Laminitis - Knowledge

672: 570:

the deep digital flexor tendon and the weight of the horse) result in the deep digital flexor tendon literally pulling the dorsal face of the coffin bone away from the inside of the hoof wall, which allows the coffin bone to rotate. Also, ligaments attaching the collateral cartilages to the digit, primarily in the palmar portion of the foot, possibly contribute to a difference in support from front to back. The body weight of the animal probably contributes to rotation of the coffin bone. Rotation results in an obvious misalignment between PII (the short pastern bone) and PIII (the coffin bone). If rotation of the third phalanx continues, its tip can eventually penetrate the sole of the foot.

1035:: the measurement from the most superficial aspect of the dorsal hoof wall to the face of P3. 2 distances are compared: a proximal measurement made just distal to the extensor process of P3, and a distal measurement made toward the tip of P3. These two values should be similar. In cases of rotation, the distal measurement will be higher than the proximal. In cases of distal displacement, both values will increase, but may remain equal. Therefore, it is ideal to have baseline radiographs for horses, especially for those at high-risk for laminitis, to compare to should laminitis ever be suspected. Normal HL values vary by breed and age: 566:

either rotation or sinking of the pedal bone, both of which result in anatomical changes in the position of the coffin bone with visible separation of the laminae, colloquially known as founder. Rotation and distal displacement may occur in the same horse. Both forms of displacement may lead to the coffin bone penetrating the sole. Penetration of the sole is not inherently fatal; many horses have been returned to service by aggressive treatment by a veterinarian and farrier, but the treatment is time-consuming, difficult and expensive.

287: 997: 876: 558: 406:. Normal forces placed on the hoof are then strong enough to tear the remaining laminae, resulting in a failure of the interdigitation of the epidermal and dermal laminae between the hoof wall and the coffin bone. When severe enough, this results in displacement of the coffin bone within the hoof capsule. Most cases of laminitis occur in both front feet, but laminitis may be seen in all four feet, both hind feet, or in cases of support limb laminitis, in a single foot. 524:(TIMPs). In cases of laminitis, an underlying cause is thought to cause an imbalance of MMPs and TIMPs, favoring MMPs, so that they may cleave substances within the extracellular matrix and therefore break down the basement membrane. Since the basement membrane is the main link between the hoof wall and the connective tissue of P3, it is thought that its destruction results in their separation. MMP-2 and MMP-9 are the primary enzymes thought to be linked to laminitis. 578:

lateral or medial aspect of the bone displaces distally. Pus may leak out at the white line or at the coronary band. In extreme cases, this event allows the tip to eventually penetrate the sole of the foot. A severe "sinker" usually warrants the gravest prognosis and may, depending upon many factors, including the quality of aftercare, age of the horse, diet and nutrition, skill, and knowledge and ability of the attending veterinarian and

988:

severity. Additionally, radiographs also allow the visualization and evaluation of the hoof capsule, and can help detect the presence of a lamellar wedge or seromas. The lateral view provides the majority of the information regarding degree of rotation, sole depth, dorsal hoof wall thickness, and vertical deviation. A 65-degree dorsopalmar view is useful in the case of chronic laminitis to evaluate the rim of the coffin bone for pathology.

1085:

during radiography. Diffusion of contrast may make some areas appear hypoperfused, falsely increasing the apparent severity of the laminitic episode. After injection of the contrast material, films are taken within 45 seconds to avoid artifact caused by diffusion. Evaluation of blood supply to several areas of the foot allows the practitioner to distinguish mild, moderate, and severe compromise of the hoof, chronic laminitis, and sinking.

1011:: the vertical distance from the level of the proximal coronary band to the extensor process of P3. It is often used to compare progression of the disease over time, rather than as a stand-alone value. A rapidly increasing CE value can indicate distal displacement (sinking) of the coffin bone, while a more gradual increase in CE can occur with foot collapse. Normal values range from 0–30 mm, with most horses >12–15 mm. 626: 77: 179: 36: 499:. Support limb laminitis is most common in horses suffering from severe injury to one limb, such as fracture, resulting in a non-weight bearing state that forces them to take excessive load on the opposing limb. This causes decreased blood flow to the cells, decreasing oxygen and nutrient delivery, and thus altering their metabolism which results in laminitis. 1174:

various methods for treating laminitis, and opinions vary on which are most useful. Additionally, each horse and affected hoof should be evaluated individually to determine the best treatment plan, which may change with time. Ideally, affected hooves are re-evaluated on a regular basis once treatment commences to track progress.

1422:

does risk subluxation of the distal interphalangeal joint (coffin joint), which may be avoided with the use of heel extensions on the shoe. Horses may return to work after the surgery. This treatment is often recommended for severe cases of laminitis, and requires proper trimming and shoeing to be successful.

1394:) of the laminae, this procedure may be beneficial. When the coffin bone is pulled away from the hoof wall, the remaining laminae will tear. This may lead to abscesses within the hoof capsule that can be severe and very painful, as well as a mass of disorganized tissue called a laminar (or lamellar) wedge. 1337:

The deep digital flexor tendon places a constant pull on the back of the coffin bone. This is sometimes counteracted by decreasing the palmar angle of the hoof by raising the heels, often with the use of special shoes which have a wedge in the heel of approximately 20 degrees. Shoes are usually glued

598:

The developmental phase is defined as the time between the initial exposure to the causative agent or incident, until the onset of clinical signs. It generally lasts 24–60 hours, and is the best time to treat a laminitis episode. Clinical laminitis may be prevented if cryotherapy (icing) is initiated

536:

Enzymatic and inflammatory theories: The enzymatic theory postulates that increased blood flow to the foot brings in inflammatory cytokines or other substances to the hoof, where they increase production of MMPs, which subsequently break down the basement membrane. The inflammatory theory states that

1421:

region. Over a time period of 6 weeks, tenotomy is thought to allow P3 to realign with the ground surface. Critics claim that this technique is unsuccessful and invasive, with advocates making counter-arguments that it is often used in cases which are too far advanced for treatment to help. Tenotomy

1372:

New non-invasive horseshoeing methods are available for farriers to take advantage of. They encapsulate the damaged hoof, protecting and supporting the sensitive internal structures. This prevents further deterioration, whilst also immediately reducing pain and improving the horse’s ability to move.

1328:

pressure and increases surface area for weight-bearing on the back half of the hoof. While horses may stabilize if left barefooted, some veterinarians believe the most successful methods of treating founder involve positive stabilisation of the distal phalanx, by mechanical means, e.g., shoes, pads,

1191:

Cooling of the hoof in the developmental stages of laminitis has been shown to have a protective effect when horses are experimentally exposed to carbohydrate overload. Feet placed in ice slurries were less likely to experience laminitis than "uniced" feet. Cryotherapy reduces inflammatory events in

1182:

Initial management usually includes stall rest to minimize movement, and deeply bedding the stall with shavings, straw, or sand. Exercise is slowly increased once the horse has improved, ideally in an area with good (soft) footing, beginning with hand-walking, then turn-out, and finally riding under

1117:

The sooner the diagnosis is made, the faster the treatment and the recovery process can begin. Rapid diagnosis of laminitis is often difficult, since the general problem often starts somewhere else in the horse's body. With modern therapies, most laminitics will be able to bear a rider or completely

1080:

of the foot. The venogram can assess the severity and location of tissue compromise and monitor effectiveness of the current therapy. Compression of veins within the hoof will be seen as sections that do not contain contrast material. Poor or improper blood flow to different regions of the hoof help

653:

Uncompensated cases will develop a lamellar wedge (pathologic horn), leading to a poor bridge between P3 and the hoof capsule. This will lead to irregular horn growth and chronic lameness, and horses will suffer from laminitis "flares." Inappropriate hoof growth will occur: the dorsal horn will have

540:

Vascular theory: Postulates that increases in capillary pressure, constriction of veins, and shunting of blood through anastomoses to bypass the capillaries, causes decreased blood and therefore decreased oxygen and nutrient delivery to lamellae. The end-result would be ischemia, leading to cellular

494:

Mechanical laminitis starts when the hoof wall is pulled away from the bone or lost, as a result of external influences. Mechanical laminitis can occur when a horse habitually paws, is ridden or driven on hard surfaces ("road founder"), or in cases of excessive weight-bearing due to compensation for

987:

Radiographs are an important part of evaluating the laminitic horse. They not only allow the practitioner to determine the severity of the episode, which does not always correlate with degree of pain, but also to gauge improvement and response to treatment. Several measurements are made to predict

569:

Rotation is the most common form of displacement, and, in this case, the tip of the coffin bone rotates downward. The degree of rotation may be influenced by the severity of the initial attack and the time of initiation and aggressiveness of treatment. A combination of forces (e.g. the tension of

1465:

Informally, particularly in the United States, "founder" has come to mean any chronic changes in the structure of the foot that can be linked to laminitis. In some texts, the term is even used synonymously with laminitis, though such usage is technically incorrect. Put simply, not all horses that

1310:

Besides pain management and control of any predisposing factors, mechanical stabilization is a primary treatment goal once the initial inflammatory and metabolic issues have resolved. No approach has been shown to be effective in all situations, and debate is ongoing about the merits and faults of

607:

The acute phase is the first 72 hours following the initiation of clinical signs. Treatment response during this time determines if the horse will go into the subacute phase or chronic phase. Clinical signs at this time include bounding digital pulses, lameness, heat, and possibly response to hoof

1173:

and anti-inflammatory drugs may prevent mechanical breakdown if instituted immediately, but many cases are only detected after the initial microscopic damage has been done. In cases of sepsis or endotoxemia, the underlying cause should be addressed concurrently with laminitis treatment. There are

1084:

Horses undergoing venography have plain radiographs taken beforehand to allow for comparison. The feet are blocked to allow the sedated horse to stand comfortably during the procedure. Prior to injection, a tourniquet is placed around the fetlock to help keep the contrast material within the foot

978:

Horses suffering from the disease usually require an abaxial sesamoid block to relieve them of pain, since the majority of pain comes from the hoof wall. However, chronic cases may respond to a palmar digital block since they usually have primarily sole pain. Severe cases may not respond fully to

918:

The horse stands in a "founder stance" in attempt to decrease the load on the affected feet. If it has laminitis in the front hooves, it will bring its hind legs underneath its body and put its fore legs out in front. In cases of sinking, the horse stands with all four feet close together, like a

1323:

Successful treatment for any type of founder must necessarily involve stabilization of the bony column by some means. Correct trimming can help improve stabilization. This usually includes bringing the "break over" back to decrease the fulcrum-effect that stresses the laminae. Trimming the heels

1168:

In laminitis cases, a clear distinction must be made between the acute onset of a laminitis attack and a chronic situation. A chronic situation can be either stable or unstable. The difference between acute, chronic, stable, and unstable is of vital importance when choosing a treatment protocol.

717:

bred for heavy bodies and long, slim legs with relatively small hooves; their hooves were trimmed for long toes (to make them lift their feet higher, enhancing their stylish "action"), and they were worked at speed on hard roads. Road founder is also seen in overweight animals, particularly when

565:

Normally, the front of the third phalanx is parallel to the hoof wall and its lower surface should be roughly parallel to the ground surface. A single severe laminitic episode or repeated, less severe episodes can, depending upon the degree of separation of dermal and epidermal laminae, lead to

577:

around a significant portion of the hoof occurs. The destruction of the sensitive laminae results in the hoof wall becoming separated from the rest of the hoof, so that it drops within the hoof capsule. Sinking may be symmetrical, i.e., the entire bone moves distally, or asymmetric, where the

654:

a tendency to grow outward rather than down, the heels will grow faster than the toe, and the white line will widen, leading to a potential space for packing of debris. The solar dermis is often compressed enough to inhibit growth, leading to a soft, thin sole (<10 mm) that may develop

633:

The chronic phase occurs if damage to the lamellae is not controlled early in the process, so that the coffin bone displaces. Changes that may occur include separation of the dermal and epidermal lamellae, lengthening of the dermal lamellae, and compression of the coronary and solar dermis. If

397:

Laminitis literally means inflammation of the laminae, and while it remains controversial whether this is the primary mechanism of disease, evidence of inflammation occurs very early in some instances of the disease. A severe inflammatory event is thought to damage the basal epithelial cells,

758:

sometimes occurs in horses confined in a trailer or other transportation for long periods of time. Historically, the most extreme instances were of horses shipped overseas on sailing ships. However, the continual shifting of weight required to balance in a moving vehicle may enhance blood

925:

Change in the outward appearance of the hoof in cases of chronic laminitis: dished (concave) dorsal hoof wall, "founder rings" (growth rings that are wider at the heel than the toe), a sole that is either flat or convex just dorsal to the apex of the frog which indicates P3 has displaced or

544:

Metabolic theory: Insulin affects multiple processes within the body, including inflammation, blood flow, and tissue remodeling. Change in insulin regulation may lead to laminitis. Hyperinsulinemia has been shown to cause increased length of the secondary lamellae and epidermal cell

1346:

The application of external orthotic devices to the foot in a horse with undisplaced laminitis and once displacement has occurred is widespread. Most approaches attempt to shift weight away from the laminae and onto secondary weight-bearing structures, while sparing the sole.

1134:, and success is not guaranteed. A horse can live with laminitis for many years, and although a single episode of laminitis predisposes to further episodes, with good management and prompt treatment it is by no means the catastrophe sometimes supposed: most horses suffering an 1081:

determine the severity of the laminitic episode. Venography is especially useful for early detection of support limb laminitis, as changes will be seen on venograph (and MRI) within 1–2 weeks, whereas clinical signs and radiographic changes do not manifest until 4–6 weeks.

762:

Laminitis has been observed following an equine standing in extreme conditions of cold, especially in deep snow. Laminitis has also followed prolonged heating such as may be experienced from prolonged contact with extremely hot soil or from incorrectly applied hot-shoeing.

1311:

the numerous techniques. Once the distal phalanx rotates, it is essential to derotate and re-establish its proper spatial orientation within the hoof capsule, to ensure the best long-term prospects for the horse. With correct trimming and, as necessary, the application of

1248:, and kidney damage. However, firocoxib provides less pain relief than phenylbutazone or flunixin. Care must be taken that pain is not totally eliminated, since this will encourage the horse to stand and move around, which increases mechanical separation of the laminae. 1199:. For the first three days, Bal a Bali was kept in the spa for eight hours at a time. Once his condition stabilized, he continued to be put in the spa twice a day over the next few months. He eventually recovered enough to win two Grade 1 races before retiring to stud. 325:. Clinical signs include foot tenderness progressing to inability to walk, increased digital pulses, and increased temperature in the hooves. There is also swelling in foot in some cases.Severe cases with outwardly visible clinical signs are known by the colloquial term 1363:

Realigning trimming trims back the toe so that it is in line with the coffin bone. Realigning trimming pushes the coffin bone back into the correct position. The process of a new hoof capsule totally growing out to replace the old one takes up to a year.

1075:

can help determine the prognosis for the animal, particularly in horses where the degree of pain does not match the radiographic changes. In venography, a contrast agent, visible on radiographs, is injected into the palmar digital vein to delineate the

305:

bone, and P3 denotes the distal phalanx, or coffin bone. The yellow lines mark the distance between the top and bottom part of the coffin bone relative to the hoof wall, showing the distal (bottom) of the coffin bone is rotated away from the hoof

2693:

Doucet MY, Bertone AL, Hendrickson D, Hughes F, Macallister C, McClure S, et al. (January 2008). "Comparison of efficacy and safety of paste formulations of firocoxib and phenylbutazone in horses with naturally occurring osteoarthritis".

