determining whether any toxin found in a body was the cause of or contributed to an incident, or whether it was at too low a level to have had an effect. While the determination of the specific toxin can be time-consuming due to the number
967:
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a destructive technique that is able to determine the elements that make up the analyzed sample. AAS performs this analysis by subjecting the sample to an extremely high heat source, breaking the atomic bonds of the substance, leaving free atoms. Radiation in
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Spectroscopy techniques are useful when the sample being tested is pure, or a very common mixture. When an unknown mixture is being analyzed it must be broken down into its individual parts. Chromatography techniques can be used to break apart mixtures into their components allowing for each part
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Forensic chemists rely on a multitude of instruments to identify unknown substances found at a scene. Different methods can be used to determine the identity of the same substance, and it is up to the examiner to determine which method will produce the best results. Factors that forensic chemists
835:
Modern forensic chemists rely on numerous instruments to identify unknown materials found at a crime scene. The 20th century saw many advancements in technology that allowed chemists to detect smaller amounts of material more accurately. The first major advancement in this century came during the
1033:
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a quick alternative to more complex chromatography methods. TLC can be used to analyze inks and dyes by extracting the individual components. This can be used to investigate notes or fibers left at the scene since each company's product is slightly different and
955:
sampling technique eliminates the need for substances to be prepared before analysis. The combination of nondestructiveness and zero preparation makes ATR FTIR analysis a quick and easy first step in the analysis of unknown substances. To facilitate the positive identification of the substance,
1305:
The standardized procedures for testimony by forensic chemists are provided by the various agencies that employ the scientists as well as SWGDRUG. Forensic chemists are ethically bound to present testimony in a neutral manner and to be open to reconsidering their statements if new information is
1341:
chemistry. Once in the position, individuals are trained in protocols performed at that specific lab until they are proven competent to perform all experiments without supervision. Practicing chemists in the field are expected to complete continuing education to maintain their proficiency.
716:. Until the early 19th century, there were no methods to accurately determine if a particular chemical was present, and poisoners were rarely punished for their crimes. In 1836, one of the first major contributions to forensic chemistry was introduced by British chemist
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of their results and their instruments. To ensure the accuracy of what they are reporting, forensic chemists routinely check and verify that their instruments are working correctly and are still able to detect and measure various quantities of different substances.
972:. Forensic chemists can test for each element by using a corresponding wavelength of light that forces that element's atoms to a higher energy state during the analysis. For this reason, and due to the destructive nature of this method, AAS is generally used as a
856:(FTIR) instruments have become critical in the forensic analysis of unknown material because they are nondestructive and extremely quick to use. Spectroscopy was further advanced in 1955 with the invention of the modern atomic absorption (AA) spectrophotometer by
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after preliminary tests have indicated the presence of a specific element in the sample. The concentration of the element in the sample is proportional to the amount of light absorbed when compared to a blank sample. AAS is useful in cases of suspected
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Forensic chemists' analysis can provide leads for investigators, and they can confirm or refute their suspicions. The identification of the various substances found at the scene can tell investigators what to look for during their search. During
658:
Forensic chemists also help to confirm or refute investigators' suspicions in drug or alcohol cases. The instruments used by forensic chemists can detect minute quantities, and accurate measurement can be important in crimes such as
575:
regarding their findings. Forensic chemists follow a set of standards that have been proposed by various agencies and governing bodies, including the
Scientific Working Group on the Analysis of Seized Drugs. In addition to the
802:
when exposed to specific wavelengths of light. Using spectroscopy, the two scientists were able to identify substances based on their spectrum, providing a method of identification for unknown materials. In 1906 botanist
1057:. HPLC is used for nonvolatile mixtures that would not be suitable for gas chromatography. This is useful in drug analysis where the pharmaceutical is a combination drug since the components would separate, or
1042:. The forensic chemist can compare unknowns with known standards by looking at the distance each component travelled. This distance, when compared to the starting point, is known as the retention factor (R
2701:
von Euler, M; Villén, T; Svensson, JO; Ståhle, L (October 2003). "Interpretation of the
Presence of 6-monoacetylmorphine in the Absence of Morphine-3-glucuronide in Urine Samples: Evidence of Heroin Abuse".
852:, a mathematical method that can break down a signal into its individual frequencies, to make sense of the enormous amount of data received from the complete infrared analysis of a material. Since then,
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815:. The ability to separate mixtures into their individual components allows forensic chemists to examine the parts of an unknown material against a database of known products. By matching the
2191:
634:. Forensic chemists can also narrow down the suspect list to people who would have access to the substance used in a crime. For example, in explosive investigations, the identification of
724:
for arsenic detection, which was subsequently used successfully in a murder trial. It was also during this time that forensic toxicology began to be recognized as a distinct field.
