2240:, Michael Meltzer, May 31, 2012. See Chapter 7, Return to Mars. Quote: "One of the most reliable ways to reduce the risk of forward contamination during visits to extraterrestrial bodies is to make those visits only with robotic spacecraft. Sending a person to Mars would be, for some observers, more exciting. But in the view of much of the space science community, robotic missions are the way to accomplish the maximum amount of scientific inquiry since valuable fuel and shipboard power do not have to be expended in transporting and operating the equipment to keep a human crew alive and healthy. And very important to planetary protection goals, robotic craft can be thoroughly sterilized, while humans cannot. Such a difference can be critical in protecting sensitive targets, such as the special regions of Mars, from forward contamination." "Perhaps a change in the public's perspective as to just what today's robotic missions really are would be helpful in deciding what types of missions are important to implement. In the opinion of Terence Johnson, who has played a major role in many of NASA's robotic missions, including serving as the project scientist for the Galileo mission and the planned Europa Orbiter mission, the term "robotic exploration" misses the point. NASA is actually conducting human exploration on these projects. The mission crews that sit in the control panel at JPL, "as well as everyone else who can log on to the Internet" can observe in near real-time what is going on. The spacecraft instruments, in other words, are becoming more like collective sense organs for humankind. Thus, according to Johnson, when NASA conducts its so-called robotic missions, people all around the world are really "all standing on the bridge of Starship Enterprise". The question must thus be asked, when, if ever, is it necessary for the good of humankind to send people rather than increasingly sophisticated robots to explore other worlds."
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Detecting
Possible Biohazards in Martian Samples Returned to Earth was published in October 2002 . In 2003, three architectural design teams independently examined the scope, approach, cost, and technology required for the SRF, using the Draft Test Protocol for requirements. The approaches varied from allrobotic handling of samples to more traditional glove box implementations. The studies indicated that the principles and techniques required are generally mature. Biosafety laboratories, the NASA Lunar Sample Facility, pharmaceutical laboratories, and electronic fabrication cleanrooms perform most of the required individual functions. However, there are some areas needing early development, such as ensuring sample preservation and bio-safety together, representing new challenges that were addressed by techniques like dual-walled containers (and gloves) with positive pressure clean inert gas in between the walls. This, as well as some further development in ultra-clean sample manipulation, safe and pure transport of samples, and sample sterilization techniques, are planned in the technology program.
1733:"In another investigation, spores of Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032 and another spore-forming bacteria, Bacillus subtilis 168, were dried on pieces of spacecraft-quality aluminum and subjected for 1.5 years to the vacuum of space, cosmic and extraterrestrial solar radiation and temperature fluctuations on EuTEF. These samples also were subjected to a simulated Martian atmosphere using EuTEF. Most of the organisms exposed to solar UV radiation in space and in the Mars spectrum were killed, but when UV rays were filtered out and samples were kept in the dark, about 50 percent or more of those subjected to other space- and Mars-like conditions survived. That makes it likely that spores could survive a trip on a spacecraft to Mars if they are sheltered against solar radiation, perhaps in a tiny pocket of the spacecraft surface or underneath a layer of other spores."
609:. These randomly incorporate segments of the host genome and can transfer them to other evolutionarily distant hosts, and do that without killing the new host. In this way many archaea and bacteria can swap DNA with each other. This raises the possibility that Martian life, if it has a common origin with Earth life in the distant past, could swap DNA with Earth microorganisms in the same way. In one experiment reported in 2010, researchers left GTAs (DNA conferring antibiotic resistance) and marine bacteria overnight in natural conditions and found that by the next day up to 47% of the bacteria had incorporated the genetic material from the GTAs. Another reason for the 0.05 μm limit is because of the discovery of
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2252:"Martian biological contamination may occur if astronauts breathe contaminated dust or if they contact material that is introduced into their habitat. If an astronaut becomes contaminated or infected, it is conceivable that he or she could transmit Martian biological entities or even disease to fellow astronauts, or introduce such entities into the biosphere upon returning to Earth. A contaminated vehicle or item of equipment returned to Earth could also be a source of contamination."
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terrestrial 1000 g cm-2) the doses of ionizing radiation at the surface of Mars reach values about 100 times higher than those on the Earth. However, since a great variety of microbes tolerate this type of radiation at similar or even greater doses than those found on Mars, ionizing radiation cannot be considered a limiting factor for microbial life on Mars and thus here we will limit our study to solar UV shielding and VIS radiation pentration.
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93:. Non-biological forms of contamination have also been considered, including contamination of sensitive deposits (such as lunar polar ice deposits) of scientific interest. In the case of back contamination, multicellular life is thought unlikely but has not been ruled out. In the case of forward contamination, contamination by multicellular life (e.g. lichens) is unlikely to occur for robotic missions, but it becomes a consideration in
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314:. The researchers concluded that "the surface of Mars is lethal to vegetative cells and renders much of the surface and near-surface regions uninhabitable." This research demonstrates that the present-day surface is more uninhabitable than previously thought, and reinforces the notion to inspect at least a few meters into the ground to ensure the levels of radiation would be relatively low.
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certain special deposits of salts or clays on Mars would have the capability to preserve organics for billions of years. So, they argue, there is a high risk that a Mars sample-return at our current stage of understanding would return samples that are no more conclusive about the origins of life on Mars or present day life than the
Martian meteorite samples we already have.
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refinement and maturation of SRF-associated technologies for safely containing and handling samples to avoid contamination and to further develop and refine biohazard-test protocols. Many of the capabilities and technologies will either be entirely new or will be required to meet the unusual challenges of integration into an overall (end-to-end) Mars sample return program.
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590:). While existing BSL-4 facilities deal primarily with fairly well-known organisms, a BSL-4 facility focused on extraterrestrial samples must pre-plan the systems carefully while being mindful that there will be unforeseen issues during sample evaluation and curation that will require independent thinking and solutions.
556:. At the time, it was thought that there was a low probability of life on the Moon, so the requirements were not very stringent. The precautions taken then were inadequate by current standards, however. The regulations used then have been rescinded, and new regulations and approaches for a sample-return would be needed.
116:, the aim of the mission is to return extraterrestrial samples to Earth, and sterilization of the samples would make them of much less interest. So, back contamination would be prevented mainly by containment, and breaking the chain of contact between the planet of origin and Earth. It would also require
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Instead they advocate sending more sensitive instruments on Mars surface rovers. These could examine many different rocks and soil types, and search for biosignatures on the surface and so examine a wide range of materials which could not all be returned to Earth with current technology at reasonable
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Margaret Race has examined in detail the legal process of approval for a MSR. She found that under the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (which did not exist in the Apollo era) a formal environment impact statement is likely to be required, and public hearings during which all the issues would
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A sample-return mission would be designed to break the chain of contact between Mars and the exterior of the sample container, for instance, by sealing the returned container inside another larger container in the vacuum of space before it returns to Earth. In order to eliminate the risk of parachute
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of liquid saltwater, rather than from the moon's icy surface. Data from the geyser flythroughs also indicate the presence of organic chemicals in the plumes. Heat scans of
Enceladus's surface also indicate higher temperatures around the fissures where the geysers originate, with temperatures reaching
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could out compete native life or consume it, if there is life on the planet. However, the experience on earth shows that species moved from one continent to another may be able to out compete the native life adapted to that continent. Additionally, evolutionary processes on Earth might have developed
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There are multiple consequences for both forward- and back-contamination. If a planet becomes contaminated with Earth life, it might then be difficult to tell whether any lifeforms discovered originated there or came from Earth. Furthermore, the organic chemicals produced by the introduced life would
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Finally there are other harmful radiation sources reaching Mars: ionizing and neutron radiation caused by galactic cosmic radiation and solar particle events. Due to the lack of a magnetic field and the low shielding of the
Martian atmosphere (the Martian overhead airmass is 16 g cm-2 instead of the
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Then apart from those domestic legal hurdles, there are numerous international regulations and treaties to be negotiated in the case of a Mars sample-return, especially those relating to environmental protection and health. She concluded that the public of necessity has a significant role to play in
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The facility's systems must be able to contain unknown biohazards, as the sizes of any putative
Martian microorganisms are unknown. In consideration of this, additional requirements were proposed. Ideally it should filter particles of 0.01 μm or larger, and release of a particle 0.05 μm or
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which cannot be removed while preserving the life of the human. Containment seems the only option, but effective containment to the same standard as a robotic rover appears difficult to achieve with present-day technology. In particular, adequate containment in the event of a hard landing is a major
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of living or ancient native life. The same applies to other more complex biosignatures. Life on other planets could have a common origin with Earth life, since in the early Solar System there was much exchange of material between the planets which could have transferred life as well. If so, it might