541:

death and breakdown between the lamellae. Subsequently, increased vascular permeability leads to edema within the hoof, compression of small vessels, and ischemia. Vasoactive amines may be partially to blame for changes in hoof blood flow.

616:

The subacute phase occurs if there is minimal damage to the lamellae. Clinical signs seen in the acute phase resolve, and the horse becomes sound. The horse never shows radiographic changes, and there is no injury to the coffin bone.

1338:

or cast onto the foot so painful nailing does not have to take place. The position of P3 within the hoof is monitored with radiographs. Once the horse has improved, the wedge of the shoe must be slowly reduced back to normal.

641:

The chronic phase may be compensated or uncompensated. Compensated cases will have altered hoof structure, including founder rings, wide white lines, and decreased concavity to the sole. Horses will be relatively sound. On

537:

inflammatory mediators produce inflammation, but recognizes that MMP production occurs later. Therefore, this is possibly a 2-step process, beginning with inflammation and leading to MMP production and subsequent laminitis.

947:

Laminitic horses are generally sore to pressure from hoof testers applied over the toe area. However, there is risk of a false negative if the horse naturally has a thick sole, or if the hoof capsule is about to slough.

1329:

polymeric support, etc. Pour-in pads or putty is sometimes placed on the sole to increase surface area for weight-bearing, so that the sole in the area of the quarters, and the bars, will take some of the weight.

1138:

episode without pedal bone displacement make a complete functional recovery. Some countermeasures can be adopted for pasture based animals. Discovery of laminitis, either active or relatively stabilized, on an

1192:

the lamellae. Ideally, limbs should be placed in an ice bath up to the level of the knee or hock. Hooves need to be maintained at a temperature less than 10 degrees Celsius at the hoof wall, for 24–72 hours.

662:

within the hoof capsule. Venogram will show "feathering" into the vascular bed beneath the lamellae, and there will be decreased or absent contrast material in the area distal to the apex of the coffin bone.

929:

Change in the appearance of the coronary band: hair that does not lie in a normal position (not against the hoof wall), indentation or rim just above the hoof capsule allowing palpation behind the coronary

1416:

Because the rotation of P3 is exacerbated by continued pull on the deep digital flexor tendon, one approach to therapy has been to cut this tendon, either in the cannon region (mid-metacarpus) or in the

879:

Cross-section of horse with severe laminitis, showing a dished dorsal hoof wall that grows in a more horizontal manner, and a sole that is convex due to pressure from the tip of P3 secondary to rotation.

1153:

Increased founder distance, the vertical distance from the coronary band (seen with a radio-opaque marker) to the dorsoproximal aspect of P3 (distance greater than 15.2mm has a poorer prognosis)

1445:

associated with that procedure. A recent study used this technique in seven laminitic horses. Significant improvement was seen in six of the horses, with moderate improvement in the seventh.

963:

Obel grade 2: Horse displays a stilted, stiff gait, although is willing to walk. It is possible to easily lift a front foot and have the horse take all of its weight on the contralateral limb.

671: 650:

will have relatively normal contrast distribution, including to the apex and distal border of the coffin bone, and the coronary band, but "feathering" may be present at the lamellar "scar."

2014:

McCluskey, M. J.; Kavenagh, P. B. (2010). "Clinical use of triamcinolone acetonide in the horse (205 cases) and the incidence of glucocorticoid-induced laminitis associated with its use".

2758:

Adair HS, Schmidhammer JL, Goble DO, et al. (1997). "Effects of acepromazine maleate, isoxsuprine hydrochloride and prazosin hydrochloride on laminar blood flow in healthy horses".

730:

Normal blood circulation in the lower limbs of a horse depends in part on the horse moving about. Lack of sufficient movement, alone or in combination with other factors, can cause

658:. In severe cases where collapse of the suspensory apparatus of P3 has occurred, the solar dermis or the tip of P3 may penetrate the sole. The horse will also be prone to recurrent 691:

has also been hypothesized as a causative agent of laminitis. However, contradictory evidence indicates the role of histamine in laminitis has not been conclusively established.

1968: 1402:

Coronary grooving involves removing a groove of hoof wall just distal to the coronary band. It is thought to encourage dorsal hoof wall growth and improve alignment of the wall.

2225:

Wongaumnuaykul S, Siedler C, Schobesberger H, Stanek C (2006). "Doppler sonographic evaluation of the digital blood flow in horses with laminitis or septic pododermatitis".

1302:

has also been applied topically in an attempt to increase blood flow, but this treatment does not appear to be an effective way to increase blood flow in the equine digit.

2043:"No Evidence That Therapeutic Systemic Corticosteroid Administration is Associated With Laminitis in Adult Horses Without Underlying Endocrine or Severe Systemic Disease" 863:

Early diagnosis is essential to effective treatment. However, early outward signs may be fairly nonspecific. Careful physical examination typically is diagnostic, but

3139: 2377: 1386:

A dorsal hoof wall resection may help in certain conditions after consultation with an experienced veterinarian and farrier team. If decreased bloodflow distal to the

847:

Whilst diet has long been known to be linked to laminitis, there is emerging evidence that breed and body condition also play a role. Levels of hormones, particularly

2175: 520:

are enzymes that can degrade collagen, growth factors, and cytokines to remodel the extracellular matrix of tissues. To prevent tissue damage, they are regulated by

2547: 1000:

Radiographic measurements, including coronary extensor distance (CE), horn:lamellar distance (HL), sole depth (SD), digital breakover (DB), and palmar angle (PA)

2624:

MacAllister CG, Morgan SJ, Borne AT, Pollet RA (January 1993). "Comparison of adverse effects of phenylbutazone, flunixin meglumine, and ketoprofen in horses".

709:, mechanical separation occurs when horses with long toes are worked extensively on hard ground. The long toes and hard ground together contribute to delayed 3406:

Carter DW, Renfroe JB (July 2009). "A novel approach to the treatment and prevention of laminitis: botulinum toxin type A for the treatment of laminitis".

960:

Obel grade 1: Horse shifts weight between affected feet or continuously lifts feet up. It is sound at the walk but displays a shortened stride at the trot.

3224: 634:

laminitis is allowed to continue, long-term changes such as remodeling of the apex and distal border of the coffin bone (so that a "lip" develops) and

1298:

on the hooves, may be beneficial after lamellar damage has occurred, although no effects on laminar blood flow with this medication have been shown.

1986: 1271:

at a constant rate of infusion, may be of particular benefit to horses suffering from laminitis. Epidurals may also be used in hind-limb laminitis.

548:

Traumatic theory: Concussion is thought to directly damage lamellae, and increased weight-bearing is thought to decrease blood supply to the foot.

189: 573:

Sinking is less common and much more severe. It results when a significant failure of the interdigitation between the sensitive and insensitive

365:

laminae, each with 150–200 secondary laminae projecting from their surface. These interdigitate with equivalent structures on the surface of the

331:, and progression of the disease will lead to perforation of the coffin bone through the sole of the hoof or being unable to stand up, requiring 462:

shavings. In these cases, there is an increase in blood flow to the hoof, bringing in damaging substances and inflammatory cells into the hoof.

1143:

typically downgrades the horse's value, as the possibility of recurrence is a significant risk factor for the future performance of the horse.

3655: 3606: 3587: 3568: 3546: 3527: 3504: 3485: 3466: 3447: 3348: 2573: 2312: 2209: 1739: 1618: 1593: 1373:

The resulting comfort also reduces overall stress levels, leading to a faster recovery as the horse can quickly return to a regular routine.