1117:, or what the body does to the substance. To accurately determine the effect a particular drug has on the human body, forensic toxicologists must be aware of various levels of
2520:
Fialkov, Alexander; Steiner, Urs; Lehotay, Steven; Amirav, Aviv (January 15, 2007). "Sensitivity and Noise in GC-MS: Achieving Low Limits of
Detection for Difficult Analytes".
1284:
Guidelines have been set up by various governing bodies regarding the standards that are followed by practicing forensic scientists. For forensic chemists, the international
860:. AA analysis can detect specific elements that make up a sample along with their concentrations, allowing for the easy detection of heavy metals such as arsenic and
782:
The wide range of instrumentation for forensic chemical analysis also began to be developed during this time period. The early 19th century saw the invention of the
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Individuals called to testify must be able to relay scientific information and processes in a manner that lay individuals can understand. By being qualified as an
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poisoning. Stas was able to successfully isolate the alkaloid from the organs of the victim. Stas's protocol was subsequently altered to incorporate tests for
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The two main standalone spectroscopy techniques for forensic chemistry are FTIR and AA spectroscopy. FTIR is a nondestructive process that uses
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887:, but substances with similar retention times could not be resolved until the invention of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) by
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1930s with the invention of a spectrometer that could measure the signal produced with infrared (IR) light. Early IR spectrometers used a
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Smith, Michael L.; Vorce, Shawn P.; Holler, Justin M.; Shimomura, Eric; Magluilo, Joe; Jacobs, Aaron J.; Huestis, Marilyn A. (June 2007).
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Forensic chemistry positions require a bachelor's degree or similar in a natural or physical science, as well as laboratory experience in
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that produce a peak on a graph relative to its concentration as it elutes off the column. The most common type of detector is an
1061:, at different times allowing for the verification of each component. The eluates from the HPLC column are then fed into various
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would indicate a military connection as those substances are military grade explosives. On the other hand, the identification of
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those differences can be seen with TLC. The only limiting factor with TLC analysis is the necessity for the components to be
548:. Specialists in this field have a wide array of methods and instruments to help identify unknown substances. These include
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expanded on
Fraunhofer's invention. Their experiments with spectroscopy showed that specific substances created a unique
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High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) can be used to extract individual components from a mixture dissolved in a
811:, an early predecessor to thin layer chromatography, and used it to separate and examine the plant proteins that make up
1141:
that a specific drug could break down into inside the body. For example, a toxicologist can confirm that a person took
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liquid mixtures with components which have similar boiling points. Nonvolatile liquid mixtures could be separated with
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of different substances that can cause injury or death, certain clues can narrow down the possibilities. For example,
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in 1970. Modern HPLC instruments are capable of detecting and resolving substances whose concentrations are as low as
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found. Chemists should also limit their testimony to areas they have been qualified in regardless of questions during
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cases, the quantity of the drug found in the person's system can confirm or rule out overdose as the cause of death.
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1985:
Willis, J B (May 1962). "Determination of Lead and Other Heavy Metals in Urine by Atomic
Absorption Spectroscopy".
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and could only measure light absorption in a very narrow wavelength band. It was not until the coupling of an
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997:. The concentration of the substance in the sample can indicate whether heavy metals were the cause of death.
831:
A GC-MS unit with doors open. The gas chromatograph is on the right and the mass spectrometer is on the left.
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544:, in a legal setting. A forensic chemist can assist in the identification of unknown materials found at a
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The next advancement in the detection of poisons came in 1850 when a valid method for detecting vegetable
321:
185:
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Baldwin, Dianne R; Marshall, William J (1999). "Heavy Metal
Poisoning and its Laboratory Investigation".
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in whatever solution is used to carry the components up the analysis plate. This solution is called the
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and other limiting factors, such as the age of the individual parts of the instrument, the practical
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2657:"Discolouration of the Brain as the only Remarkable Autopsy Finding in Hydrogen Sulphide Poisoning"
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1938:"The Birth of the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer and its Early Applications in Clinical Chemistry"
1730:"Back to the Roots of Modern Analytical Toxicology: Jean Servais Stas and the Bocarmé Murder Case"
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One of the most important advancements in forensic chemistry came in 1955 with the invention of
2781:
Expansion of a
Cheminformatic Database of Spectral Data for Forensic Chemists and Toxicologists
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2842:"Validation Guidelines for Laboratories Performing Forensic Analysis of Chemical Terrorism"
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as the most common item of interest tested with HPLC, pharmaceuticals, have UV absorbance.
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2227:"Seized Drug Analysis Using FT-IR and Mixture Searching For More Effective Identification"
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that the complete infrared spectrum could be measured at once. Fellgett also used the
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1395:"Terror in Oklahoma: the Science; Experts Search for Debris to Link Bomb to a Suspect"
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Advancements in the field of chromatography arrived in 1953 with the invention of the
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Along with other forensic specialists, forensic chemists commonly testify in court as
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2817:"Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs (SWGDRUG) Recommendations"
2779:
Stout, Peter; Moore, Katherine; Grabenauer, Megan; Ropero-Miller, Jeri (March 2013).