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Their reasoning is that life on Mars is likely to be hard to find. Any present day life is likely to be sparse and occur in only a few niche habitats. Past life is likely to be degraded by cosmic radiation over geological time periods if exposed in the top few meters of the Mars surface. Also, only
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Human explorers may be potential carriers back to Earth of microorganisms acquired on Mars, if such microorganisms exist. Another issue is the contamination of the water supply by Earth microorganisms shed by humans in their stools, skin and breath, which could have a direct effect on the long-term
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to preserve the scientific value of the samples. A challenge is that, while it is relatively easy to simply contain the samples once returned to Earth, researchers would also want to remove parts of the sample and perform analyses. During all these handling procedures, the samples would need to be
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on
September 9, 1963. Prior to NMI-4-4-1 the same sterilization requirements were required on all outgoing spacecraft regardless of their target. Difficulties in the sterilization of Ranger probes sent to the Moon are the primary reasons for NASA's change to a target-by-target basis in assessing
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Although numerous studies point to resistance to some of Mars conditions, they do so separately, and none has considered the full range of
Martian surface conditions, including temperature, pressure, atmospheric composition, radiation, humidity, oxidizing regolith, and others, all at the same time
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in
December 2012 appear to show an ice plume spouting from Europa's surface, which would immensely strengthen the case for a liquid subsurface ocean. As was the case for Enceladus, vapour geysers would allow for easy sampling of the liquid layer. Unfortunately, there appears to be little evidence
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is normally kept at a higher pressure than the external environment to keep contaminants out, while a biohazard laboratory is kept at a lower pressure to keep the biohazards in. This would require to compartmentalize the specialized rooms in order to combine these in a single building. Solutions
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The laws on quarantine will also need to be clarified as the regulations for the Apollo program were rescinded. In the Apollo era, NASA delayed announcement of its quarantine regulations until the day Apollo was launched, so bypassing the requirement for public debate - something that would be
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It has been estimated that the planning, design, site selection, environmental reviews, approvals, construction, commissioning, and pre-testing of a proposed safe room facility (SRF) will occur 7 to 10 years before actual operations begin. In addition, 5 to 6 years will likely be required for
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The NASA Planetary
Protection Officer commissioned the development of a draft test protocol that would represent one "necessary and sufficient" approach to evaluate the safety of the samples while safeguarding the purity of the samples from terrestrial contamination. A Draft Test Protocol for
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Finally, our results indicate that liquid water could form on the surface during the spring where snow has been deposited on saline soils . These results have important implications for the understanding of the habitability of Mars because liquid water is essential for life as we know it, and
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They came to the conclusion that telerobotic approaches could permit direct study of the samples on the Mars surface via telepresence from Mars orbit, permitting rapid exploration and use of human cognition to take advantage of chance discoveries and feedback from the results obtained so far.
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Another consideration is the difficulty of keeping the sample completely free from Earth life contamination during the return journey and during handling procedures on Earth. This might make it hard to show conclusively that any biosignatures detected does not result from contamination of the
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to return samples collected by the Perseverance Rover to Earth. The European Space Foundation report cites many advantages of a Mars sample-return. In particular, it would permit extensive analyses on Earth, without the size and weight constraints for instruments sent to Mars on rovers. These
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During this process, she found, the full range of worst accident scenarios, impact, and project alternatives would be played out in the public arena. Other agencies such as the Environment Protection Agency, Occupational Health and Safety Administration, etc., may also get involved in the
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It is also probable that the presidential directive NSC-25 will apply which requires a review of large scale alleged effects on the environment and is carried out subsequent to the other domestic reviews and through a long process, leads eventually to presidential approval of the launch.
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During the “Exploration Telerobotics Symposium" in 2012 experts on telerobotics from industry, NASA and academics met to discuss telerobotics, and its applications to space exploration. Amongst other issues, particular attention was given to Mars missions and a Mars sample-return.
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Several exobiologists have suggested that a Mars sample-return is not necessary at this stage, and that it is better to focus more on in situ studies on the surface first. Although it is not their main motivation, this approach of course also eliminates back contamination risks.
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has been suggested as a testbed for new technology to protect sites in the Solar System, and astronauts, from forward and back contamination. Currently, the Moon has no contamination restrictions because it is considered to be "not of interest" for prebiotic chemistry and
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missions incited public concern about the possibility of microbes on the Moon, creating fears about a plague being brought to Earth when the astronauts returned. NASA received thousands of letters from Americans concerned with the potential for back contamination.
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Andrew D. Aubrey, John H. Chalmers, Jeffrey L. Bada, Frank J. Grunthaner, Xenia Amashukeli, Peter Willis, Alison M. Skelley, Richard A. Mathies, Richard C. Quinn, Aaron P. Zent, Pascale Ehrenfreund, Ron Amundson, Daniel P. Glavin, Oliver Botta, Laurence Barron,
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Return of the sample to orbit has the advantage that it permits analysis of the sample without delay, to detect volatiles that may be lost during a voyage home. This was the conclusion of a meeting of researchers at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 2012.
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are of particular concern for interplanetary contamination because of the impossibility to sterilize a human to the same level as a robotic spacecraft. Therefore, the chance of forwarding contamination is higher than for a robotic mission. Humans are typically
310:, act in synergy with irradiated perchlorates to cause a 10.8-fold increase in cell death when compared to cells exposed to UV radiation after 60 seconds of exposure. It was also found that abraded silicates (quartz and basalt) lead to the formation of toxic
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resulting from the inadvertent contamination of Earth with putative martian microbes are still considered to be low. But since the risk cannot be demonstrated to be zero, due care and caution must be exercised in handling any martian materials returned to
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Levin is working on updated versions of the Labeled release instrument flown on Viking. For instance versions that rely on detecting chirality. This is of special interest because it can enable detection of life even if it is not based on standard life
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They found that telepresence exploration of Mars has many advantages. The astronauts have near real-time control of the robots, and can respond immediately to discoveries. It also prevents contamination both ways and has mobility benefits as well.
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A sample-return to Earth would then be considered at a later stage, once we have a reasonably thorough understanding of conditions on Mars, and possibly have already detected life there, either current or past life, through biosignatures and other
489:. Humans in close orbit around the target planet could control equipment on the surface in real time via telepresence, so bringing many of the benefits of a surface mission, without its associated increased forward and back contamination risks.
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analyses could also be carried out without the communication delays for experiments carried out by Martian rovers. It would also make it possible to repeat experiments in multiple laboratories with different instruments to confirm key results.
291:. These, similarly to the lichens, use the humidity of the atmosphere. If the mixture of salts is right, the organisms may obtain liquid water at times of high atmospheric humidity, with salts capturing enough to be capable of supporting life.
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The majority of the species isolated are not well understood or characterized and cannot be cultured in labs, and are known only from DNA fragments obtained with swabs. On a contaminated planet, it might be difficult to distinguish the
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Christopher E. Carr, Holli Rowedder, Clarissa S. Lui, Ilya Zlatkovsky, Chris W. Papalias, Jarie Bolander, Jason W. Myers, James Bustillo, Jonathan M. Rothberg, Maria T. Zuber, and Gary Ruvkun. Astrobiology. June 2013, 13(6) 560-569.
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A Sample Return Facility will require combining technologies used for constructing maximum containment laboratories (e.g. Biosafety Level 4 labs) with cleanroom technologies which will be needed to protect the Mars samples from Earth
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To receive, analyze and curate extraterrestrial soil samples, NASA has proposed to build a biohazard containment facility, tentatively known as the Mars Sample Return Receiving Facility (MSRRF). This future facility must be rated
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No-one has yet proved that there is deep groundwater on Mars, but it is plausible as there is certainly surface ice and atmospheric water vapour, so we wouldn't want to contaminate it and make it unusable by the introduction of
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MEPAG Special Regions-Science Analysis Group; Beaty, D.; Buxbaum, K.; Meyer, M.; Barlow, N.; Boynton, W.; Clark, B.; Deming, J.; Doran, P. T.; et al. (2006). "Findings of the Mars Special Regions Science Analysis Group".
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Some of these exobiologists advocate more in situ studies followed by a sample-return in the near future. Others go as far as to advocate in situ study instead of a sample-return at the present state of understanding of Mars.
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Precisely because Mars is an environment of great potential biological interest, it is possible that on Mars there are pathogens, organisms which, if transported to the terrestrial environment, might do enormous biological
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sent to sensitive areas of the Solar System. Missions are classified depending on whether their destinations are of interest for the search for life, and whether there is any chance that Earth life could reproduce there.
