338:. Retroactive and Proactive inhibition each referring in contrast to the other. Retroactive interference is when new information (memories) interferes with older information. On the other hand, proactive interference is when old information interferes with the retrieval of new information. This is sometimes thought to occur especially when memories are similar. Output Interference occurs when the initial act of recalling specific information interferes with the retrieval of the original information. Another reason why retrieval failure occurs is due to encoding failure. The information never made it to long-term memory storage. According to the level of processing theory, how well information is encoded depends on the level of processing a piece of information receives. Certain parts of information are better encoded than others; for example, information this visual imagery or that has a survival value is more easily transferred to the long-term memory storage. This theory shows a contradiction: an extremely intelligent individual is expected to forget more hastily than one who has a slow mentality. For this reason, an intelligent individual has stored up more memory in his mind which will cause interferences and impair their ability to recall specific information. Based on current research, testing interference has only been carried out by recalling from a list of words rather than using situation from daily lives, thus it is hard to generalize the findings for this theory. It has been found that interference related tasks decreased memory performance by up to 20%, with negative effects at all interference time points and large variability between participants concerning both the time point and the size of maximal interference. Furthermore, fast learners seem to be more affected by interference than slow learners. People are also less likely to recall items when intervening stimuli are presented within the first ten minutes after learning. Recall performance is better without interference. Peripheral processes such as encoding time, recognition memory and motor execution decline with age. However proactive interference is similar. Suggesting contrary to earlier reports that the inhibitory processes observed with this paradigm remain intact in older adults.
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disappears rapidly. According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, what occurs between the creation of new memories and the recall of these memories is not influenced by the recall. However, the time between these events (memory formation and recalling) decides whether the information can be kept or forgotten. As there is an inverse correlation that if the time is short, more information can be recalled. On the other hand, if the time is long less information can be recalled or more information will be forgotten. This theory can be criticized for not sharing ideas on how some memories can stay and others can fade, though there was a long time between the formation and recall. Newness to something plays a crucial role in this situation. For instance, people are more likely to recall their very first day abroad than all of the intervening days between it and living there. Emotions also play a crucial role in this situation.
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is rehearsed. If it is not rehearsed, the information will start to gradually fade away and decay. Donald Hebb proposed that incoming information causes a series of neurons to create a neurological memory trace in the brain which would result in change in the morphological and/or chemical changes in the brain and would fade with time. Repeated firing causes a structural change in the synapses. Rehearsal of repeated firing maintains the memory in STM until a structural change is made. Therefore, forgetting happens as a result of automatic decay of the memory trace in brain. This theory states that the events between learning and recall have no effects on recall; the important factor that affects is the duration that the information has been retained. Hence, as longer time passes more of traces are subject to decay and as a result the information is forgotten.
117:(1885). Using himself as the sole subject in his experiment, he memorized lists of three letter nonsense syllable words—two consonants and one vowel in the middle. He then measured his own capacity to relearn a given list of words after a variety of given time period. He found that forgetting occurs in a systematic manner, beginning rapidly and then leveling off. Although his methods were primitive, his basic premises have held true today and have been reaffirmed by more methodologically sound methods. The Ebbinghaus
149:. Each type of memory is separate in its capacity and duration. In the modal model, how quickly information is forgotten is related to the type of memory where that information is stored. Information in the first stage, sensory memory, is forgotten after only a few seconds. In the second stage, short-term memory, information is forgotten after about 20 years. While information in long-term memory can be remembered for minutes or even decades, it may be forgotten when the retrieval processes for that information fail.
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stay active and exercise. Staying active is important because overall it keeps the body healthy. When the body is healthy the brain is healthy and less inflamed as well. Older adults who were more active were found to have had less episodes of forgetting compared to those older adults who were less active. A healthy diet can also contribute to a healthier brain and aging process which in turn results in less frequent forgetting.