2715:
2086:
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751:. Stas's method was quickly adopted and used successfully in court to convict Count
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2015:
Monitoring of Air
Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques
1937:
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Throughout history, a variety of poisons have been used to commit murder, including
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2254:"Analysis of Mixtures by FT-IR: Spatial and Spectral Separation of Complex Samples"
2147:
Gaensslen, R.E.; Kubic, Thomas A.; Desio, Peter J.; Lee, Henry C. (December 1985).
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the form of light is then passed through the sample forcing the atoms to jump to a
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2315:. Techniques and Instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry. Vol. 5. Elsevier.
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proposed by the group, specific agencies have their own standards regarding the
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value matches a known sample, that is an indication of the unknown's identity.
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for the separated components with known values, materials can be identified.
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2747:"How Designer Drugs and the Opioid Epidemic Affect Modern Forensic Practice"
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2018:. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. Vol. 70. Elsevier. p. 274.
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1964:
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would tell investigators to look for ricin's precursors, the seeds of the
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772:
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623:
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2192:"Quality Assurance Guide for the Forensic Analysis of Ignitable Liquids"
1998:
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861:
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2282:
Infrared and Raman
Characteristic Group Frequencies: Tables and Charts
827:
1815:. Vol. 12. The Encyclopedia American Corporation. 1919. p.
1142:
1076:
932:
713:
2444:"High Performance Liquid Chromatography in Pharmaceutical Analyses"
2111:"Drug-testing Methods and Clinical Interpretations of Test Results"
1748:
2442:
Nikolin, B; Imamović, B; Medanhodzić-Vuk, S; Sober, M (May 2004).
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Izzia, Federico; Nunn, Simon; Bradley, Michael (August 1, 2008).
1591:
Wildlife, Land, and People: a Century of Change in Prairie Canada
3852:
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Park, Seong Hwan; Zhang, Yong; Hwang, Juck-Joon (May 30, 2009).
2149:"Instrumentation and Analytical Methodology in Forensic Science"
602:
2974:
1884:. Glasgow Insight Into Science & Technology. Archived from
3862:
2882:"Limit of Blank, Limit of Detection and Limit of Quantitation"
643:
635:
1367:. National Forensic Science Technology Center. Archived from
688:
A bottle of strychnine extract was once easily obtainable in
667:
cutoffs where penalties begin or increase. In suspected
2954:"In Brief: Law 101: Legal Guide for the Forensic Expert"
2418:
Chemical Analysis of Food: Techniques and Applications
1451:. The National Counterterrorism Center. Archived from
2285:(Third ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 55.
2074:
Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry
1910:
Derrick, Michele R.; Stulik, Dusan; Landry, James M.
1134:
poisoning would cause the brain to have a green hue.
36:
A U.S. Customs and Border Protection chemist reads a
2560:"Modern Instrumental Methods in Forensic Toxicology"
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2068:Gohlke, Roland S.; McLafferty, Fred W. (May 1993).
2610:. National Institute of Justice. December 23, 2014
1130:would result in bright red blood while death from
2915:
2913:
630:was used; if so, this suggests that the fire was
2880:Armbruster, David A.; Pry, Terry (August 2008).
2225:Angelos, Sanford; Garry, Mike (August 5, 2011).
1617:"5 Classic Poisons and the People who Used Them"
2786:(Report). U.S. Department of Justice. p. 2
2186:
2184:
1912:"Infrared Spectroscopy in Conservation Science"
1840:. Center for History of Physics. Archived from
1704:"Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila (1787–1853)"
1443:
1441:
1362:"A Simplified Guide to Forensic Drug Chemistry"
1121:that an individual can build up as well as the
2304:
2302:
1137:Toxicologists are also aware of the different
960:will result in a peak between 3,030 and 2,950
27:Forensic application of the study of chemistry
2986:
2947:
2945:
601:Chemists were able to identify the explosive
514:
8:
2553:
2551:
2070:"Early Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry"
1834:"Spectroscopy and the Birth of Astrophysics"
1790:. National Library of Medicine. June 5, 2014
1782:
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1706:. National Library of Medicine. June 5, 2014
1113:, or what a substance does to the body, and
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1517:"Woman from Texas is Charged in Ricin Case"
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2522:International Journal of Mass Spectrometry
1156:
1079:(10) range. However, in practice, due to
1046:) for each extracted component. If each R
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43:
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2448:Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences
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2172:
2085:
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2888:. 29 (Supplement 1) (Suppl 1): S49–S52.