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of extraterrestrial life from the DNA of life brought to the planet by the exploring. Most species of microorganisms on Earth are not yet well understood or DNA sequenced. This particularly applies to the unculturable
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appears hostile to life as we know it. No extraterrestrial life has ever been discovered. But if extraterrestrial life exists, it may be vulnerable to interplanetary contamination by foreign microorganisms. Some
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failure, the capsule could fall at terminal velocity and the impact would be cushioned by the capsule's thermal protection system. The sample container would be designed to withstand the force of the impact.
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Space Exploration Via Telepresence: The Case for Synergy Between Science and Human Exploration, Findings and Observations from: "Exploration Telerobotics Symposium". May 2-3, 2012. NASA Goddard Space Flight
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There is ample evidence to suggest that Mars once offered habitable conditions for microbial life. It is therefore possible that microbial life may have existed on Mars, although no evidence has been found.
257:) from Earth were transported on Mars spacecraft. Some may be protected within Martian rovers and landers on the shallow surface of the planet. In that sense, Mars may have already been contaminated.
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may be able to survive space travel to another planet, and foreign life could possibly be introduced by spacecraft from Earth. If possible, some believe this poses scientific and ethical concerns.
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the plumes escaping from Enceladus. Measured data indicates that these geysers are made primarily of salt rich particles with an 'ocean-like' composition, which is thought to originate from a
2935:, M. Coleman, A. Farrington, A. Yen, R. Mathies, R. Amudson, R. Quinn, A. Zen, S. Ride, L. Barron, O. Botta, B. Clark, D. Glavin, B. Hofmann, J.L. Josse, P. Rettberg, F. Robert, M. Sephton.
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biological pathways different from extraterrestrial organisms, and so may be able to out-compete it. The same is also possible the other way around for contamination introduced to Earth's
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Michalski, Joseph R.; Cuadros, Javier; Niles, Paul B.; Parnell, John; Deanne Rogers, A.; Wright, Shawn P. (2013). "Groundwater activity on Mars and implications for a deep biosphere".
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There can be no life on the surface of Mars because it is bathed in radiation and it's completely frozen. However, life in the subsurface would be protected from that. - Prof. Parnell.
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NASA Marshall Space Flight Center is leading a research effort to develop a Miniaturized Variable Pressure Scanning Electron Microscope (MVP-SEM) for future lunar and Martian missions.
198:, and so are difficult to study. This can be either because they depend on the presence of other microorganisms, are slow growing, or depend on other conditions not yet understood. In
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Back contamination would be prevented by containment or quarantine. However, there have been no sample-returns thought to have any possibility of a back contamination risk since the
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641:, maintains that the risk of back contamination is negligible. He supports this using an argument based on the possibility of transfer of life from Earth to Mars on meteorites.
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The facility would be expected to take 7 to 10 years from design to completion, and an additional two years is recommended for the staff to become accustomed to the facilities.
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505:. The possibility of new human pathogens, or environmental disruption due to back contamination, is considered to be of extremely low probability but cannot yet be ruled out.
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In addition to science research concerns, there are also attempts to raise ethical and moral concerns regarding intentional or unintentional interplanetary transport of life.
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NASA and ESA views are similar. The findings were that with present-day technology, Martian samples can be safely returned to Earth provided the right precautions are taken.
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need no precautions at all. Others such as the Moon require documentation but nothing more, while destinations such as Mars require sterilization of the rovers sent there.
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Several teams, including Jonathan Rothberg, and J. Craig Venter, are separately developing solutions for sequencing alien DNA directly on the Martian surface itself.
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Bak, Ebbe N.; Larsen, Michael G.; Moeller, Ralf; Nissen, Silas B.; Jensen, Lasse R.; Nørnberg, Per; Jensen, Svend J. K.; Finster, Kai (September 12, 2017).
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NASA has already had experience with returning samples thought to represent a low back contamination risk when samples were returned for the first time by
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Earth and Space 2014 - Proceedings of the 14th Biennial ASCE Conference on Engineering, Science, Construction, and Operations in Challenging Environments
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require a subsurface layer of liquid water in order to accurately reproduce the linear fracturing of the surface. Indeed, observations by the
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Since the Moon is now generally considered to be free from life, the most likely source of contamination would be from Mars during either a
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Biological contamination studies of lunar landing sites: implications for futureplanetary protection and life detectionon the Moon and Mars
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Kaeberlein, T; Lewis, K; Epstein, SS (2002). "Isolating "uncultivable" microorganisms in pure culture in a simulated natural environment".
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One of the most reliable ways to reduce the risk of forward and back contamination during visits to extraterrestrial bodies is to use only
2732:. Assessment of Planetary Protection Requirements for Mars Sample Return Missions (Report). National Research Council. 2009. p. 59.
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Planning for the Analytic Environment to Conduct Life Detection Experiments on Samples Returned from Mars: Observations and Issues (2012)
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and in combination. Laboratory simulations show that whenever multiple lethal factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly.
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Perhaps Martian samples can be safely returned to Earth. But I would want to be very sure before considering a returned-sample mission.
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There is general consensus that extant microbial life on Mars would probably exist (if at all) in the subsurface and at low abundance.
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suggested include a triple walled containment facility, and one of the suggestions include extensive robotic handling of the samples.
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Jeffrey L. Bada, Andrew D. Aubrey, Frank J. Grunthaner, Michael Hecht, Richard Quinn, Richard Mathies, Aaron Zent, John H. Chalmers
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Mars Sample Return Receiving Facility - A Draft Test Protocol for Detecting Possible Biohazards in Martian Samples Returned to Earth
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3032:"Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun"
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The Urey Mars Organic and Oxidant Detector instrument for detection of biosignatures has been descoped, but was due to be flown on
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and grow in the absence of any liquid water, simply by using the humidity from the atmosphere. They are also highly tolerant of
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show the best evidence for current habitats, mainly due to the possibility of their hosting liquid water and organic compounds.
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of how Europa's magnetic field interacts with Jupiter's field strengthens the case for a liquid, rather than solid, layer; an
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Locations within the Solar System where life might exist today include the oceans of liquid water beneath the icy surface of
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Summons, Roger E.; Amend, Jan P.; Bish, David; Buick, Roger; Cody, George D.; Des Marais, David J.; Dromart, Gilles;
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effect). Even dormant spores lost viability within minutes. In addition, two other compounds of the Martian surface,
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conducted on March 30, 2001 by the class members of STS497 I, "Space Colonization"; Instructor: Dr. Chris Churchill
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CLEANROOM ROBOTICS – APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY FOR A SAMPLE RECEIVING FACILITY 2005 update on the Draft Test Protocol
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D. S. Bass, D. W. Beaty, C. C. Allen, A. C. Allwood, L. E. Borg, K. E. Buxbaum1, J. A. Hurowitz and M. D. Schulte.
2340:, D.P. Glavin, J.P. Dworkin, M. Lupisella, G. Kminek and J.D. Rummel, International Journal of Astrobiology (2004)
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Sullivan, Walter (June 15, 1969). "Science; Guarding Against Moon Bugs" (Newspaper). New York: The New York Times.
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2023:"Silicates Eroded under Simulated Martian Conditions Effectively Kill Bacteria - A Challenge for Life on Mars"
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in 2018. It is designed with much higher levels of sensitivity for biosignatures than any previous instruments
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Based on Findings from: "Exploration Telerobotics Symposium". May 2–3, 2012 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
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337:−93 °C (−135 °F), which is 115 °C (207 °F) warmer than the surrounding surface regions.
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European Science Foundation - Mars Sample Return backward contamination - Strategic advice and requirements
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LOW-LATENCY TELEROBOTICS FROM MARS ORBIT: THE CASE FOR SYNERGY BETWEEN SCIENCE AND HUMAN EXPLORATION
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Miniature Variable Pressure Scanning Electron Microscope for in-situ imaging & chemical analysis
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Aerospace Conference, 2012 IEEE, vol., no., pp.1,10, 3–10 March 2012 doi: 10.1109/AERO.2012.6187064
2811:
2633:
Lauren D. McDaniel, Elizabeth Young, Jennifer Delaney, Fabian Ruhnau, Kim B. Ritchie, John H. Paul
2585:
1429:
999:
830:
598:
2275:"The End of the World, The Future of the Earth: Bioplurality and the Politics of Human Extinction"
2106:
Mars soil is likely toxic to cells — does this mean humans won't be able to grow vegetables there?
1298:
948:
4139:
4134:
4112:
4097:
3989:
3777:
3757:
3707:
3670:
3660:
3511:
3348:
2951:
2892:
2606:
2003:
1482:
1410:
1078:
949:
COSPAR Workshop on Planetary Protection for Outer Planet Satellites and Small Solar System Bodies
801:
610:
519:
was first to publicise back contamination issues that might follow from a Mars sample-return. In
486:
345:
Europa has much indirect evidence for its sub-surface ocean. Models of how Europa is affected by
101:
4492:
2788:
Seeking signs of life on mars: in situ investigations as prerequisites to sample return missions
2185:
922:
406:. The Apollo regulations have been rescinded and new regulations have yet to be developed. See
365:
that geysering is a frequent event on Europa due to the lack of water in the space near Europa.