772: 521: 475: 2669: 740:

A horse favoring an injured leg will both severely limit its movement and place greater weight on the other legs. This sometimes leads to

2993: 3675: 2511: 3090: 2599: 1972: 1771: 1195:

In the case of a full-blown case of laminitis, use of a cold water spa proved effective in the treatment of the thoroughbred racehorse

1053:

Standardbreds have been shown to have a similar proximal and distal HL, around 16 mm at 2 years old, and 20 mm at 4 years old

1282:

are often used with the goal of improving laminar blood flow. However, during the developmental phases of laminitis, vasodilation is

2742: 1355:

Corrective hoof trimming will restore proper hoof form and function. Corrective trimming will allow the hooves to be healthy again.

646:, remodeling of the coffin bone and in cases of rotational displacement, the distal hoof wall will be thicker than that proximally. 273: 160: 63: 1212:

Anti-inflammatories are always used when treating acute case of laminitis, and include Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (

781:

is a subject of much new research and is increasingly believed to have a major role in laminitis. It involves many factors such as

590:

Treatment and prognosis depend on the phase of the disease, with horses treated in earlier stages often having a better prognosis.

3066: 1150:

Increased degree of rotation of P3 relative to the dorsal hoof wall (rotation greater than 11.5 degrees has a poorer prognosis)

966:

Obel grade 3: Horse displays a stilted, stiff gait, but is reluctant to walk and is difficult when asked to lift a front foot.

414:

The mechanism remains unclear and is the subject of much research. Three conditions are thought to cause secondary laminitis:

2328: 204: 98: 2118:"Prospective cohort study evaluating risk factors for the development of pasture-associated laminitis in the United Kingdom" 2302: 759:

circulation, so some horsemen recommend trailering as an initial step in rehabilitation of a horse after long confinement.

2167: 1437:

has been infused into the body of the deep digital flexor muscle. This theoretically allows for the same derotation as a

1245: 2353: 1411: 888: 350: 247: 141: 1390:

is seen on a venogram, or when a laminar wedge forms between P3 and the hoof wall, preventing the proper reattachment (

2536: 1118:

recover, if treated quickly, and if the laminitis was not severe or complicated (e.g. by equine metabolic syndrome or

219: 113: 1993: 1882:"Effects of grain overfeeding and histamine injection on physiological responses related to acute bovine laminitis" 94: 49: 3250:"Shoe configuration effects on third phalanx and capsule motion of unaffected and laminitic equine hooves in-situ" 933:

In cases of sinking, it may be possible to palpate a groove between the coronary band and the skin of the pastern.

1229: 778: 775:, or Cushing's disease, is common in older horses and ponies and causes an increased predisposition to laminitis. 479: 226: 120: 1059:

HL tends to increase with age, up to 17 mm in most light breeds, or higher, especially in very old animals

819:. The reaction may be an expression of idiosyncrasy in a particular patient, as many horses receive high dose 815:

Anecdotal reports of laminitis following the administration of drugs have been made, especially in the case of

790: 629:

Hoof specimen, sagittal section. Severe P3 rotation and penetration into the sole. A lamellar wedge is evident.

513: 2785:

Belknap JK, Black SJ (2005). "Review of the Pathophysiology of the Developmental Stages of Equine Laminitis".

1453:

Complications to laminitis include recurrent hoof abscesses, which are sometimes secondary to pedal osteitis,

1126:

laminitis (e.g. after foaling) tends to be more difficult to treat. Successful treatment requires a competent

855:

are also implicated, opening up new possibilities for developing early prognostic tests and risk assessments.

3685: 3115: 3019: 1813:"The developmental and acute phases of insulin-induced laminitis involve minimal metalloproteinase activity" 1140: 1029:: the angle between a line perpendicular to the ground, and a line at the angle of the palmar surface of P3. 1004:

Several radiographic measurements, made on the lateral view, allow for objective evaluation of the episode.

298: 87: 233: 127: 286: 1997: 826:

Even horses not considered to be susceptible to laminitis can become laminitic when exposed to certain

297:

and evidence of sinking, a condition often associated with laminitis. The annotation P2 stands for the

3178: 2947: 2876: 2805: 1921:

Thoefner MB, Pollitt CC, Van Eps AW, Milinovich GJ, Trott DJ, Wattle O, Andersen PH (September 2004).

1636:"Early laminar events involving endothelial activation in horses with black walnut- induced laminitis" 996: 875: 361:, which act as shock absorbers during locomotion. In horses, there are about 550–600 pairs of primary 215: 109: 3680: 3261: 2042: 1812: 1216:), DMSO, pentoxpfylline, and cryotherapy. For analgesia, NSAIDs are often the first line of defense. 1119: 389:. The basement membrane is then attached to the coffin bone via the connective tissue of the dermis. 2392: 557: 3366:"Deep digital flexor tenotomy as a treatment for chronic laminitis in horses: 35 cases (1988-1997)" 1094: 926:

penetrated, widening of the white line at the toe with or without bruising, "clubbing" of the foot.

362: 2662:

Suxibuzone as a Therapeutical Alternative to Phenylbutazone in the Treatment of Lameness in Horses

2734: 2148: 2098: 2660: 1786: 1466:

experience laminitis will founder, but all horses that founder will first experience laminitis.

2117: 3651: 3621: 3602: 3583: 3564: 3561:

Who's Afraid of Founder. Laminitis Demystified: Causes, Prevention and Holistic Rehabilitation

3542: 3523: 3500: 3481: 3462: 3443: 3388: 3344: 3297: 3279: 3206: 3198: 3133: 3047: 3039: 2975: 2967: 2904: 2896: 2833: 2825: 2738: 2711: 2641: 2477: 2459: 2420: 2412: 2371: 2308: 2283: 2242: 2205: 2140: 1944: 1903: 1862: 1853:

Nilsson SA (1963). "Clinical, morphological and experimental studies of laminitis in cattle".

1835: 1735: 1657: 1614: 1589: 1495: 912: 733: 517: 403: 386: 332: 2496: 2438:

Jacobs, Carrie C.; Schnabel, Lauren V.; McIlwraith, C. Wayne; Blikslager, Anthony T. (2022).

442:

Inflammatory events that are associated with laminitis include sepsis, endotoxemia, retained

3556: 3415: 3380: 3287: 3269: 3190: 3031: 2959: 2888: 2817: 2767: 2703: 2633: 2467: 2451: 2404: 2273: 2234: 2132: 2090: 2054: 2023: 1934: 1893: 1827: 1647: 1135: 1093:

Other imaging tools have been used to show mechanical deviations in laminitis cases include

3248:

Aoun, Rita; Charles, Iyana; DeRouen, Abigail; Takawira, Catherine; Lopez, Mandi J. (2023).

486:

administration. In cases of EMS, most episodes occur in the spring when the grass is lush.

1939: 1922: 1811:

de Laat MA, Kyaw-Tanner MT, Nourian AR, McGowan CM, Sillence MN, Pollitt CC (April 2011).

1475: 1431: 1391: 1387: 1283: 1106: 749: 675:

The front feet of this horse exhibit the rings and overgrowth typical of foundered horses.

455: 3153: 2851: 1146:

Several radiographic abnormalities can be judged to correlate with a worsened prognosis:

713:, hence mechanical separation of the laminae at the toe. Historically, this was seen in 3365: 3292: 3265: 3249: 2922: 1169:

There is no cure for a laminitic episode and many go undetected. Initial treatment with

625: 3634: 2472: 2439: 2027: 1923:"Acute bovine laminitis: a new induction model using alimentary oligofructose overload" 1315:, one can effect this reorientation. However, this is not always completely effective. 1299: 1217: 820: 816: 745: 714: 483: 428: 378: 240: 134: 55: 2892: 2821: 2771: 3669: 3516: 3035: 2238: 719: 679:

Laminitis has various causes, some of which commonly occur together. These include:

451: 399: 382: 370: 2152: 744:, particularly if the animal is confined in a stall. A notable example is the 2006 2102: 1287: 1268: 1131: 1102: 827: 459: 447: 3384: 3274: 2637: 1831: 1240:, may be somewhat safer than phenylbutazone in preventing NSAID toxicity such as 812:, can cause mares to founder, whether through toxicity, bacterial fever, or both. 3020:"The effect of hoof angle variations on dorsal lamellar load in the equine hoof" 2729:

Pollitt CC (2003). "Medical Therapy of Laminitis". In Ross MW, Dyson SJ (eds.).