2631:"The Science Behind Forensic Toxicology"
1905:
1903:
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1637:
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1470:
1356:
1354:
1109:Forensic toxicology is the study of the
618:, forensic chemists can determine if an
1421:"Modern Methods of Accelerant Analysis"
1350:
854:Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
747:in human tissue was created by chemist
562:Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
55:
2338:"Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)"
2041:"Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry"
1871:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1828:
1826:
1013:tablet. Peaks from left to right are
550:high-performance liquid chromatography
40:to determine the origin of a commodity
2496:Modern HPLC for Practicing Scientists
1477:Halford, Bethany (February 6, 2012).
1393:Browne, Malcolm W. (April 21, 1995).
7:
3908:
2629:Foley, Katherine (August 16, 2015).
1644:Pizzi, Richard A. (September 2004).
900:gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
554:gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
3932:
1615:Cellania, Miss (November 3, 2009).
844:with an IR spectrometer in 1949 by
755:of murdering his brother-in-law by
1917:. The Getty Conservation Institute
1676:"How Forensic Lab Techniques Work"
1674:Watson, Stephanie (June 9, 2008).
1542:"Legal BAC Limits Data by Country"
1515:Goldstein, Joseph (June 7, 2013).
25:
2309:Cantle, John Edward, ed. (1986).
1876:Carlysle, Felicity (2011-07-26).
879:, allowing for the separation of
3931:
3919:
3907:
3896:
3895:
2745:Melinek, Jude (September 2016).
2716:10.1097/00007691-200310000-00015
2564:Journal of Analytical Toxicology
1425:Southeast Asia Fire and Security
1067:ultraviolet-visible spectrometer
422:Traffic collision reconstruction
63:
2956:. National Institute of Justice
2952:Wells, Doris (March 26, 2012).
2886:The Clinical Biochemist Reviews
2852:(2). April 2005. Archived from
2846:Forensic Science Communications
2673:10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.02.002
2364:Annals of Clinical Biochemistry
2202:(2). April 2006. Archived from
2196:Forensic Science Communications
1483:Chemical & Engineering News
1145:by the presence in a sample of
275:Questioned document examination
2920:Melton, Lisa (November 2007).
2661:Forensic Science International
2312:Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
2012:Forbes, Patricia, ed. (2015).
951:to identify a substance. The
558:atomic absorption spectroscopy
1:
3260:Interface and colloid science
3014:Glossary of chemical formulae
2153:Journal of Chemical Education
1838:American Institute of Physics
1728:Wennig, Robert (April 2009).
1588:Wetherell, Donald G. (2016).
578:standard operating procedures
2087:10.1016/1044-0305(93)85001-e
1419:Stern, Wal (November 1995).
1158:SWGDRUG analysis categories
953:attenuated total reflectance
3537:Bioorganometallic chemistry
3024:List of inorganic compounds
2704:Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
2415:PicĂł, Yolanda, ed. (2012).
2260:. Special Issues-08-01-2008
1544:. World Health Organization
1030:to be analyzed separately.
753:Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé
661:driving under the influence
93:Bloodstain pattern analysis
3981:
3463:Dynamic covalent chemistry
3434:Enantioselective synthesis
3414:Physical organic chemistry
3367:Organolanthanide chemistry
2542:10.1016/j.ijms.2006.07.002
2386:10.1177/000456329903600301
2233:. Advantage Business Media
1812:The Encyclopedia Americana
1809:"Fraunhofer, Joseph von".
1434:– via T.C. Forensic.
1230:Pharmaceutical identifiers
1102:
3891:
3052:Electroanalytical methods
3009:
2509:– via Google Books.
2499:. John Wiley & Sons.
2493:Dong, Michael W. (2016).
2431:– via Google Books.
2421:. Elsevier. p. 501.
2325:– via Google Books.
2295:– via Google Books.
2279:Socrates, George (2004).
2045:American Chemical Society
2028:– via Google Books.
1957:10.1093/clinchem/39.1.155
1737:Drug Testing and Analysis
1604:– via Google Books.
1260:Fluorescence spectroscopy
1234:Thin-layer chromatography
1218:Ion-mobility spectrometry
1208:Capillary electrophoresis
1128:carbon monoxide poisoning
877:Archer John Porter Martin
566:thin layer chromatography
392:Fire accelerant detection
3807:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
3723:Supramolecular chemistry
3362:Organometallic chemistry
2461:10.17305/bjbms.2004.3405
1594:. McGill-Queen's Press.