577:
Working inside a BSL-4 laboratory with air hoses providing positive air pressure to their suits
4372:
4273:
4068:
3876:
3841:
3802:
3752:
3643:
3627:
3370:
3333:
3311:
3296:
3279:
3197:
2729:
2472:
2452:
2429:
2402:
2294:
2249:
2215:
2054:
1956:
1892:
1862:
1689:
1645:
1474:
1357:
1303:
1176:
1070:
1027:
918:
418:
307:
61:
is the transfer of life and other forms of contamination from Earth to another celestial body.
2870:
2496:
Planetary Protection, Legal Ambiguity, and the Decision Making Process for Mars Sample Return
2409:- see 2. From remote exploration to returning samples. (for more details of the document see
761:
Similar methods could be used to directly explore other biologically sensitive moons such as
294:
Research published in July 2017 shows that when irradiated with a simulated Martian UV flux,
112:. Forward contamination is prevented primarily by sterilizing the spacecraft. In the case of
4521:
4456:
4285:
4263:
4107:
4075:
4063:
4039:
3665:
3612:
3602:
3561:
3491:
3486:
3215:
3123:
3008:
2875:
2675:
A Draft Test Protocol for Detecting Possible Biohazards in Martian Samples Returned to Earth
2674:
2638:
2616:
2611:
2341:
2286:
2044:
2034:
1995:
1946:
1938:
1852:
1844:
1681:
1637:
1560:
1464:
1456:
1400:
1347:
1339:
1240:
1215:
1166:
1158:
1062:
1019:
961:
COSPAR power point type presentation, gives good overview of the detailed category decisions
427:
396:
209:
90:
753:
4350:
4191:
3762:
3622:
3538:
3526:
3506:
3402:
3192:
3172:
3095:
2990:
2970:
2917:
The Urey Instrument: An Advanced In Situ Organic and Oxidant Detector for Mars Exploration
2681:
2532:
2502:
2398:
2392:
European Science Foundation - Mars Sample Return backward contamination - strategic advice
2374:
1606:
1263:
1099:
967:
583:
329:
269:
2799:
2759:
2692:
2327:
Mars and the Moon (C. A. Conley & J. D. Rummel Acta Astronautica 63 1025–1030 (2008))
1578:
1991:
1934:
1840:
1794:
1677:
1633:
1556:
1452:
1396:
1335:
1211:
1154:
1058:
1015:
4328:
4268:
4253:
4206:
4102:
4048:
3908:
3566:
3543:
3516:
3434:
3424:
3326:
3321:
3187:
3138:
2356:
2049:
2022:
1951:
1918:
1857:
1824:
1352:
1319:
1282:
1171:
1138:
597:
The reason for this extremely small size limit of 0.01 μm is for consideration of
466:
423:
403:
86:
38:
2749:
Task Group on Issues in Sample Return. National Academies Press, Washington, DC (1997)
2634:
1976:"Shielding biomolecules from effects of radiation by Mars analogue minerals and soils"
4548:
4471:
4355:
4312:
4258:
4246:
4231:
4221:
4144:
4058:
4034:
4029:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3809:
3397:
3338:
3301:
3253:
3036:
2073:
2007:
1414:
762:
357:
346:
232:
141:
17:
2747:
Mars Sample Return: Issues and Recommendations (Planetary Protection Office Summary)
1708:"Space Station Research Shows That Hardy Little Space Travelers Could Colonize Mars"
1082:
4497:
4431:
4163:
4149:
4004:
3814:
3782:
3772:
3675:
3521:
3419:
3365:
3274:
3133:
2932:
2912:
2274:
1886:
Whenever multiple biocidal factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly
1486:
1219:
1137:
Rummel, J.D.; Race, M.S.; Horneck, and the Princeton Workshop, G. (November 2012).
876:
870:
842:
824:
811:
766:
638:
477:
387:
NASA made these policies official with the issuing of Management Manual NMI-4-4-1,
273:
244:
174:
169:
149:
134:
129:
2964:
Space Exploration Enabled by Telepresence: Combining Science and Human Exploration
2746:
2290:
1139:"Ethical Considerations for Planetary Protection in Space Exploration: A Workshop"
2446:
1318:
Fischer, Erik; Martínez, Germán M.; Elliott, Harvey M.; Rennó, Nilton O. (2014).
650:
be aired openly. This process is likely to take up to several years to complete.
469:
astronauts could also yield useful ground truth for planetary protection models.
4476:
4158:
4019:
4014:
3851:
3836:
3712:
3687:
3316:
3236:
3143:
3128:
2823:
804:
may have survived for a while on the Moon after the April 2019 crash landing of
797:
462:
299:
295:
161:
42:
2473:
Assessment of Planetary Protection Requirements for Mars Sample Return Missions
1942:
4426:
4241:
4211:
4196:
3984:
3972:
3732:
3594:
3220:
2602:
2345:
1999:
1641:
1405:
1244:
858:
516:
303:
288:
265:
254:
199:
120:
procedures for the materials and for anyone who comes into contact with them.
117:
46:
2357:
Almost Being There: Why the Future of Space Exploration Is Not What You Think
2298:
2039:
1823:
Fairén, Alberto G.; Parro, Victor; Schulze-Makuch, Dirk; Whyte, Lyle (2018).
4168:
3957:
3886:
3831:
3826:
3692:
3533:
3439:
3182:
3053:
2642:
2186:
Hubble Space Telescope Sees Evidence of Water Vapor Venting off Jupiter Moon
1257:
Planetary Ecosynthesis on Mars: Restoration Ecology and Environmental Ethics
1066:
806:
770:
622:
617:
553:
444:
228:
214:
145:
78:
2802:
D. A. Paige, Dept. of Earth and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095
2787:
2238:
When Biospheres Collide - a history of NASA'S Planetary Protection Programs
2058:
1960:
1866:
1693:
1685:
1649:
1526:"Mars: 'Strongest evidence' planet may have supported life, scientists say"
1504:
1478:
1361:
1180:
1074:
1031:
27:
Biological contamination of a planetary body by a space probe or spacecraft
2879:
2620:
2212:
When Biospheres Collide: A History of NASA's Planetary Protection Programs
1848:
1460:
1162:
1023:
4461:
4446:
3977:
3962:
3864:
3702:
3150:
1343:
927:
2894:
A Chiral Labeled Release Instrument for In Situ Detection of Extant Life
2859:
Researchers Design a DNA Sequencing Microchip for Detecting Life on Mars
1884:. Astrobiology Magazine. Archived from the original on August 20, 2011.
1469:
1320:"Experimental evidence for the formation of liquid saline water on Mars"
4441:
4295:
4290:
4127:
4117:
3925:
3737:
3449:
3444:
998:
Moissl, Christine; Bruckner, James C.; Venkateswaran, Kasthuri (2008).
725:
277:
195:
157:
360:
deep within Europa would explain these results. Observations from the
4451:
4377:
2367:
1620:
Debus, A. (2005). "Estimation and assessment of Mars contamination".
1564:
1381:"Water and Brines on Mars: Current Evidence and Implications for MSL"
287:
Other studies have suggested the potential for life to survive using
261:
153:
105:
1919:"Perchlorates on Mars enhance the bacteriocidal effects of UV light"
426:
to a hundred trillion microorganisms in ten thousand species in the
2871:
Radiation Resistance of Sequencing Chips for in situ Life Detection
861: – Hypothesis on the interstellar spreading of primordial life
4122:
3881:
1825:"Is Searching for Martian Life a Priority for the Mars Community?"
752:
572:
476:
333:
74:
2162:
What Makes Us Think There is an Ocean Beneath Europa's Icy Crust?
4466:
3004:"A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon"
1712:
1000:"Archaeal diversity analysis of spacecraft assembly clean rooms"
457:
3057:
2772:
transcription of a tele-conference interview with ROBERT ZUBRIN
2198:
Signs of Europa Plumes Remain Elusive in Search of Cassini Data
896:
S.T. Shipley; P.T. Metzger & J.E. Lane (27 October 2014).
796:
In August 2019, scientists reported that a capsule containing
666:
the development of the policies governing Mars sample-return.
602:
190:
182:
178:
2836:
Mars Sample Return Mission? Naaah… Just Beam Back Martian DNA
1100:"Queens University Belfast scientist helps NASA Mars project"
981:"If there Are Microbes on Mars, We Might Have Put Them There"
867: – Prevention of interplanetary biological contamination
407:
280:
and other more specialized chemicals to protect their cells.