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257:. Encoding is the first step in creating and remembering a memory. How well something has been encoded in the memory can be measured by completing specific tests of retrieval. Examples of these tests would be explicit ones like cued recall or implicit tests like word fragment completion. Cue-dependent forgetting is one of five
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Physical and chemical changes in our brain lead to a memory trace, and this is based on the idea of the trace theory of memory. Information that gets into our short-term memory lasts a few seconds (15–20 seconds), and it fades away if it is not rehearsed or practiced as the neurochemical memory trace
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This method measures forgetting by the amount of training required to reach the previous level of performance. German psychologist
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) used this method on himself. He memorized lists of nonsensical syllables until he could repeat the list two times without error. After a certain
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Prompted recall is a slight variation of free recall that consists of presenting hints or prompts to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be produced. Usually these prompts are stimuli that were not there during the training period. Thus in order to measure the degree of forgetting, one can
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Trace decay theory explains memories that are stored in both short-term and long-term memory system, and assumes that the memories leave a trace in the brain. According to this theory, short-term memory (STM) can only retain information for a limited amount of time, around 15 to 30 seconds unless it
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Failing to retrieve an event does not mean that this specific event has been forever forgotten. Research has shown that there are a few health behaviors that to some extent can prevent forgetting from happening so often. One of the simplest ways to keep the brain healthy and prevent forgetting is to
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states that when something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical "memory trace" is formed in the brain and over time this trace tends to disintegrate, unless it is occasionally used. Decay theory states the reason we eventually forget something or an event is because the memory of it fades with
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quality of the word. Information is available however, just not readily available without these cues. Depending on the age of a person, retrieval cues and skills may not work as well. This is usually common in older adults but that is not always the case. When information is encoded into the memory
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One major problem about this theory is that in real-life situation, the time between encoding a piece of information and recalling it, is going to be filled with all different kinds of events that might happen to the individual. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that forgetting is a result of
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are unable to be recalled from memory storage. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults. Studies show that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer
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refers to the idea that when the learning of something new causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition between the two. This essentially states that memory's information may become confused or combined with other information during encoding, resulting in the distortion or
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Free recall is a basic paradigm used to study human memory. In a free recall task, a subject is presented a list of to-be-remembered items, one at a time. For example, an experimenter might read a list of 20 words aloud, presenting a new word to the subject every 4 seconds. At the end of the
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only the time duration. It is also important to consider the effectiveness of this theory. Although it seems very plausible, it is about impossible to test. It is difficult to create a situation where there is a blank period of time between presenting the material and recalling it later.
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Participants are given a list of words and that they have to remember. Then they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list. The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten.
186:. The participant is asked to remember a list of material. Later on they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list. The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten.
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argued in the context of competing national narratives that what is suppressed and forgotten in one national narrative "might appear at the core of past narrations by the other" - thus often leading to diametrically opposed, mutually exclusive accounts on the past.
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sees social forgetting closely linked to the question of present-day interests, arguing that "every image of the past that is not recognized by the present as one of its own concerns threatens to disappear irretrievably". Building on this, the sociologist
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proposed the term "social forgetting", which he distinguished from crude notions of "collective amnesia" and "total oblivion", arguing that "social forgetting is to be found in the interface of public silence and more private remembrance". The philosopher
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time. If we do not attempt to look back at an event, the greater the interval time between the time when the event from happening and the time when we try to remember, the memory will start to fade. Time is the greatest impact in remembering an event.
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presentation of the list, the subject is asked to recall the items (e.g., by writing down as many items from the list as possible). It is called a free recall task because the subject is free to recall the items in any order that he or she desires.
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suggested that "it may be worth investigating the social organization of forgetting, the rules of exclusion, suppression or repression, and the question of who wants whom to forget what". In an in-depth historical study spanning two centuries,
365:" are another piece of seemingly contradicting evidence. It is believed that certain memories "trace decay" while others do not. Sleep is believed to play a key role in halting trace decay, although the exact mechanism of this is unknown.