1286:Scientific Working Group
1275:Ultraviolet spectroscopy
3745:Combinatorial chemistry
3656:Food physical chemistry
3619:Environmental chemistry
3503:Bioorthogonal chemistry
3429:Retrosynthetic analysis
3250:Chemical thermodynamics
3233:Spectroelectrochemistry
3176:Computational chemistry
2753:: 18–19. Archived from
1653:Today's Chemist at Work
1495:10.1021/cen-09006-cover
1247:microscopic examination
295:Social network analysis
3817:of element discoveries
3663:Agricultural chemistry
3651:Carbohydrate chemistry
3542:Bioinorganic chemistry
3407:Alkane stereochemistry
3352:Coordination chemistry
3181:Mathematical chemistry
3047:Instrumental chemistry
1878:"TLC the Forensic Way"
1270:Melting point analysis
1227:Microcrystalline tests
1189:resonance spectroscopy
1081:signal-to-noise ratios
1026:
974:confirmatory technique
944:
931:ATR FTIR spectrum for
832:
693:
663:as there are specific
610:
593:Role in investigations
536:is the application of
377:Electrical engineering
41:
3812:Timeline of chemistry
3709:Post-mortem chemistry
3694:Clandestine chemistry
3624:Atmospheric chemistry
3547:Biophysical chemistry
3379:Solid-state chemistry
3329:Equilibrium chemistry
3238:Photoelectrochemistry
2922:"Courtroom chemistry"
2608:"Forensic Toxicology"
2115:Bulletin on Narcotics
1223:Liquid chromatography
1177:Infrared spectroscopy
1008:
979:heavy metal poisoning
930:
885:liquid chromatography
830:
788:Joseph von Fraunhofer
687:
665:blood alcohol content
607:Oklahoma City bombing
600:
407:Materials engineering
235:Facial reconstruction
35:
3965:Forensic disciplines
3802:History of chemistry
3757:Chemical engineering
3532:Bioorganic chemistry
3282:Structural chemistry
3019:List of biomolecules
2576:10.1093/jat/31.5.237
1987:Analytical Chemistry
1936:Willis, J B (1993).
1844:on September 7, 2015
1646:"Pointing to Poison"
1199:X-ray diffractometry
1147:6-monoacetylmorphine
1087:for GC-MS is in the
809:paper chromatography
605:at the scene of the
452:Perry Mason syndrome
240:Fingerprint analysis
3825:The central science
3779:Ceramic engineering
3704:Forensic toxicology
3677:Chemistry education
3575:Radiation chemistry
3557:Interdisciplinarity
3510:Medicinal chemistry
3448:Fullerene chemistry
3324:Microwave chemistry
3193:Molecular mechanics
3188:Molecular modelling
2822:. 7.1. June 9, 2016
2534:2007IJMSp.260...31F
2258:Spectroscopy Online
2165:1985JChEd..62.1058G
1999:10.1021/ac60186a008
1564:"Toxicology Screen"
1455:on January 13, 2016
1449:"Common Explosives"
1159:
1105:Forensic toxicology
1099:Forensic toxicology
1009:HPLC readout of an
970:higher energy state
790:. In 1859, chemist
616:fire investigations
542:forensic toxicology
475:forensic entomology
412:Polymer engineering
370:Related disciplines
285:Forensic geophysics
265:Gloveprint analysis
245:Firearm examination
215:Body identification
3868:Chemical substance
3730:Chemical synthesis
3699:Forensic chemistry
3580:Actinide chemistry
3522:Clinical chemistry
3203:Molecular geometry
3198:Molecular dynamics
3153:Elemental analysis
3106:Separation process
2757:on October 1, 2016
2174:10.1021/ed062p1058
2109:Kapur, BM (1993).
1945:Clinical Chemistry
1568:The New York Times
1521:The New York Times
1479:"Tracing a Threat"
1399:The New York Times
1213:Gas chromatography
1194:Raman spectroscopy
1157:
1073:Gas chromatography
1027:
945:
893:parts per trillion
833:
720:. He created the
694:
611:
540:and its subfield,
534:Forensic chemistry
387:Fire investigation
270:Palmprint analysis
230:Election forensics
113:Forensic genealogy
42:
3947:
3946:
3883:Quantum mechanics
3848:Chemical compound
3831:Chemical reaction
3769:Materials science
3687:General chemistry
3682:Amateur chemistry
3610:Photogeochemistry
3595:Stellar chemistry
3565:Nuclear chemistry
3486:Molecular biology
3453:Polymer chemistry
3424:Organic synthesis
3419:Organic reactions
3384:Ceramic chemistry
3374:Cluster chemistry
3304:Chemical kinetics
3292:Molecular physics
3171:Quantum chemistry
3084:Mass spectrometry
2751:Forensic Magazine
2231:Forensic Magazine
2159:(12): 1058–1060.