2900:. Concepts and Approaches for Mars Exploration. Houston, TX.
2410:
1974:
Ertem, G.; Ertem, M. C.; McKay, C. P.; Hazen, R. M. (2017).
873: – Pollution around Earth by defunct artificial objects
773:, once the human presence in the vicinity becomes possible.
845: – Organisms capable of living in extreme environments
2569:
2567:
2123:"Cassini samples the icy spray of Enceladus' water plumes"
1505:"Scientists find evidence Mars subsurface could hold life"
1094:
1092:
160:, but it may also have liquid water below the surface and
2790:
Independent Contribution to the Mars Decadal Survey Panel
2137:"Cassini Tastes Organic Material at Saturn's Geyser Moon"
1579:"RADIATIVE HABITABLE ZONES IN MARTIAN POLAR ENVIRONMENTS"
2635:
High Frequency of Horizontal Gene Transfer in the Oceans
1299:"Science - Special Collection - Curiosity Rover on Mars"
951:
European Space Policy Institute (ESPI), 15–17 April 2009
2800:
Mars Exploration Strategies: Forget About Sample Return
2505:
Adv. Space Res. vol 18 no 1/2 pp (1/2)345-(1/2)350 1996
2425:
The Cosmic Connection - an Extraterrestrial Perspective
2822:
Gaskin, J.A.; Jerman, G.; Gregory, D.; Sampson, A.R.,
2316:. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 114–5.
3285:
Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal
2954:, Concepts and Approaches for Mars Exploration (2012)
616:
The BSL-4 containment facility must also double as a
52:
There are two types of interplanetary contamination:
3211:
Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments
2758:
Robert Zubrin "Contamination From Mars: No Threat",
2730:"7: Sample-Receiving Facility and Program Oversight"
2233:
2231:
1367:
halophilic terrestrial bacteria can thrive in brines
4419:
4388:
4321:
4179:
3850:
3725:
3636:
3593:
3586:
3552:
3356:
3347:
3262:
3116:
898:"Lunar Cold Trap Contamination by Landing Vehicles"
827: – Science concerned with life in the universe
2724:
2722:
2314:Every Living Thing: The Politics of Life in Common
1196:"Planetary protection—A microbial ethics approach"
1233:The need of an ethics of planetary sustainability
4339:List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction
2706:"2010 Mars Sample Return Orbiter decadal survey"
2637:Science 1 October 2010: Vol. 330 no. 6000 p. 50
2607:"Virus-like particles speed bacterial evolution"
2174:Water plumes spark a race to Jupiter moon Europa
1912:
1910:
1908:
1770:de Vera, J.-P.; Kohler, Ulrich (26 April 2012).
1125:Should Mars be treated like a wildlife preserve?
923:"Tesla in space could carry bacteria from Earth"
645:Legal process of approval for Mars sample-return
73:organisms and other forms of contamination into
2947:
2945:
2891:Anbar, A. D.; Levin, G. V. (June 12–14, 2012).
2176:, Lisa Grossman, New Scientist 31 December 2013
1119:
1117:
594:larger is unacceptable under any circumstance.
538:
525:
389:NASA Unmanned Spacecraft Decontamination Policy
4237:List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events
2812:Future Mars Missions: Can Humans Trump Robots?
2782:
2780:
833: – Interplanetary introduction of species
3242:Existential risk from artificial intelligence
3069:
465:. Analysis of the contamination left by the
8:
2542:
2540:
854:List of microorganisms tested in outer space
224:Evidence for possible habitats outside Earth
3290:Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal
2521:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2089:
2087:
1278:"On Mars, an Ancient Lake and Perhaps Life"
100:Current space missions are governed by the
3590:
3393:Climate change and civilizational collapse
3353:
3076:
3062:
3054:
2475:(Report). National Research Council. 2009.
481:Telerobotics exploration on Mars and Earth
253:It is thought that many bacterial spores (
2931:J.L. Bada, P. Ehrenfreund F. Grunthaner,
2368:First Exploration Telereobotics Symposium
2048:
2038:
1950:
1856:
1779:EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts
1468:
1404:
1351:
1170:
4396:Centre for the Study of Existential Risk
4334:Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction
1745:"Lichen survives harsh Mars environment"
1503:Didymus, JohnThomas (January 21, 2013).
621:protected from Earthly contamination. A
548:Suggested precautions for sample-returns
408:Suggested precautions for sample-returns
2937:Urey: Mars Organic and Oxidant Detector
2490:
2488:
2125:. European Space Agency. June 22, 2011.
888:
877:Terraforming § Other possibilities
508:NASA and ESA are actively developing a
1890:
1602:
1591:
1379:Martínez, G. M.; Renno, N. O. (2013).
633:Dissenting views on back contamination
392:the likelihood forward contamination.
379:Forward contamination is prevented by
49:, either deliberate or unintentional.
2574:Mars Sample Return Receiving Facility
2139:. NASA. 26 March 2008. Archived from
2096:. Mike Wall. Space.com. July 6, 2017
1980:International Journal of Astrobiology
1237:International Journal of Astrobiology
1194:Cockell, Charles S. (November 2005).
473:Non-contaminating exploration methods
298:become even more lethal to bacteria (
7:
3413:Tipping points in the climate system
2074:"Why Life on Mars May Be Impossible"
800:(a resilient microbial animal) in a
3408:Extinction risk from climate change
3307:New World Order (conspiracy theory)
2848:Genome Hunters Go After Martian DNA
2279:Journal for the History of Rhetoric
1276:Chang, Kenneth (December 9, 2013).
4368:List of fictional doomsday devices
3002:Oberhaus, Daniel (5 August 2019).
2553:. 23 February 2010. Archived from
2312:Johnson, Jenell (April 28, 2023).
2094:Mars Soil May Be Toxic to Microbes
1917:Wadsworth, J; Cockell, CS (2017).
849:Glossary of invasion biology terms
703:Instruments under development for
152:(its surface has oceans of liquid
25:
3388:Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis
2939:Space Sci Rev (2008) 135: 269–279
2592:. 2012. Accessed: 19 August 2018.
2451:. Random House Publishing Group.
2210:Meltzer, Michael (May 31, 2012).
1880:Q. Choi, Charles (May 17, 2010).
4504:
4503:
4491:
3649:Decline in amphibian populations
3030:Resnick, Brian (6 August 2019).
2861:Science Tech Daily, July 9, 2013
2548:"Mars Sample Return Discussions"
2188:, Paragraph 4; December 12, 2013
2072:Kluger, Jeffrey (July 6, 2017).
1743:Baldwin, Emily (26 April 2012).
1720:from the original on 2023-06-20.
757:Telerobotics exploration of Mars
658:unlikely to be tolerated today.
613:as small as 0.2 μm across.
202:, 99% of microorganisms are not
4000:Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
3497:Land surface effects on climate
3470:Human impact on the environment
3101:Future of an expanding universe
1747:. Skymania News. Archived from
168:confuse sensitive searches for
2273:Johnson, Jenell (2020-01-02).
1220:10.1016/j.spacepol.2005.08.003
979:Turk, Victoria (20 May 2014).
670:Alternatives to sample-returns
1:
3946:Interpretations of Revelation
3748:Cosmological phase transition
3654:Decline in insect populations
3106:Ultimate fate of the universe
2590:Lunar and Planetary Institute
2291:10.1080/26878003.2020.1694378
1127:New Scientist, February 2009.
733:Study and analyses from orbit
358:electrically conductive fluid
4401:Future of Humanity Institute
3798:Potentially hazardous object
3698:Interplanetary contamination
1882:"Mars Contamination Dust-Up"
1731:NASA Press Release, May 2014
1324:Geophysical Research Letters
1297:Various (December 9, 2013).
839: – Philosophical debate
435:human colonization of Mars.
31:Interplanetary contamination
4281:Nemesis (hypothetical star)
3430:Global terrestrial stilling
4596:
3793:Asteroid impact prediction
3768:Heat death of the universe
3178:Mutual assured destruction
2922:. Volume 8, Number 3, 2008
1943:10.1038/s41598-017-04910-3
1787:European Geosciences Union
1622:Advances in Space Research
789:
510:Mars Sample Return Program
499:Mars sample-return mission
395:Some destinations such as
372:
242:
4485:
4411:Nuclear Threat Initiative
4344:List of apocalyptic films
4187:2011 end times prediction
3919:Prophecy of Seventy Weeks
3914:Abomination of desolation
3788:Asteroid impact avoidance
3618:List of extinction events
3460:Environmental degradation
3247:Technological singularity
3091:
3085:Global catastrophic risks
2346:10.1017/S1473550404001958
2027:Frontiers in Microbiology
2000:10.1017/S1473550416000331
1897:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1642:10.1016/j.asr.2005.04.084
1509:Digital Journal – Science
1406:10.1007/s11214-012-9956-3
1266:NASA Ames Research Center
1245:10.1017/S1473550417000490
654:decision-making process.