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Around the same time
Ebbinghaus developed the forgetting curve, psychologist Sigmund Freud theorized that people intentionally forgot things in order to push bad thoughts and feelings deep into their unconscious, a process he called
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is the name of his results which he plotted out and made 2 conclusions. The first being that much of what we forget is lost soon after it is originally learned. The second being that the amount of forgetting eventually levels off.
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interval, he relearned the list and saw how long it would take him to do this task. If it took fewer times, then there had been less forgetting. His experiment was one of the first to study forgetting.
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Forgetting that occurs through physiological damage or dilapidation to the brain are referred to as organic causes of forgetting. These theories encompass the loss of information already retained in
428:, yet his use of the term was restricted to a narrow approach, which was limited to what he perceived to be a relative neglect of psychoanalytical theory in psychology. The cultural historian
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theories of forgetting. This theory states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can bring it to mind. A good
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Forgetting can have very different causes than simply removal of stored content. Forgetting can mean access problems, availability problems, or can have other reasons such as
130:". There is debate as to whether (or how often) memory repression really occurs and mainstream psychology holds that true memory repression occurs only very rarely.
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disruption of memories. In nature, the interfering items are said to originate from an overstimulating environment. Interference theory exists in three branches:
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performance does in fact decline with age and have made known that older adults produce vivid rates of forgetting when two items are combined and not encoded.
2004:
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92:(amount remembered as a function of time since an event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed. The most recent evidence suggests that a
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One process model for memory was proposed by
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in the 1960s as a way to explain the operation of memory. This
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E Bruce
Goldstein (2019). Cognitive psychology : connecting mind, research, and everyday experience. 5th ed. Boston, Ma, Usa: Cengage.
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Craik, F. M., & Rose, N. S. (2011). Memory encoding and aging: A neurocognitive perspective. Neuroscience And
Biobehavioral Reviews
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286:, this helps older adults retrieve the events stored in the memory better. There is also evidence from different studies that show
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269:, title, author or even subject. The information still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good
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This theory is supposedly contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike even after not having done so for decades. "
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Szabo, A. N.; McAuley, E.; Erickson, K. I.; Voss, M.; Prakash, R. S.; Mailey, E. L.; Kramer, A. F.; et al. (2011).
536:"The role of forgetting rate in producing a benefit of expanded over equal spaced retrieval in young and older adults"
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Hirst, William; Yamashiro, Jeremy K. (2018), "Social
Aspects of Forgetting", in Meade, M.L.; et al. (eds.),
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1075:"When Learning Disturbs Memory – Temporal Profile of Retroactive Interference of Learning on Memory Formation"
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Sosic-Vasic, Zrinka; Hille, Katrin; Kröner, Julia; Spitzer, Manfred; Kornmeier, Jürgen (16 February 2018).
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is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's short or
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Bjork, Robert A.; Woodward, Addison E. (1973). "Directed forgetting of individual words in free recall".
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Psychologists have called attention to "social aspects of forgetting". Though often loosely defined,
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see how many prompts the subject misses or the number of prompts required to produce the behavior.
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cue must be consistent with the original encoding of the information. If the sound of the word is
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137:, also known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, suggests there are three types of memory:
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Forgetful
Remembrance: Social Forgetting and Vernacular Historiography of a Rebellion in Ulster
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656:"Cardiorespiratory fitness, hippocampal volume, and frequency of forgetting in older adults"
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Difficulty in remembering recent events, problems with language, disorientation, mood swings
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Malmberg, Kenneth J.; Raaijmakers, Jeroen G. W.; Shiffrin, Richard M. (28 January 2019).
318:, consolidation theory and the gradual slowing down of the central nervous system due to
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during the encoding process, the cue that should be used should also put emphasis on the
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The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology are as follows:
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https://www.chegg.com/learn/psychology/introduction-to-psychology/measures-of-forgetting
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Archambeau, Kim; Forstmann, Birte; Van Maanen, Leendert; Gevers, Wim (February 2020).