1374:on March 21, 2016
1312:cross-examination
1282:
1281:
1182:Mass spectrometry
1123:therapeutic index
869:gas chromatograph
850:Fourier transform
817:retention factors
632:intentionally set
582:quality assurance
531:
530:
309:Digital forensics
250:Footwear evidence
16:(Redirected from
3972:
3935:
3934:
3923:
3911:
3910:
3899:
3898:
3843:Chemical element
3498:Chemical biology
3357:Magnetochemistry
3334:Mechanochemistry
3287:Chemical physics
3228:Electrochemistry
3133:Characterization
2995:
2988:
2981:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2949:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2926:
2917:
2908:
2907:
2897:
2877:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2856:on March 4, 2016
2838:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2821:
2813:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2785:
2776:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2667:(1–3): e19–e21.
2652:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2587:
2555:
2546:
2545:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2473:
2463:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2379:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2336:Schiller, Matt.
2333:
2327:
2326:
2306:
2297:
2296:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2188:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2089:
2065:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2009:
2003:
2002:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1942:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1916:
1907:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1888:on July 30, 2016
1873:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1830:
1821:
1820:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1784:
1775:
1774:
1772:
1771:
1765:
1759:. Archived from
1734:
1725:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1700:
1691:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1650:
1641:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1474:
1465:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1445:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1373:
1366:
1358:
1187:Nuclear magnetic
1160:
1132:hydrogen sulfide
1115:pharmacokinetics
1111:pharmacodynamics
935:showing percent
873:Anthony T. James
796:Gustav Kirchhoff
653:castor oil plant
573:expert witnesses
523:
516:
509:
435:Related articles
342:Network analysis
332:Malware analysis
290:Forensic geology
67:
57:Forensic science
44:
21:
18:Forensic chemist
3980:
3979:
3975:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3970:
3969:
3950:
3949:
3948:
3943:
3887:
3790:
3784:Polymer science
3740:Click chemistry
3735:Green chemistry
3629:Ocean chemistry
3605:Biogeochemistry
3551:
3467:
3439:Total synthesis
3402:Stereochemistry
3388:
3338:
3255:Surface science
3245:Thermochemistry
3214:
3157:
3128:Crystallography
3033:
3005:
2999:
2969:
2959:
2957:
2951:
2950:
2943:
2933:
2931:
2929:Chemistry World
2924:
2919:
2918:
2911:
2879:
2878:
2869:
2859:
2857:
2840:
2839:
2835:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2814:
2799:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2777:
2770:
2760:
2758:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2685:
2683:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2639:
2637:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2613:
2611:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2557:
2556:
2549:
2519:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2429:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2377:10.1.1.528.7546
2361:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2344:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2323:
2308:
2307:
2300:
2293:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2263:
2261:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2236:
2234:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2209:
2207:
2206:on May 29, 2016
2190:
2189:
2182:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2129:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2067:
2066:
2059:
2049:
2047:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2011:
2010:
2006:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1967:
1940:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1908:
1901:
1891:
1889:
1875:
1874:
1857:
1847:
1845:
1832:
1831:
1824:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1793:
1791:
1786:
1785:
1778:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1732:
1727:
1726:
1719:
1709:
1707:
1702:
1701:
1694:
1684:
1682:
1680:How Stuff Works
1673:
1672:
1668:
1658:
1656:
1648:
1643:
1642:
1635:
1625:
1623:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1602:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1570:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1547:
1545:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1525:
1523:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1499:
1497:
1476:
1475:
1468:
1458:
1456:
1447:
1446:
1439:
1429:
1427:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1403:
1401:
1392:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1360:
1359:
1352:
1348:
1327:
1303:
1246:
1245:Macroscopic and
1244:
1188:
1155:
1107:
1101:
1085:detection limit
1049:
1045:
1003:
925:
916:
904:Fred McLafferty
825:
682:
677:
595:
586:quality control
527:
482:
481:
480:
477:
474:
457:Pollen calendar
436:
428:
427:
426:
371:
363:
362:
361:
311:
301:
300:
299:
204:
196:
195:
171:
161:
160:
159:
103:DNA phenotyping
77:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3978:
3976:
3968:
3967:
3962:
3952:
3951:
3945:
3944:
3942:
3941:
3929:
3917:
3905:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3828:
3821:
3820:
3819:
3809:
3804:
3798:
3796:
3792:
3791:
3789:
3788:
3787:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3766:
3765:
3764:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3711:
3706:
3696:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3684:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3668:Soil chemistry
3660:
3659:
3658:
3653:
3646:Food chemistry
3643:
3641:Carbochemistry
3638:
3636:Clay chemistry
3633:
3632:
3631:
3626:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3607:
3597:
3591:Astrochemistry
3587:Cosmochemistry
3584:
3583:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3570:Radiochemistry
3561:
3559:
3553:
3552:
3550:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3527:Neurochemistry
3524:
3519:
3518:
3517:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3495:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3477:
3475:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3465:
3460:
3458:Petrochemistry
3455:
3450:
3445:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3398:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3370:
3369:
3359:
3354:
3348:
3346:
3340:
3339:
3337:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3319:Spin chemistry
3316:
3314:Photochemistry
3311:
3306:
3301:
3299:Femtochemistry
3296:
3295:
3294:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3235:
3224:
3222:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3173:
3167:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3118:
3111:Chromatography
3108:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3081:
3080:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3054:
3049:
3043:
3041:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3029:Periodic table
3026:
3021:
3016:
3010:
3007:
3006:
3000:
2998:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2975:
2968:
2967:
2941:
2909:
2867:
2833:
2797:
2768:
2737:
2710:(5): 645–648.