536:(1980) Carl Sagan wrote:
493:Back contamination issues
4560:Biological contamination
4406:Future of Life Institute
4308:Resurrection of the dead
4301:Post-tribulation rapture
3683:Colony collapse disorder
2479:environmental disruption
2040:10.3389/fmicb.2017.01709
637:Robert Zubrin, from the
607:horizontal gene transfer
381:sterilizing space probes
35:biological contamination
3232:Artificial intelligence
2643:10.1126/science.1192243
2477:| Quote: "The risks of
1430:Eigenbrode, Jennifer L.
1067:10.1126/science.1070633
919:Purdue University Staff
792:Tardigrades on the Moon
312:reactive oxygen species
95:crewed missions to Mars
69:is the introduction of
4361:List of disaster films
4202:Apocalyptic literature
3302:Malthusian catastrophe
3228:Synthetic intelligence
1686:10.1089/ast.2006.6.677
1601:Cite journal requires
1432:; et al. (2011).
837:Ethics of terraforming
758:
578:
542:
530:
503:crewed mission to Mars
482:
362:Hubble Space Telescope
114:sample-return missions
3743:Coronal mass ejection
3205:Electromagnetic pulse
3166:Kinetic energy weapon
2880:10.1089/ast.2012.0923
2762:July/Aug. 2000, P.4–5
2621:10.1038/news.2010.507
1849:10.1089/ast.2017.1772
1461:10.1089/ast.2010.0506
1385:Space Science Reviews
1255:Christopher P. McKay
1163:10.1089/ast.2012.0891
1024:10.1038/ismej.2007.98
777:Forward contamination
756:
576:
480:
243:Further information:
85:The main focus is on
58:Forward contamination
18:Forward-contamination
4565:Biological invasions
4145:War of Gog and Magog
3822:Near-Earth supernova
3572:Human overpopulation
3376:Mass mortality event
3270:Anthropogenic hazard
2760:The Planetary Report
2250:Safe on Mars page 37
1344:10.1002/2014GL060302
921:(27 February 2018).
865:Planetary protection
599:gene transfer agents
501:or as a result of a
375:Planetary protection
369:Planetary protection
110:planetary protection
4217:Blood moon prophecy
4010:Number of the Beast
3608:Holocene extinction
3554:Earth Overshoot Day
3502:Ocean acidification
3465:Habitat destruction
3455:Ecological collapse
3161:Kinetic bombardment
3096:Future of the Earth
2445:Carl Sagan (2011).
2200:; December 17, 2014
1992:2017IJAsB..16..280E
1935:2017NatSR...7.4662W
1841:2018AsBio..18..101F
1795:2012EGUGA..14.2113D
1678:2006AsBio...6..677M
1634:2005AdSpR..35.1648D
1557:2013NatGe...6..133M
1532:. January 20, 2013.
1453:2011AsBio..11..157S
1397:2013SSRv..175...29M
1336:2014GeoRL..41.4456F
1239:. 10 January 2018.
1212:2005SpPol..21..287C
1155:2012AsBio..12.1017R
1059:2002Sci...296.1127K
1016:2008ISMEJ...2..115M
831:Directed panspermia
810:, a failed Israeli
89:and on potentially
4532:Doomsday scenarios
4098:Beast of the Earth
3990:Book of Revelation
3778:Virtual black hole
3758:False vacuum decay
3708:Pollinator decline
3671:Biological warfare
3661:Biotechnology risk
3512:Resource depletion
2989:2013-02-17 at the
2969:2013-02-17 at the
2680:2006-02-22 at the
2531:2016-06-02 at the
2501:2010-06-19 at the
2397:2016-06-02 at the
2373:2015-07-05 at the
2214:. pp. 46–51.
2164:, Paragraphs 4 - 7
1262:2020-04-01 at the
966:2013-10-19 at the
802:cryptobiotic state
759:
611:ultramicrobacteria
579:
569:Receiving facility
487:robotic spacecraft
483:
289:deliquescing salts
102:Outer Space Treaty
66:Back contamination
4542:
4541:
4373:Zombie apocalypse
4274:Postmillennialism
4069:Great Tribulation
3842:Stellar collision
3803:Near-Earth object
3753:Geomagnetic storm
3721:
3720:
3644:Biodiversity loss
3628:Genetic pollution
3582:
3581:
3371:Biodiversity loss
3334:Societal collapse
3312:Nuclear holocaust
3297:Economic collapse
3280:Doomsday argument
3198:Antimatter weapon
2846:Biomedicine News
2458:978-0-307-80098-5
2407:978-2-918428-67-1
2221:978-0-16-085327-2
1545:Nature Geoscience
1330:(13): 4456–4462.
1235:. Andreas Losch.
1149:(11): 1017–1023.
1123:Rachel Courtland
523:(1973) he wrote:
521:Cosmic Connection
419:Crewed spacecraft
414:Crewed spacecraft
308:hydrogen peroxide
16:(Redirected from
4587:
4507:
4506:
4498:World portal
4496:
4495:
4457:Financial crisis
4286:Nibiru cataclysm
4264:Premillennialism
4108:Dhul-Suwayqatayn
4076:Son of perdition
4064:Olivet Discourse
4040:Whore of Babylon
3666:Biological agent
3613:Human extinction
3603:Extinction event
3591:
3562:Overexploitation
3492:Land consumption
3487:Land degradation
3354:
3216:Micro black hole
3124:Chemical warfare
3078:
3071:
3064:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3027:
3021:
3020:
3018:
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2999:
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2726:
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2710:
2702:
2696:
2690:
2684:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2660:(Report). 2002.
2659:
2651:
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2631:
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2624:
2599:
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2583:
2577:
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2562:
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2309:
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2270:
2264:
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2235:
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2207:
2201:
2195:
2189:
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2171:
2165:
2159:
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2150:
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2133:
2127:
2126:
2119:
2113:
2103:
2097:
2091:
2082:
2081:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2052:
2042:
2018:
2012:
2011:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1954:
1914:
1903:
1902:
1896:
1888:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1860:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1803:
1797:. Archived from
1776:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1589:
1583:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1565:10.1038/ngeo1706
1540:
1534:
1533:
1522:
1516:
1515:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1472:
1438:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1408:
1376:
1370:
1369:
1355:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1273:
1267:
1253:
1247:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1174:
1134:
1128:
1121:
1112:
1111:
1109:micro-organisms.
1096:
1087:
1086:
1053:(5570): 1127–9.
1042:
1036:
1035:
1004:The ISME Journal
995:
989:
988:
976:
970:
958:
952:
946:
940:
939:
937:
935:
915:
909:
908:
902:
893:
560:Chain of contact
428:human microbiome
334:subsurface ocean
330:directly sampled
264:from the arctic
210:Invasive species
200:typical habitats
91:invasive species
71:extraterrestrial
21:
4595:
4594:
4590:
4589:
4588:
4586:
4585:
4584:
4570:Cosmic doomsday
4545:
4544:
4543:
4538:
4517:Future problems
4490:
4481:
4415:
4384:
4351:Climate fiction
4317:
4192:2012 phenomenon
4175:
4081:Sheep and Goats
3968:2 Thessalonians
3846:
3763:Gamma-ray burst
3717:
3632:
3623:Genetic erosion
3578:
3548:
3539:Water pollution
3507:Ozone depletion
3403:Desertification
3343:
3258:
3193:Doomsday device
3173:Nuclear warfare
3112:
3087:
3082:
3052:
3042:
3040:
3029:
3028:
3024:
3014:
3012:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2991:Wayback Machine
2981:
2977:
2971:Wayback Machine
2962:
2958:
2950:
2943:
2930:
2926:
2913:Diana L. Blaney
2909:
2905:
2897:
2890:
2889:
2885:
2869:
2865:
2857:
2853:
2845:
2841:
2834:
2830:
2821:
2817:
2810:
2806:
2798:
2794:
2785:
2778:
2770:
2766:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2741:
2728:
2727:
2720:
2708:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2691:
2687:
2682:Wayback Machine
2673:
2669:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2632:
2628:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2584:
2580:
2572:
2565:
2557:
2550:
2546:
2545:
2538:
2533:Wayback Machine
2524:
2509:
2503:Wayback Machine
2493:
2486:
2471:
2470:
2466:
2459:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2421:
2417:
2399:Wayback Machine
2390:
2386:
2380:
2375:Wayback Machine
2366:
2362:
2355:
2351:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2321:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2256:
2248:
2244:
2236:
2229:
2222:
2209:
2208:
2204:
2196:
2192:
2184:
2180:
2172:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2146:
2144:
2143:on 20 July 2021
2135:
2134:
2130:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2110:The World Today
2108:. David Coady.