1442: 1279: 1241: 1170: 1077: 848: 422: 366: 178: 76: 3419: 3194: 2963: 2094: 2075: 17: 3618:

Illustrated Atlas of Clinical Equine Anatomy and Common Disorders of the Horse

1485: 1325: 1295: 1264: 1237: 1225: 1196: 1072: 864: 835: 798: 794: 643: 635: 574: 344: 294: 290: 3283: 3202: 3043: 2971: 2900: 2829: 2463: 2416: 2408: 2278: 2261: 1634:

Loftus JP, Black SJ, Pettigrew A, Abrahamsen EJ, Belknap JK (November 2007).

561:

Hoof sagittal section with massive inflammation and rotation of third phalanx

3364:

Eastman TG, Honnas CM, Hague BA, Moyer W, von der Rosen HD (February 1999).

1898: 1881: 1866: 1652: 1635: 1490: 1256: 1233: 1123: 831: 688: 3392: 3301: 3210: 3051: 2979: 2837: 2715: 2707: 2481: 2424: 2287: 2246: 2144: 1948: 1839: 1661: 1224:(Banamine), ketofen, and others are also used. Nonspecific NSAIDs such as 402:

and subsequent reduction in adherence between the epithelial cells and the

2908: 2645: 1907: 823:

into their joints without showing any evidence of clinical laminitis.

1312: 1291: 1260: 1252: 1221: 1109:

has been explored as a way to quantify changes in bloodflow to the foot.

1056:

Warmbloods have similar proximal and distal values, up to 20 mm each

805: 782: 647: 532:

There are multiple theories as to how laminitis develops. These include:

512:

One of the newest theories for the molecular basis of laminitis involves

443: 314: 3599:

The Principles of Horseshoeing II and The Principles of Horseshoeing III

2393:"Equine laminitis: cryotherapy reduces the severity of the acute lesion" 2059: 1023:: distance from the tip of P3 to the breakover of the hoof (dorsal toe). 884:

Increased temperature of the wall, sole and/or coronary band of the foot

3625: 2262:"Countermeasures for pasture-associated laminitis in ponies and horses" 1480: 1418: 1412:

Treatment of equine lameness § Deep digital flexor tendon tenotomy

1127: 922:

Tendency to lie down whenever possible, and recumbency in extreme cases

852: 786: 659: 579: 471: 302: 3179:"First Aid for the Laminitic Foot: Therapeutic and Mechanical Support" 2948:"First Aid for the Laminitic Foot: Therapeutic and Mechanical Support" 2455: 2136: 2659:

Sabaté D, Homedes J, Mayós I, Calonge R, et al. (January 2005).

1454: 1213: 956:

The severity of lameness is qualified using the Obel grading system:

801:

which are analogous to cortisol, resulting in Cushings-like symptoms.

655: 418: 374: 322: 2574:"From Off the Pace: Master off Derby trail; Bal a Bali wins Grade 1" 909:

Repeated "easing" of affected feet, i.e. constant shifting of weight

3177:

Reilly, Patrick T.; Dean, Emily K.; Orsini, James A. (2010-08-01).

2946:

Reilly, Patrick T.; Dean, Emily K.; Orsini, James A. (2010-08-01).

3315: 995: 874: 670: 624: 318: 3067:"Researchers Compare Therapeutic Shoes for Horses with Laminitis" 2076:"Laminitis: Risk Factors and Outcome in a Group of Danish Horses" 1886:

Nihon Juigaku Zasshi. The Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science

1220:

is commonly used for its strong effect and relatively low cost.

809: 718:

hooves are allowed to grow long; classic examples are ponies on

1734:(1st ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 257–262. 1122:). Even in these cases, a clinical cure can often be achieved. 1044:

Weanlings will have a greater proximal HL compared to distal HL

969:

Obel grade 4: Horse is very reluctant to move, or is recumbent.

353:

hooves of ungulates by layers of modified skin cells, known as

2994:"Managing the Laminitic and Foundered Horse with Sole Support" 2440:"Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in equine orthopaedics" 1098: 1047:

Yearlings will have approximately equal proximal and distal HL

172: 70: 29: 3495:

Adams HR, Chalkley LW, Buchanan TM, Wagoner DM, eds. (1977).

1987:"Transcript of Press Conference on the condition of Barbaro" 1286:, either through hot water or vasodilatory drugs. Systemic 1050:

Thoroughbreds are usually 17mm proximally, and 19mm distally

196: 1996:

School of Veterinary Medicine. 13 July 2006. Archived from

1588:(4th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier. pp. 697–712. 3316:"Laminitis In Horses - Non-Invasive, Supportive Treatment" 1294:

which reduces the horse/pony's movements and thus reduces

2301:

Colahan P, Merritt A, Moore J, Mayhew I (December 1998).

3580:

Corrective Farriery, a textbook of remedial horseshoeing

2787:

Proceedings American Association of Equine Practitioners

2260:

Harris P, Bailey SR, Elliott J, Longland A (July 2006).

2041:

McGowan, Cathy; Cooper, Daniel; Ireland, Joanne (2016).

1457:, and fractures to the solar margin of the coffin bone. 3091:"Gluing Shoes To Hoof Boots To Treat Chronic Laminitis" 2354:"How to Support Horses With Acute or Chronic Laminitis" 2352:

Director, Stephanie L. Church, Editorial (2020-02-05).

1430:

As an alternative to the deep digital flexor tenotomy,

200: 3373:

Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association

2696:

Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association

2626:

Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association

2074:

Luthersson N, Mannfalk M, Parkin TD, Harris P (2017).

313:

is a inflammation of laminae that affects the feet of

1770:

Huntington P, Pollitt C, McGowan C (September 2009).

1101:, which also provides some physiologic information. 830:. The most commonly experienced examples are certain 3478:

The Illustrated Veterinary Encyclopedia for Horsemen

3183:

Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice

2952:

Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice

2881:

Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice

2810:

Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice

2204:. Hoof Rehabilitation Publisher. pp. 234–253. 915:

with a positive response to hoof testers at the toe

327: 101:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3515: 3497:Veterinary Medications and Treatments for Horsemen 3343:. Cherokee, Ala.: Life Data Labs. pp. 29–31. 3018:Ramsey, G. D.; Hunter, P. J.; Nash, M. P. (2011). 2168:"The Obel Grading System for Describing Laminitis" 1183:saddle. This process may take months to complete. 906:Walking very tenderly, as if walking on egg shells 2806:"Chronic laminitis: current treatment strategies" 2731:Diagnosis and Management of Lameness in the Horse 2116:Menzies-Gow NJ, Harris PA, Elliott J (May 2017). 1438: 1290:as a vasodilator with the fringe benefit of mild 470:Endocrinopathy is usually the result of improper 3225:"Disorders of the Foot in Horses - Horse Owners" 2804:Parks, Andrew; O'Grady, Stephen E (2003-08-01). 1017:: the distance from the tip of P3 to the ground. 808:, if not passed completely after the birth of a 2600:"Comeback King Bal a Bali Takes Shoemaker Mile" 1579: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1549: 1547: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1539: 1537: 1535: 1533: 1531: 349:The bones of the hoof are suspended within the 3648:Founder: Prevention & Cure the Natural Way 3539:Founder: Prevention & Cure the Natural Way 2329:"Laminitis in Horses - Musculoskeletal System" 1529: 1527: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1511: 433:Trauma: concussion or excessive weight-bearing 3116:"Managing Laminitic Horses Using Radiographs" 8: 3138:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2376:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1441:, but without the potential for scarring or 478:(also called equine Cushing's syndrome) and 205:introducing citations to additional sources 1962: 1960: 1958: 474:regulation, and is most commonly seen with 373:, pedal bone, or distal phalanx), known as 64:Learn how and when to remove these messages 3582:. R & W Publications (Newmarket) Ltd. 2883:. Emergency Treatment in the Adult Horse. 2544:vet.osu.edu (reprint from The Blood-Horse) 2202:Care and Rehabilitation of the Equine Foot 1105:may also be useful in certain situations. 897:Increased vital signs and body temperature 3291: 3273: 3065:MA, Christa Lesté-Lasserre (2023-10-10). 2471: 2277: 2058: 1938: 1897: 1820:Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 1725: 1723: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1697: 1695: 1693: 1691: 1651: 700: 274:Learn how and when to remove this message 161:Learn how and when to remove this message 3620:. Vol. One. Equistar Publications. 2195: 2193: 1689: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1673: 1671: 793:in humans. In this syndrome, peripheral 789:resistance. It has some similarities to 582:(s), lead to euthanasia of the patient. 556: 293:of a horse hoof showing rotation of the 285: 195:Relevant discussion may be found on the 3341:Explaining Laminitis and its Prevention 3158:American College of Veterinary Surgeons 2852:"Tenotomy as a treatment for Laminitis" 2391:Van Eps, A. W.; Pollitt, C. C. (2004). 1640:American Journal of Veterinary Research 1507: 522:tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases 450:overload (excessive grain or pasture), 377:laminae. The secondary laminae contain 3440:Adams and Stashak's Lameness in Horses 3131: 2369: 2307:(Fifth ed.). Mosby. p. 408. 1251:Pentafusion, or the administration of 3522:(Third ed.). Howell Book House. 2553:from the original on 17 December 2016 2227:Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound 1765: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 773:Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction 737:, which in turn can cause laminitis. 476:pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction 345:Horse hoof § Internal structures 27:Disease of the feet of hooved animals 7: 3408:Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 3114:CF, Craig Lesser, DVM (2022-09-13). 2760:Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 2083:Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 495:the opposing limb, a process called 99:adding citations to reliable sources 2178:from the original on 15 August 2014 1880:Takahashi K, Young BA (June 1981). 3185:. Advances in Laminitis, Part II. 2954:. Advances in Laminitis, Part II. 2028:10.1111/j.2042-3292.2004.tb00272.x 1461:Informal use of the word "founder" 1208:Anti-inflammatories and analgesics 25: 3518:Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook 3442:(6th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 1940:10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(04)73424-4 45:This article has multiple issues. 3036:10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00319.x 2239:10.1111/j.1740-8261.2006.00128.x 1772:"Recent research into laminitis" 1368:Alternative horseshoeing methods 887:A pounding pulse in the digital 599:during the developmental phase. 398:resulting in dysfunction of the 188:relies largely or entirely on a 177: 75: 34: 3514:Giffin JM, Gore T (July 2008). 2675:from the original on 2005-05-29 2517:from the original on 2008-03-08 2166:Anderson M (16 December 2012). 1611:Color Atlas of the Horse's Foot 1009:Coronary extensor distance (CE) 722:in spring, and pregnant mares. 86:needs additional citations for 53:or discuss these issues on the 2875:Baxter, Gary M. (1994-12-01). 638:of the coffin bone can occur. 553:Rotation, sinking, and founder 482:(EMS), as well as obesity and 1: 3616:Riegel RJ, Hakola SE (1999). 3438:Baxter GM, ed. (March 2011). 3385:10.2460/javma.1999.214.04.517 2893:10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30351-6 2822:10.1016/S0749-0739(03)00019-1 2772:10.1016/S0737-0806(97)80186-4 1855:Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 894:Anxiety and visible trembling 3461:. Russell Meerdink Company. 3275:10.1371/journal.pone.0285475 2668:. 11th SIVE Congress. Pisa. 2638:10.2460/javma.1993.202.01.71 1832:10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.01.013 1779:Advances in Equine Nutrition 1406:Deep digital flexor tenotomy 3601:. Doug Butler Enterprises. 2495:Pollitt C (November 2003). 2304:Equine Medicine and Surgery 2200:Ramey P, Bowker RM (2011). 2016:Equine Veterinary Education 1584:Orsini J, Divers T (2014). 1033:Horn:lamellar distance (HL) 701:§ Mechanical laminitis 503:Theories of pathophysiology 425:or generalized inflammation 3702: 3676:Equine injury and lameness 3633:Redden RF (Apr 15, 2004). 3420:10.1016/j.jevs.2009.05.008 3195:10.1016/j.cveq.2010.06.004 2964:10.1016/j.cveq.2010.06.004 2095:10.1016/j.jevs.2016.03.006 1994:University of Pennsylvania 1409: 1382:Dorsal hoof wall resection 698: 687:The inflammatory molecule 342: 3650:. Star Ridge Publishing. 3635:"Understanding Laminitis" 3024:Equine Veterinary Journal 2444:Equine Veterinary Journal 2397:Equine Veterinary Journal 2125:Equine Veterinary Journal 1732:Manual of Equine Lameness 1333:Altering the palmar angle 1232:-specific drugs, such as 992:Radiographic measurements 779:Equine metabolic syndrome 514:matrix metalloproteinases 508:Matrix metalloproteinases 480:equine metabolic syndrome 3537:Jackson J (March 2001). 3476:Wagoner DM, ed. (1977). 3095:www.americanfarriers.com 2409:10.2746/0425164044877107 2272:(7 Suppl): 2114S–2121S. 2266:The Journal of Nutrition 1969:"Nonclassical laminitis" 1927:Journal of Dairy Science 1426:Botulinum toxin infusion 1351:Corrective hoof trimming 528:Theories for development 3499:. Equine Research Inc. 3480:. Equine Research Inc. 3229:Merck Veterinary Manual 2504:Proceedings of the AAEP 1899:10.1292/jvms1939.43.375 1653:10.2460/ajvr.68.11.1205 1141:equine prepurchase exam 317:and is found mostly in 3578:Curtis S (June 2006). 3541:. Star Ridge Company. 2708:10.2460/javma.232.1.91 2279:10.1093/jn/136.7.2114S 1159:Sole penetration by P3 1021:Digital breakover (DB) 1001: 880: 867:are also very useful. 