2693:
2647:
2621:
2599:
2570:(5): 237–253.
2547:
2512:
2505:
2485:
2434:
2427:
2407:
2370:(3): 267–300.
2354:
2328:
2321:
2298:
2291:
2271:
2244:
2217:
2180:
2139:
2121:(2): 115–154.
2101:
2080:(5): 367–371.
2057:
2031:
2024:
2004:
1993:(6): 614–617.
1977:
1951:(1): 155–160.
1928:
1899:
1855:
1822:
1801:
1788:"Technologies"
1776:
1749:10.1002/dta.32
1743:(4): 153–155.
1717:
1692:
1666:
1633:
1607:
1600:
1580:
1555:
1533:
1507:
1466:
1437:
1411:
1385:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1326:
1323:
1302:
1299:
1292:Standards and
1280:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1236:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1184:
1179:
1171:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1154:
1151:
1119:drug tolerance
1103:Main article:
1100:
1097:
1047:
1043:
1002:
1001:Chromatography
999:
949:infrared light
924:
921:
915:
912:
846:Peter Fellgett
842:interferometer
824:
821:
794:and physicist
771:, strychnine,
726:Mathieu Orfila
681:
678:
676:
673:
594:
591:
529:
528:
526:
525:
518:
511:
503:
500:
499:
498:
497:
492:
484:
483:
479:
478:
471:
469:
467:Trace evidence
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
438:
437:
434:
433:
430:
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3762:Stoichiometry
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3443:Semisynthesis
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3277:Sonochemistry
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3272:Cryochemistry
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3265:Micromeritics
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3143:Wet chemistry
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2210:September 24,
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2046:
2042:
2039:Jones, Mark.
2035:
2032:
2027:
2025:9780444635532
2021:
2017:
2016:
2008:
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1996:
1992:
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1766:on 2017-08-08
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1710:September 24,
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1601:9780773599895
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1016:
1015:acetaminophen
1012:
1007:
1000:
998:
996:
992:
988:
984:
981:such as with
980:
975:
971:
965:
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959:
958:methoxy group
954:
950:
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938:
937:transmittance
934:
929:
922:
920:
913:
911:
909:
908:Roland Gohlke
905:
901:
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894:
890:
889:Csaba Horváth
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
865:
863:
859:
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851:
847:
843:
839:
838:monochromator
829:
823:Modernization
822:
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
805:Mikhail Tsvet
801:
797:
793:
792:Robert Bunsen
789:
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741:
739:
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731:
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691:
686:
680:Early history
679:
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476:
473:Use of DNA in
470:
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322:Data analysis
320:
318:
315:
314:
310:
305:
304:
296:
293:
291:
288:
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283:
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280:Vein matching
278:
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263:
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255:Forensic arts
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186:Psychotherapy
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143:
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118:
114:
111:
110:
109:
108:DNA profiling
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
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91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
80:
76:
75:Physiological
71:
70:
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62:
61:
58:
54:
50:
46:
45:
39:
34:
30:
19:
3936:
3924:
3912:
3900:
3750:Biosynthesis
3698:
3600:Geochemistry
3515:Pharmacology
3491:Cell biology
3481:Biochemistry
3309:Spectroscopy
3208:VSEPR theory
3057:Spectroscopy
3001:Branches of
2958:. Retrieved
2932:. Retrieved
2928:
2885:
2858:. Retrieved
2854:the original
2849:
2845:
2836:
2824:. Retrieved
2788:. Retrieved
2759:. Retrieved
2755:the original
2750:
2740:
2707:
2703:
2696:
2684:. Retrieved
2664:
2660:
2650:
2638:. Retrieved
2634:
2624:
2612:. Retrieved
2602:
2567:
2563:
2528:(1): 31–48.