2104:
2100:
2092:
2085:
2071:
2070:
2066:
2020:
2019:
2015:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1916:
1915:
1906:
1889:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1774:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1754:
1752:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1729:
1725:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1662:
1661:
1657:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1600:
1590:
1581:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1436:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1317:
1316:
1312:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1264:Wayback Machine
1254:
1250:
1231:
1227:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1122:
1115:
1106:. 23 May 2014.
1098:
1097:
1090:
1044:
1043:
1039:
997:
996:
992:
978:
977:
973:
968:Wayback Machine
959:
955:
947:
943:
933:
931:
917:
916:
912:
900:
895:
894:
890:
886:
881:
820:
794:
788:
779:
735:
709:
672:
647:
635:
584:biohazard level
571:
562:
550:
495:
475:
463:origins of life
454:
441:
416:
404:Apollo missions
377:
371:
343:
320:
270:photosynthesize
247:
241:
226:
126:
108:guidelines for
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4593:
4591:
4583:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4547:
4546:
4540:
4539:
4537:
4536:
4535:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4512:Apocalypticism
4501:
4486:
4483:
4482:
4480:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4423:
4421:
4417:
4416:
4414:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4392:
4390:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4370:
4365:
4364:
4363:
4356:Disaster films
4353:
4348:
4347:
4346:
4341:
4331:
4329:Alien invasion
4325:
4323:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4304:
4303:
4298:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4269:Amillennialism
4266:
4256:
4254:Millenarianism
4251:
4250:
4249:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4207:Apocalypticism
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4183:
4181:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4173:
4172:
4171:
4161:
4156:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4132:
4131:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4103:Dhu al-Qarnayn
4100:
4095:
4085:
4084:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4072:
4071:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4049:Great Apostasy
4046:
4045:
4044:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3987:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3975:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3949:
3948:
3938:
3928:
3923:
3922:
3921:
3916:
3906:
3896:
3894:Last Judgement
3891:
3890:
3889:
3884:
3874:
3873:
3872:
3867:
3856:
3854:
3852:Eschatological
3848:
3847:
3845:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3818:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3806:
3805:
3795:
3790:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3722:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3658:
3657:
3656:
3651:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3599:
3597:
3588:
3584:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3577:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3567:Overpopulation
3564:
3558:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3544:Water scarcity
3541:
3536:
3531:
3530:
3529:
3519:
3517:Sea level rise
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3483:
3482:
3480:on marine life
3477:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3435:Global warming
3432:
3427:
3425:Global dimming
3422:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3383:Cascade effect
3380:
3379:
3378:
3368:
3362:
3360:
3358:Climate change
3351:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3287:
3277:
3272:
3266:
3264:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3225:
3224:
3223:
3218:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3188:Doomsday Clock
3185:
3180:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3141:
3139:Cyberterrorism
3136:
3126:
3120:
3118:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3098:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3073:
3066:
3058:
3051:
3050:
3022:
2994:
2975:
2956:
2941:
2924:
2903:
2883:
2863:
2851:
2839:
2828:
2815:
2804:
2792:
2776:
2764:
2751:
2739:
2718:
2697:
2685:
2667:
2663:contamination.
2646:
2626:
2605:(2010-09-30).
2594:
2578:
2563:
2560:on 2013-02-16.
2536:
2507:
2484:
2464:
2457:
2437:
2415:
2384:
2378:
2360:
2349:
2330:
2319:
2304:
2265:
2254:
2242:
2227:
2220:
2202:
2190:
2178:
2166:
2154:
2128:
2114:
2098:
2083:
2078:Time - Science
2064:
2013:
1986:(3): 280–285.
1966:
1904:
1872:
1835:(2): 101–107.
1815:
1762:
1751:on 28 May 2012
1735:
1723:
1699:
1672:(5): 677–732.
1655:
1628:(9): 1648–53.
1612:
1603:|journal=
1570:
1535:
1517:
1495:
1420:
1391:(1–4): 29–51.
1371:
1310:
1289:
1283:New York Times
1268:
1248:
1225:
1206:(4): 287–292.
1186:
1129:
1113:
1088:
1037:
1010:(1): 115–119.
990:
971:
953:
941:
910:
887:
885:
882:
880:
879:
874:
868:
862:
856:
851:
846:
840:
834:
828:
821:
819:
816:
790:Main article:
787:
780:
778:
775:
734:
731:
730:
729:
722:
718:
714:
713:
708:
701:
671:
668:
646:
643:
634:
631:
570:
567:
561:
558:
549:
546:
494:
491:
474:
471:
467:Apollo program
453:
450:
440:
437:
415:
412:
373:Main article:
370:
367:
342:
339:
319:
316:
240:
237:
225:
222:
125:
122:
87:microbial life
83:
82:
62:
39:planetary body
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4592:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4527:Risk analysis
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4502:
4500:
4499:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4484:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4472:Social crisis
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4424:
4422:
4418:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4393:
4391:
4389:Organizations
4387:
4379:
4376:
4375:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4362:
4359:
4358:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4326:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4313:World to come
4311:
4309:
4306:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4293:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4261:
4260:
4259:Millennialism
4257:
4255:
4252:
4248:
4247:Messianic Age
4245:
4244:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4232:Gog and Magog
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4222:Earth Changes
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4178:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4137:
4136:
4133:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4090:
4089:
4086:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4070:
4067:
4066:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4059:New Jerusalem
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4035:War in Heaven
4033:
4031:
4030:Two witnesses
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3997:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3970:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3947:
3944:
3943:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3901:
3900:
3899:Second Coming
3897:
3895:
3892:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3875:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3853:
3849:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3724:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3659:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3646:
3645:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3635:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3592:
3589:
3585:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3551:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3398:Deforestation
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3359:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3346:
3340:
3339:World War III
3337:
3335:
3332:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3261:
3255:
3254:Transhumanism
3252:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3175:
3174:
3171:
3167:
3164:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3117:Technological
3115:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3090:
3086:
3079:
3074:
3072:
3067:
3065:
3060:
3059:
3056:
3039:
3038:
3033:
3026:
3023:
3011:
3010:
3005:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2965:
2960:
2957:
2953:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2907:
2904:
2896:
2895:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2832:
2829:
2825:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2808:
2805:
2801:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2765:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2707:
2701:
2698:
2694:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2671:
2668:
2664:
2656:
2650:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2598:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2556:
2549:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2530:
2527:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2474:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2454:
2450:
2449:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2419:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2372:
2369:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2323:
2320:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2266:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2217:
2213:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2170:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2155:
2142:
2138:
2132:
2129:
2124:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2088:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2068:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1894:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1816:
1804:on 4 May 2012
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1773:
1766:
1763:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1659:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1616:
1613:
1608:
1595:
1588:
1580:
1574:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1536:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1447:(2): 157–81.
1446:
1442:
1435:
1431:
1424:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1314:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1272:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1190:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
994:
991:
986:
982:
975:
972:
969:
965:
962:
957:
954:
950:
945:
942:
930:
929:
924:
920:
914:
911:
906:
899:
892:
889:
883:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
860:
857:
855:
852:
850:
847:
844:
843:Extremophiles
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
822:
817:
815:
813:
809:
808:
803:
799:
793:
785:
781:
776:
774:
772:
768:
764:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
732:
727:
723:
719:
716:
715:
711:
710:
706:
702:
700:
698:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
669:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
644:
642:
640:
632:
630:
627:
624:
619:
614:
612:
608:
604:
600:
595:
591:
589:
585:
575:
568:
566:
559:
557:
555:
547:
545:
541:
537:
535:
529:
524:
522:
518:
514:
511:
506:
504:
500:
492:
490:
488:
479:
472:
470:
468:
464:
459:
451:
449:
446:
438:
436:
432:
429:
425:
420:
413:
411:
409:
405:
400:
398:
393:
390:
385:
382:
376:
368:
366:
363:
359:
355:
353:
348:
347:tidal heating
340:
338:
335:
331:
328:
326:
317:
315:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
292:
290:
285:
281:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
258:
256:
251:
246:
238:
236:
234:
230:
223:
221:
218:
216:
211:
207:
205:
201:
197:
192:
186:
184:
180:
176:
175:nucleic acids
171:
170:biosignatures
165:
163:
162:ice volcanoes
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
138:
136:
135:extremophiles
131:
123:
121:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
98:
96:
92:
88:
80:
76:
72:
68:
67:
63:
60:
59:
55:
54:
53:
50:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
4575:Space debris
4555:Astrobiology
4489:
4432:Cyberwarfare
4150:Third Temple
4005:Lake of fire
3815:Rogue planet
3783:Impact event
3773:Proton decay
3726:Astronomical
3697:
3676:Bioterrorism
3522:Supervolcano
3420:Flood basalt
3366:Anoxic event
3275:Collapsology
3263:Sociological
3134:Cyberwarfare
3041:. Retrieved
3035:
3025:
3013:. Retrieved
3007:
2997:
2978:
2959:
2927:
2920:Astrobiology
2919:
2906:
2893:
2886:
2866:
2854:
2842:
2831:
2818:
2807:
2795:
2767:
2754:
2742:
2733:
2712:
2700:
2688:
2670:
2661:
2649:
2629:
2610:
2597:
2589:
2581:
2555:the original
2467:
2447:
2440:
2424:
2418:
2401:July, 2012,
2387:
2381:
2363:
2352:
2333:
2322:
2313:
2307:
2285:(1): 30–53.