726:Poor blood circulation 676: 630: 562: 497:support limb laminitis 307: 3154:"Laminitis in Horses" 2537:"Making of a Miracle" 2333:MSD Veterinary Manual 1861:(Suppl. 1): 188–222. 1785:: 293. Archived from 1433:Clostridium botulinum 999: 878: 695:Mechanical separation 674: 628: 560: 369:(PIII, P3, the third 289: 2856:www.equipodiatry.com 2578:Saratogian Pinksheet 1377:Aggressive therapies 1306:Trimming and shoeing 1242:right dorsal colitis 1156:Decreased sole depth 1103:Nuclear scintigraphy 201:improve this article 95:improve this article 3339:Eustace RA (1996). 3266:2023PLoSO..1885475A 2060:10.18849/ve.v1i1.12 2047:Veterinary Evidence 2003:on 4 February 2007. 1609:Pollitt CC (1995). 1359:Realigning trimming 1095:computed tomography 952:Obel grading system 938:Lameness evaluation 756:Transport laminitis 594:Developmental phase 586:Phases of laminitis 458:, and contact with 3646:Jackson J (2001). 3457:Rooney JR (1998). 2927:The Laminitis Site 2497:"Equine Laminitis" 1586:Equine Emergencies 1002: 881: 836:nitrate fertilizer 705:Commonly known as 677: 631: 563: 518:Metalloproteinases 308: 3657:978-0-9658007-3-0 3608:978-0-916992-26-2 3597:Butler D (2004). 3589:978-1-899772-13-1 3570:978-0-9685988-4-9 3548:978-0-9658007-3-0 3529:978-0-470-12679-0 3506:978-0-935842-01-2 3487:978-0-935842-03-6 3468:978-0-929346-55-7 3449:978-0-813-81549-7 3350:978-0-9518974-0-9 2923:"Realigning Trim" 2877:"Acute Laminitis" 2733:. St. Louis, MO: 2456:10.1111/evj.13561 2314:978-0-8151-1743-8 2211:978-0-615-52453-5 2137:10.1111/evj.12606 1741:978-0-8138-1546-6 1730:Baxter G (2011). 1620:978-0-7234-1765-1 1595:978-1-4557-0892-5 1496:Lameness (equine) 1398:Coronary grooving 1120:Cushing's disease 1089:Other diagnostics 1027:Palmar angle (PA) 683:Vasoactive amines 404:basement membrane 387:basement membrane 381:which attach via 284: 283: 276: 266: 265: 251: 171: 170: 163: 145: 68: 16:(Redirected from 3693: 3661: 3642: 3629: 3612: 3593: 3574: 3563:. Sabine Kells. 3552: 3533: 3521: 3510: 3491: 3472: 3453: 3424: 3423: 3403: 3397: 3396: 3370: 3361: 3355: 3354: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3327: 3326: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3295: 3277: 3245: 3239: 3238: 3236: 3235: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3174: 3168: 3167: 3165: 3164: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3137: 3129: 3127: 3126: 3111: 3105: 3104: 3102: 3101: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3078: 3077: 3062: 3056: 3055: 3015: 3009: 3008: 3006: 3005: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2943: 2937: 2936: 2934: 2933: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2872: 2866: 2865: 2863: 2862: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2782: 2776: 2775: 2755: 2749: 2748: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2690: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2680: 2674: 2667: 2656: 2650: 2649: 2621: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2552: 2541: 2532: 2526: 2525: 2523: 2522: 2516: 2501: 2492: 2486: 2485: 2475: 2435: 2429: 2428: 2388: 2382: 2381: 2375: 2367: 2365: 2364: 2349: 2343: 2342: 2340: 2339: 2325: 2319: 2318: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2281: 2257: 2251: 2250: 2222: 2216: 2215: 2197: 2188: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2172:www.thehorse.com 2163: 2157: 2156: 2122: 2113: 2107: 2106: 2080: 2071: 2065: 2064: 2062: 2038: 2032: 2031: 2011: 2005: 2004: 2002: 1991: 1983: 1977: 1976: 1971:. Archived from 1964: 1953: 1952: 1942: 1918: 1912: 1911: 1901: 1877: 1871: 1870: 1850: 1844: 1843: 1817: 1808: 1802: 1801: 1799: 1797: 1792:on 23 March 2013 1791: 1776: 1767: 1746: 1745: 1727: 1666: 1665: 1655: 1631: 1625: 1624: 1606: 1600: 1599: 1581: 1342:Use of orthotics 1324:helps to ensure 919:circus elephant. 791:type II diabetes 742:static laminitis 279: 272: 261: 258: 252: 250: 209: 181: 173: 166: 159: 155: 152: 146: 144: 103: 79: 71: 60: 38: 37: 30: 21: 3701: 3700: 3696: 3695: 3694: 3692: 3691: 3690: 3666: 3665: 3664: 3658: 3645: 3632: 3615: 3609: 3596: 3590: 3577: 3571: 3555: 3549: 3536: 3530: 3513: 3507: 3494: 3488: 3475: 3469: 3456: 3450: 3437: 3433: 3431:Further reading 3428: 3427: 3405: 3404: 3400: 3368: 3363: 3362: 3358: 3351: 3338: 3337: 3333: 3324: 3322: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3260:(5): e0285475. 3247: 3246: 3242: 3233: 3231: 3223: 3222: 3218: 3176: 3175: 3171: 3162: 3160: 3152: 3151: 3147: 3130: 3124: 3122: 3113: 3112: 3108: 3099: 3097: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3075: 3073: 3064: 3063: 3059: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3003: 3001: 2992: 2991: 2987: 2945: 2944: 2940: 2931: 2929: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2874: 2873: 2869: 2860: 2858: 2850: 2849: 2845: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2784: 2783: 2779: 2757: 2756: 2752: 2745: 2737:. p. 330. 2728: 2727: 2723: 2692: 2691: 2687: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2665: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2623: 2622: 2618: 2608: 2606: 2598:Novak, Claire. 2597: 2596: 2592: 2582: 2580: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2556: 2554: 2550: 2539: 2534: 2533: 2529: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2499: 2494: 2493: 2489: 2437: 2436: 2432: 2390: 2389: 2385: 2368: 2362: 2360: 2351: 2350: 2346: 2337: 2335: 2327: 2326: 2322: 2315: 2300: 2299: 2295: 2259: 2258: 2254: 2224: 2223: 2219: 2212: 2199: 2198: 2191: 2181: 2179: 2165: 2164: 2160: 2120: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2078: 2073: 2072: 2068: 2040: 2039: 2035: 2013: 2012: 2008: 2000: 1989: 1985: 1984: 1980: 1966: 1965: 1956: 1920: 1919: 1915: 1879: 1878: 1874: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1826:(3–4): 275–81. 1815: 1810: 1809: 1805: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1774: 1769: 1768: 1749: 1742: 1729: 1728: 1669: 1646:(11): 1205–11. 1633: 1632: 1628: 1621: 1608: 1607: 1603: 1596: 1583: 1582: 1509: 1504: 1476:Barefoot horses 1472: 1463: 1451: 1414: 1392:interdigitation 1388:coronary plexus 1379: 1370: 1308: 1284:contraindicated 1205: 1189: 1180: 1166: 1115: 1107:Ultrasonography 1091: 1015:Sole depth (SD) 985: 940: 903:Flared nostrils 873: 861: 845: 817:corticosteroids 785:metabolism and 769: 728: 715:carriage horses 703: 697: 685: 669: 588: 555: 505: 456:pleuropneumonia 412: 395: 393:Pathophysiology 347: 341: 280: 269: 268: 267: 262: 256: 253: 210: 208: 194: 182: 167: 156: 150: 147: 104: 102: 92: 80: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Founder (horse) 15: 12: 11: 5: 3699: 3697: 3689: 3688: 3686:Horse diseases 3683: 3678: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3662: 3656: 3643: 3630: 3613: 3607: 3594: 3588: 3575: 3569: 3553: 3547: 3534: 3528: 3511: 3505: 3492: 3486: 3473: 3467: 3459:The Lame Horse 3454: 3448: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3426: 3425: 3414:(7): 595–600. 3398: 3356: 3349: 3331: 3307: 3240: 3216: 3189:(2): 451–458. 3169: 3145: 3106: 3082: 3057: 3030:(5): 536–542. 3010: 2998:Horse Journals 2985: 2958:(2): 451–458. 2938: 2914: 2887:(3): 627–642. 2867: 2843: 2816:(2): 393–416. 2796: 2777: 2750: 2743: 2721: 2685: 2651: 2616: 2604:BloodHorse.com 2590: 2564: 2527: 2487: 2450:(4): 636–648. 2430: 2403:(3): 255–260. 2383: 2344: 2320: 2313: 2293: 2252: 2233:(2): 199–205. 2217: 2210: 2189: 2158: 2131:(3): 300–306. 2108: 2066: 2033: 2006: 1978: 1975:on 2008-01-24. 1954: 1933:(9): 2932–40. 1913: 1872: 1845: 1803: 1747: 1740: 1667: 1626: 1619: 1601: 1594: 1506: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1499: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1471: 1468: 1462: 1459: 1450: 1447: 1428: 1427: 1410:Main article: 1408: 1407: 1400: 1399: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1375: 1369: 1366: 1361: 1360: 1353: 1352: 1344: 1343: 1335: 1334: 1321: 1320: 1307: 1304: 1300:Nitroglycerine 1277: 1276: 1246:gastric ulcers 1218:Phenylbutazone 1210: 1209: 1204: 1203:Drug therapies 1201: 1188: 1185: 1179: 1176: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1160: 1157: 1154: 1151: 1114: 1111: 1090: 1087: 1070: 1069: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1037: 1036: 1030: 1024: 1018: 1012: 994: 993: 984: 981: 979:nerve blocks. 