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Embattled dreamlands: the politics of contesting
Armenian, Kurdish and Turkish memory
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One of the first to study the mechanisms of forgetting was the German psychologist
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Wixted, John T. (February 2004). "The
Psychology and Neuroscience of Forgetting".
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Forgetting can be measured in different ways all of which are based on recall:
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Underwood, B.J. (1957). 'Interference and forgetting' in
Psychological Review
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McLeod, S. A. (2008). Simply Psychology; . Retrieved 19 February 2012, from
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Burke, Peter (1989), "History as Social Memory", in Butler, Thomas (ed.),
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956:. (n.d.). Learn About Measures Of Forgetting | Chegg.com. Available at:
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McNally, R.J. (2004). "The Science and Folklore of Traumatic Amnesia".
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Maddox, G. B.; Balota, D. A.; Coane, J. H. & Duchek, J. M. (2011).
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1197:"Decay Theory of Immediate Memory: From Brown (1958) to Today (2014)"
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Loss or modification of information encoded in an individual's memory
1305:. Hannah Arendt, Harry Zohn. New York: Schocken Books. p. 255.
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or the inability to encode new information again. Examples include
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Ricker, Timothy J.; Vergauwe, Evie; Cowan, Nelson (October 2016).
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provides the closest mathematical fit to the forgetting function.
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Collaborative Remembering: Theories, Research, and Applications
858:"50 years of research sparked by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)"
614:"The Wickelgren Power Law and the Ebbinghaus Savings Function"
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into unconscious repression (which is disputed) and conscious
727:"Replication and Analysis of Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve"
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for this is searching for a book in a library without the
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Concerning unwanted memories, modern terminology divides
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906:(Seventh ed.). Jon-David Hague. pp. 346–371.
1126:"Proactive interference in aging: A model-based study"
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591:. Nelson Education Ltd: Thompson Wadsworth Publisher.
81:. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old
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or cues that were present at the time the memory was
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390:An inability to forget can cause distress, as with
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182:For this type of measurement, a participant has to
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843:"Repressed Memories and Recovered Memory Therapy"
587:Psychology: Themes & Variety 2nd Canadian ed
725:Murre, Jaap M. J.; Dros, Joeri (6 July 2015).
420:is generally considered to be the opposite of
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184:identify material that was previously learned
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1201:Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
398:(in which people have an extremely detailed
39:The garden of oblivion, illustration for by
1588:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
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424:. "Social amnesia" was first discussed by
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290:. These specific studies have shown that
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1338:. New York: Routledge. p. 9 page.
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1385:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141555
282:and retrieved with a technique called
1261:Memory: History, Culture and the Mind
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1035:Canadian Medical Association Journal
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612:John T. Wixted; Shana K. Carpenter.
1437:Forgetting is Key to a Healthy Mind
1432:Causes of Forgetting & Learning
583:Wayne, W. & McCann, D. (2007).
86:information into long-term memory.
1427:Forgetting: High School Psychology
929:Journal of Experimental Psychology
373:Impairments and lack of forgetting
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1869:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
1130:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
336:Proactive, Retroactive and Output
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1182:"The Decay Theory of Forgetting"
2079:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
1952:Memory and social interactions
392:post-traumatic stress disorder
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1301:Benjamin, Walter (c. 1986) .
706:Kohn, Art (9 February 2015).
288:age related changes in memory
1788:Retrieval-induced forgetting
1263:, Blackwell, pp. 97–113
1213:10.1080/17470218.2014.914546
752:10.1371/journal.pone.0120644
243:context-dependent forgetting
1423:An article by Jeffrey Rosen
1373:Annual Review of Psychology
1280:. Oxford University Press.