2282:
2278:
2268:
2257:
2245:
2211:
2205:
2193:
2181:
2169:
2157:
2145:. Retrieved
2141:the original
2131:
2117:
2112:. 7 Jul 2017
2109:
2101:
2077:
2067:
2030:
2026:
2016:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1926:
1922:
1885:
1875:
1832:
1829:Astrobiology
1828:
1818:
1806:. Retrieved
1799:the original
1782:
1778:
1765:
1753:. Retrieved
1749:the original
1738:
1726:
1711:
1702:
1669:
1666:Astrobiology
1665:
1658:
1625:
1621:
1615:
1594:cite journal
1585:
1573:
1551:(2): 133–8.
1548:
1544:
1538:
1529:
1520:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1490:
1470:1721.1/66519
1444:
1441:Astrobiology
1440:
1423:
1388:
1384:
1374:
1365:
1327:
1323:
1313:
1302:
1292:
1281:
1271:
1251:
1236:
1228:
1203:
1200:Space Policy
1199:
1189:
1146:
1143:Astrobiology
1142:
1132:
1107:
1103:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1007:
1003:
993:
984:
974:
956:
944:
932:. Retrieved
926:
913:
904:
891:
871:Space debris
825:Astrobiology
812:lunar lander
805:
795:
783:
760:
748:
744:
740:
736:
704:
696:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
639:Mars Society
636:
628:
615:
596:
592:
587:
580:
563:
551:
543:
539:
533:
531:
526:
520:
515:
507:
496:
484:
455:
452:As a testbed
442:
433:
417:
401:
394:
388:
386:
378:
351:
344:
324:
321:
296:perchlorates
293:
286:
282:
274:UV radiation
268:are able to
259:
252:
248:
245:Life on Mars
227:
219:
208:
187:
173:be based on
166:
139:
130:Solar System
128:Most of the
127:
99:
84:
65:
64:
57:
56:
51:
30:
29:
4580:Spaceflight
4508:Categories
4477:Survivalism
4164:Zoroastrian
4020:Seven seals
4015:Seven bowls
3941:Historicism
3837:Solar flare
3713:Overfishing
3688:Defaunation
3475:coral reefs
3237:AI takeover
3156:Nanoweapons
3144:Cybergeddon
3129:Cyberattack
2603:Maxmen, Amy
2494:M. S. Race
2422:Carl Sagan,
1929:(1): 4662.
985:Motherboard
934:28 February
798:tardigrades
605:capable of
431:challenge.
304:iron oxides
300:bactericide
43:space probe
4549:Categories
4437:Depression
4427:Ransomware
4242:Messianism
4212:Armageddon
4197:Apocalypse
3985:Antichrist
3973:Man of sin
3870:Three Ages
3733:Big Crunch
3595:Extinction
3587:Biological
3349:Ecological
3221:Strangelet
2434:0521783038
884:References
859:Panspermia
721:chemistry.
699:analyses.
517:Carl Sagan
354:spacecraft
327:spacecraft
266:permafrost
255:endospores
204:culturable
118:quarantine
47:spacecraft
33:refers to
4322:Fictional
4169:Saoshyant
4054:New Earth
4025:The Beast
3958:Preterism
3931:Christian
3887:Kali Yuga
3832:Micronova
3827:Hypernova
3693:Dysgenics
3534:Verneshot
3440:Hypercane
3183:Dead Hand
2933:D. Blaney
2299:2687-8003
2008:125294279
1415:255073809
807:Beresheet
784:Beresheet
782:The 2019
771:Enceladus
687:samples.
623:cleanroom
618:cleanroom
554:Apollo 11
532:Later in
445:Apollo 11
318:Enceladus
229:Enceladus
215:biosphere
146:Enceladus
79:biosphere
4462:Pandemic
4447:Epidemic
4442:Droughts
4296:Prewrath
4227:End time
4093:Al-Qa'im
3978:Katechon
3963:2 Esdras
3953:Idealism
3936:Futurism
3865:Maitreya
3860:Buddhist
3703:Pandemic
3151:Gray goo
3043:6 August
3015:6 August
2987:Archived
2967:Archived
2678:Archived
2576:. (PDF).
2529:Archived
2499:Archived
2411:abstract
2395:Archived
2371:Archived
2147:26 April
2059:28955310
2033:: 1709.
1961:28684729
1893:cite web
1867:29359967
1808:27 April
1789:: 2113.
1755:27 April
1718:Archived
1694:17067257
1650:16175730
1530:BBC News
1479:21417945
1362:25821267
1260:Archived
1181:23095097
1104:BBC News
1083:28437864
1075:12004133
1032:18180750
964:Archived
928:phys.org
818:See also
786:incident
707:analyses
439:The Moon
276:, using
260:Certain
124:Overview
104:and the
4522:Hazards
4420:General
4291:Rapture
4140:Messiah
4128:Sufyani
4118:Israfil
4088:Islamic
3926:Messiah
3904:1 Enoch
3738:Big Rip
3450:Ecocide
3445:Ice age
2482:Earth."
2428:(1973)
2050:5601068
1988:Bibcode
1952:5500590
1931:Bibcode
1923:Sci Rep
1858:5820680
1837:Bibcode
1791:Bibcode
1674:Bibcode
1630:Bibcode
1553:Bibcode
1487:9963677
1449:Bibcode
1393:Bibcode
1353:4373172
1332:Bibcode
1304:Science
1208:Bibcode
1172:3698687
1151:Bibcode
1055:Bibcode
1047:Science
1012:Bibcode
987:. Vice.
726:ExoMars
705:in situ
697:in situ
528:damage.
397:Mercury
352:Galileo
325:Cassini
278:melanin
262:lichens
196:archaea
158:methane
4452:Famine
4378:Zombie
4180:Others
4135:Jewish
4113:Dajjal
3995:Events
3909:Daniel
3810:winter
3637:Others
3527:winter
3327:winter
3322:famine
3317:cobalt
2984:Center
2612:Nature
2455:
2448:Cosmos
2432:
2405:
2297:
2218:
2057:
2047:
2006:
1959:
1949:
1865:
1855:
1692:
1648:
1485:
1477:
1413:
1360:
1350:
1179:
1169:
1081:
1073:
1030:
763:Europa
691:cost.
534:Cosmos
341:Europa
233:Europa
154:ethane
148:, and
142:Europa
106:COSPAR
4467:Riots
4159:Norse
4123:Mahdi
3882:Kalki
3877:Hindu
3207:(EMP)
3009:Wired
2898:(PDF)
2709:(PDF)
2658:(PDF)
2558:(PDF)
2551:(PDF)
2004:S2CID
1802:(PDF)
1775:(PDF)
1582:(PDF)
1483:S2CID
1437:(PDF)
1411:S2CID
1079:S2CID
901:(PDF)
769:, or
767:Titan
588:BSL-4
177:too (
150:Titan
75:Earth
41:by a
37:of a
3045:2019
3017:2019
2453:ISBN
2430:ISBN
2403:ISBN
2295:ISSN
2216:ISBN
2149:2016
2055:PMID
1957:PMID
1899:link
1863:PMID
1810:2012
1757:2012
1713:NASA
1690:PMID
1646:PMID
1607:help
1475:PMID
1358:PMID
1177:PMID
1071:PMID
1028:PMID
936:2018
458:Moon
456:The
443:The
424:host
322:The
306:and
239:Mars
231:and
3037:Vox
2876:doi
2639:doi
2617:doi
2342:doi
2287:doi
2045:PMC
2035:doi
1996:doi
1947:PMC
1939:doi
1853:PMC
1845:doi
1682:doi
1638:doi
1561:doi
1465:hdl
1457:doi
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