2525:
2521:
2515:
2495:
2488:
2451:
2447:
2437:
2417:
2410:
2367:
2363:
2357:
2345:. Retrieved
2341:
2331:
2311:
2281:
2274:
2262:. Retrieved
2257:
2247:
2235:. Retrieved
2230:
2220:
2208:. Retrieved
2204:the original
2199:
2195:
2156:
2152:
2142:
2130:. Retrieved
2118:
2114:
2104:
2077:
2073:
2048:. Retrieved
2044:
2034:
2014:
2007:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1968:. Retrieved
1948:
1944:
1931:
1919:. Retrieved
1890:. Retrieved
1886:the original
1881:
1846:. Retrieved
1842:the original
1837:
1811:
1804:
1792:. Retrieved
1768:. Retrieved
1761:the original
1740:
1736:
1708:. Retrieved
1683:. Retrieved
1679:
1669:
1657:. Retrieved
1652:
1624:. Retrieved
1621:Mental Floss
1620:
1610:
1590:
1583:
1571:. Retrieved
1567:
1558:
1546:. Retrieved
1536:
1524:. Retrieved
1520:
1510:
1498:. Retrieved
1489:(6): 10–15.
1486:
1482:
1457:. Retrieved
1453:the original
1428:. Retrieved
1424:
1414:
1402:. Retrieved
1398:
1388:
1376:. Retrieved
1369:the original
1328:
1316:
1304:
1291:
1283:
1238:
1136:
1108:
1095:(10) range.
1071:
1052:
1040:mobile phase
1032:
1028:
966:
946:
939:(%T) versus
923:Spectroscopy
917:
897:
866:
834:
784:spectroscope
781:
742:
695:
690:apothecaries
657:
612:
570:
533:
532:
397:Fractography
219:
125:Epidemiology
83:Anthropology
29:
3938:WikiProject
3163:Theoretical
3148:Calorimetry
2960:October 13,
2934:October 13,
2860:October 16,
2790:December 5,
2686:October 12,
2640:October 12,
2614:October 12,
1892:October 10,
1573:December 5,
1548:October 30,
1526:December 6,
1500:December 6,
1459:October 28,
1430:October 28,
1404:October 28,
1265:Immunoassay
1255:Color tests
1169:Category C
1139:metabolites
962:wavenumbers
902:(GC-MS) by
813:chlorophyll
738:astringents
718:James Marsh
546:crime scene
442:Crime scene
402:Linguistics
382:Engineering
347:Photography
225:Colorimetry
191:Social work
38:DNA profile
3954:Categories
3774:Metallurgy
3473:Biological
3039:Analytical
2826:January 4,
2454:(2): 5–9.
2347:October 7,
2264:October 6,
2237:October 6,
1970:October 6,
1770:2015-09-25
1346:References
1339:analytical
1166:Category B
1163:Category A
941:wavenumber
858:Alan Walsh
730:corrosives
722:Marsh test
710:strychnine
702:nightshade
620:accelerant
447:CSI effect
417:Statistics
210:Accounting
181:Psychology
176:Psychiatry
155:Toxicology
140:Palynology
120:Entomology
3960:Chemistry
3836:Catalysis
3344:Inorganic
3138:Titration
3003:chemistry
2372:CiteSeerX
2342:Easy Chem
1325:Education
1301:Testimony
1153:Standards
1077:femtogram
1063:detectors
807:invented
749:Jean Stas
745:alkaloids
734:narcotics
647:involves
538:chemistry
462:Skid mark
260:Profiling
220:Chemistry
145:Pathology
130:Limnology
98:Dentistry
3902:Category
3858:Molecule
3795:See also
3220:Physical
2904:18852857
2732:22267781
2724:14508389
2681:19297107
2594:17579968
2480:15629016
2402:26671861
2394:10376071
2096:24234933
1757:20355192
1294:controls
1093:nanogram
1089:picogram
1055:solution
1023:caffeine
1011:Excedrin
881:volatile
800:spectrum
773:atropine
769:morphine
761:caffeine
757:nicotine
669:overdose
628:kerosene
624:gasoline
622:such as
495:Category
150:Podiatry
135:Medicine
49:a series
47:Part of
3914:Commons
3878:Alchemy
3394:Organic
2895:2556583
2585:2745311
2530:Bibcode
2471:7250120
2161:Bibcode
2127:7920539
1965:8419043
1882:theGIST
1655:: 43–45
1335:organic
1331:general
1036:soluble
1019:aspirin
995:cadmium
991:mercury
983:arsenic
914:Methods
862:cadmium
765:quinine
706:hemlock
698:arsenic
675:History
490:Outline
88:Biology
3926:Portal
3072:UV-Vis
2902:
2892:
2730:
2722:
2679:
2635:Quartz
2592:
2582:
2503:
2478:
2468:
2425:
2400:
2392:
2374:
2319:
2289:
2125:
2094:
2050:19 Nov
2022:
1963:
1755:
1598:
1337:, and
1319:expert
1308:direct
1143:heroin
1021:, and
993:, and
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1372:(PDF)
1365:(PDF)
1059:elute
943:(cm).
777:opium
649:ricin
3853:Atom
3121:HPLC
2962:2016
2936:2016
2900:PMID
2862:2015
2828:2017
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2763:2016
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2688:2015
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875:and
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2669:doi
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2538:doi
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