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2126:Levels of Processing model
2051:World Memory Championships
1884:Lost in the mall technique
1731:dissociative (psychogenic)
1142:10.3758/s13423-019-01671-0
875:10.3758/s13421-019-00896-7
783:Hockenbury, Sandra. (2010)
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2164:The Seven Sins of Memory
2109:Intermediate-term memory
1914:Indirect tests of memory
1891:Recovered-memory therapy
1841:Misattribution of memory
1092:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00082
469:Experience curve effects
464:Cue-dependent forgetting
239:Cue-dependent forgetting
234:Cue-dependent forgetting
190:Free recall and variants
41:Ephraim Moses Lilr the l
1851:Source-monitoring error
1334:Leupold, David (2020).
1079:Frontiers in Psychology
400:autobiographical memory
387:caused by an accident.
2258:George Armitage Miller
2218:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
862:Memory & Cognition
474:Educational psychology
199:Prompted (cued) recall
2421:Philosophy portal
2409:Psychology portal
2273:Henry L. Roediger III
1874:False memory syndrome
1846:Misinformation effect
1826:Imagination inflation
1421:The End of Forgetting
904:Learning and behavior
902:Chance, Paul (2014).
829:10.1093/clipsy/bph056
621:Psychological Science
326:Interference theories
135:modal model of memory
1778:Motivated forgetting
1274:Beiner, Guy (2018).
954:http://www.chegg.com
794:"Memory: Forgetting"
540:Psychology and Aging
259:cognitive psychology
154:motivated forgetting
2288:Arthur P. Shimamura
2188:Richard C. Atkinson
2005:Effects of exercise
1879:Memory implantation
1763:Interference theory
1679:Selective retention
1659:Meaningful learning
993:. Simply Psychology
743:2015PLoSO..1020644M
708:"Use It or Lose It"
331:Interference theory
158:thought suppression
2385:Andriy Slyusarchuk
2208:Hermann Ebbinghaus
2114:Involuntary memory
2015:Memory improvement
2000:Effects of alcohol
1962:Transactive memory
1940:Politics of memory
1909:Exceptional memory
484:Language attrition
363:Flashbulb memories
342:Trace decay theory
115:Hermann Ebbinghaus
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2380:Cosmos Rossellius
2228:Marcia K. Johnson
2099:Exosomatic memory
2084:Context-dependent
2074:Absent-mindedness
1957:Memory conformity
1935:Collective memory
1836:Memory conformity
1773:Memory inhibition
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1684:Tip of the tongue
1409:Simply Psychology
1345:978-0-429-34415-2
1287:978-0-19-874935-6
1207:(10): 1969–1995.
1041:(13): 794. 1964.
913:978-1-111-83277-3
598:978-0-17-647273-3
509:Tip of the tongue
422:collective memory
406:Social forgetting
208:Relearning method
143:short-term memory
90:Forgetting curves
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2313:Robert Stickgold
2283:Richard Shiffrin
2238:Elizabeth Loftus
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2094:Childhood memory
1901:Research methods
1783:Repressed memory
1758:Forgetting curve
1746:transient global
1617:Autobiographical
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552:10.1037/a0022942
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504:Repressed memory
304:long-term memory
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147:long-term memory
119:forgetting curve
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2243:Geoffrey Loftus
2198:Stephen J. Ceci
2193:Robert A. Bjork
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1947:Cultural memory
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1821:Hindsight bias
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1768:Memory erasure
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1480:Basic concepts
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1415:External links
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499:Pseudodementia
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426:Russell Jacoby
418:social amnesia
412:Social amnesia
410:Main article:
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377:Main article:
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298:Organic causes
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1649:Hyperthymesia
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1612:Active recall
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1509:Consolidation
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1312:0-8052-0241-2
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1303:Illuminations
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796:. Spark Notes
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479:Hyperthymesia
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445:David Leupold
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396:hyperthymesia
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58:Complications
55:
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45:
42:
37:
33:
28:
23:
2375:Ben Pridmore
2293:Larry Squire
2203:Susan Clancy
2162:
2046:Memory sport
1971:Other topics
1861:False memory
1816:Cryptomnesia
1793:Weapon focus
1753:Decay theory
1697:
1514:Neuroanatomy
1473:Human memory
1376:
1372:
1335:
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1133:
1129:
1119:
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1038:
1034:
1031:"Forgetting"
1025:
1016:
1007:
995:. Retrieved
991:"Forgetting"
949:
932:
928:
922:
903:
865:
861:
851:
837:
823:(1): 29–33.
820:
816:
810:
798:. Retrieved
788:
779:
734:
730:
720:
711:
663:
659:
632:. Retrieved
625:the original
620:
607:
586:
578:
543:
539:
415:
389:
382:
367:
360:
356:
352:
347:Decay theory
345:
335:
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301:
237:
229:
220:
211:
202:
193:
181:
167:
164:Measurements
151:
132:
124:
118:
112:
103:
88:
74:
70:
69:
2233:Eric Kandel
2181:Researchers
2153:Prospective
2104:Free recall
2058:Shas Pollak
1711:anterograde
1627:Declarative
430:Peter Burke
308:Alzheimer's
217:Recognition
2268:Lynn Nadel
2146:intertrial
2131:Metamemory
2119:flashbacks
2039:In society
1736:retrograde
1698:Forgetting
1669:Procedural
1579:Short-term
1549:Eyewitness
1354:1130319782
634:August 31,
516:References
489:Lotus tree
435:Guy Beiner
275:emphasized
176:See also:
128:repression
71:Forgetting
25:Forgetting
2020:Nutrition
1928:In groups
1741:selective
1716:childhood
1644:Flashbulb
1604:Long-term
1504:Attention
1168:208620951
935:: 22–27.
271:retrieval
2436:Category
2322:Patients
1993:mnemonic
1988:chunking
1654:Implicit
1637:Semantic
1632:Episodic
1622:Explicit
1487:Encoding
1393:14744216
1321:12947710
1231:24853316
1160:31797260
1111:29503621
1057:20327804
884:30689198
771:26148023
731:PLOS ONE
690:21500917
570:21463056
452:See also
316:dementia
279:phonetic
263:metaphor
226:Theories
100:Overview
83:memories
63:Dementia
48:Symptoms
2141:Priming
2067:Related
2010:Emotion
1706:Amnesia
1544:Eidetic
1531:Sensory
1492:Storage
1401:3057114
1365:Sources
1222:4241183
1151:7000511
1102:5820352
1048:1922558
762:4492928
739:Bibcode
681:3140615
561:3168729
459:Amnesia
385:amnesia
312:amnesia
255:encoded
251:stimuli
241:(also,
109:History
2442:Memory
2174:People
2159:memory
2090:memory
2030:Trauma
1569:Visual
1559:Iconic
1554:Haptic
1539:Echoic
1497:Recall
1399:
1391:
1352:
1342:
1319:
1309:
1284:
1229:
1219:
1166:
1158:
1148:
1109:
1099:
1085:: 82.
1055:
1045:
910:
882:
769:
759:
688:
678:
595:
568:
558:
494:Memory
247:memory
172:Recall
145:, and
2353:Other
2025:Sleep
1978:Aging
1523:Types
1397:S2CID
1164:S2CID
997:1 May
800:2 May
628:(PDF)
617:(PDF)
320:aging
2155:and
2086:and
1389:PMID
1350:OCLC
1340:ISBN
1317:OCLC
1307:ISBN
1282:ISBN
1227:PMID
1156:PMID
1107:PMID
1053:PMID
999:2014
908:ISBN
880:PMID
802:2014
767:PMID
686:PMID
636:2016
593:ISBN
566:PMID
394:and
1381:doi
1217:PMC
1209:doi
1146:PMC
1138:doi
1097:PMC
1087:doi
1043:PMC
937:doi
870:doi
825:doi
757:PMC
747:doi
676:PMC
668:doi
556:PMC
548:doi
402:).
73:or
2438::
2339:NA
2334:KC
2329:HM
1395:.
1387:.
1377:55
1375:.
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