976: 975: 971: 970: 967: 964: 961: 954: 953: 945: 944: 939: 936: 935: 934: 931: 927: 923: 920: 916: 910: 907: 904: 901: 898: 895: 892: 885: 872: 871:Clinical signs 869: 860: 857: 844: 841: 840: 839: 834:and synthetic 824: 821:glucocorticoid 813: 802: 776: 768: 767:Complex causes 765: 746:Kentucky Derby 727: 724: 696: 693: 684: 681: 668: 665: 623: 622: 614: 613: 612:Subacute phase 605: 604: 596: 595: 587: 584: 554: 551: 550: 549: 546: 545:proliferation. 542: 538: 530: 529: 510: 509: 504: 501: 492: 491: 484:glucocorticoid 468: 467: 466:Endocrinopathy 440: 439: 435: 434: 431: 429:Endocrinopathy 426: 411: 408: 400:hemidesmosomes 394: 391: 383:hemidesmosomes 343:Main article: 340: 337: 299:middle phalanx 282: 281: 264: 263: 199:. Please help 185: 183: 176: 169: 168: 83: 81: 74: 69: 43: 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3698: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3673: 3671: 3659: 3653: 3649: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3610: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3525: 3520: 3519: 3512: 3508: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3489: 3483: 3479: 3474: 3470: 3464: 3460: 3455: 3451: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3435: 3430: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3402: 3399: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3367: 3360: 3357: 3352: 3346: 3342: 3335: 3332: 3321: 3317: 3311: 3308: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3244: 3241: 3230: 3226: 3220: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3173: 3170: 3159: 3155: 3149: 3146: 3141: 3135: 3121: 3117: 3110: 3107: 3096: 3092: 3086: 3083: 3072: 3068: 3061: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3014: 3011: 2999: 2995: 2989: 2986: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2942: 2939: 2928: 2924: 2918: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2868: 2857: 2853: 2847: 2844: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2800: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2781: 2778: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2754: 2751: 2746: 2744:0-7216-8342-8 2740: 2736: 2732: 2725: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2686: 2671: 2664: 2663: 2655: 2652: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2620: 2617: 2605: 2601: 2594: 2591: 2579: 2575: 2572:Scott, Jeff. 2568: 2565: 2549: 2545: 2538: 2531: 2528: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2498: 2491: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2434: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2387: 2384: 2379: 2373: 2359: 2355: 2348: 2345: 2334: 2330: 2324: 2321: 2316: 2310: 2306: 2305: 2297: 2294: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2256: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2221: 2218: 2213: 2207: 2203: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2177: 2174:. The Horse. 2173: 2169: 2162: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2119: 2112: 2109: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2077: 2070: 2067: 2061: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2037: 2034: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2010: 2007: 1999: 1995: 1988: 1982: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1955: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1917: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1900: 1895: 1892:(3): 375–85. 1891: 1887: 1883: 1876: 1873: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1849: 1846: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1814: 1807: 1804: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1773: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1737: 1733: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1694: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1676: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1630: 1627: 1622: 1616: 1612: 1605: 1602: 1597: 1591: 1587: 1580: 1578: 1576: 1574: 1572: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1548: 1546: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1501: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1473: 1469: 1467: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1449:Complications 1448: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1434: 1425: 1424: 1423: 1420: 1413: 1405: 1404: 1403: 1397: 1396: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1381: 1380: 1376: 1374: 1367: 1365: 1358: 1357: 1356: 1350: 1349: 1348: 1341: 1340: 1339: 1332: 1331: 1330: 1327: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1314: 1305: 1303: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1274: 1273: 1272: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1207: 1206: 1202: 1200: 1198: 1193: 1186: 1184: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1163: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1112: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1097:, as well as 1096: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1079: 1074: 1067: 1066: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1046: 1043: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1039: 1038: 1034: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1005: 998: 991: 990: 989: 982: 980: 973: 972: 968: 965: 962: 959: 958: 957: 951: 950: 949: 942: 941: 937: 932: 928: 924: 921: 917: 914: 911: 908: 905: 902: 899: 896: 893: 890: 886: 883: 882: 877: 870: 868: 866: 858: 856: 854: 850: 842: 837: 833: 829: 828:agrichemicals 825: 822: 818: 814: 811: 807: 803: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 777: 774: 771: 770: 766: 764: 760: 757: 753: 751: 747: 743: 738: 736: 735: 725: 723: 721: 720:pasture board 716: 712: 708: 702: 694: 692: 690: 682: 680: 673: 666: 664: 661: 657: 651: 649: 645: 639: 637: 627: 621:Chronic phase 620: 619: 618: 611: 610: 609: 602: 601: 600: 593: 592: 591: 585: 583: 581: 576: 571: 567: 559: 552: 547: 543: 539: 535: 534: 533: 527: 526: 525: 523: 519: 515: 507: 506: 502: 500: 498: 489: 488: 487: 485: 481: 477: 473: 465: 464: 463: 461: 457: 453: 452:enterocolitis 449: 445: 437: 436: 432: 430: 427: 424: 420: 417: 416: 415: 409: 407: 405: 401: 392: 390: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 346: 338: 336: 334: 330: 329: 324: 320: 316: 312: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 278: 275: 260: 257:December 2021 249: 246: 242: 239: 235: 232: 228: 225: 221: 218: – 217: 213: 212:Find sources: 206: 202: 198: 192: 191: 190:single source 186:This article 184: 180: 175: 174: 165: 162: 154: 151:December 2021 143: 140: 136: 133: 129: 126: 122: 119: 115: 112: – 111: 107: 106:Find sources: 100: 96: 90: 89: 84:This article 82: 78: 73: 72: 67: 65: 58: 57: 52: 51: 46: 41: 32: 31: 19: 3647: 3638: 3617: 3598: 3579: 3560: 3538: 3517: 3496: 3477: 3458: 3439: 3411: 3407: 3401: 3379:(4): 517–9. 3376: 3372: 3359: 3340: 3334: 3323:. Retrieved 3319: 3310: 3257: 3253: 3243: 3232:. Retrieved 3228: 3219: 3186: 3182: 3172: 3161:. Retrieved 3157: 3148: 3123:. Retrieved 3119: 3109: 3098:. Retrieved 3094: 3085: 3074:. Retrieved 3070: 3060: 3027: 3023: 3013: 3002:. Retrieved 3000:. 2016-02-14 2997: 2988: 2955: 2951: 2941: 2930:. Retrieved 2926: 2917: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2859:. Retrieved 2855: 2846: 2813: 2812:. Podiatry. 2809: 2799: 2790: 2786: 2780: 2763: 2759: 2753: 2730: 2724: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2677:. Retrieved 2661: 2654: 2629: 2625: 2619: 2607:. Retrieved 2603: 2593: 2581:. Retrieved 2577: 2567: 2555:. Retrieved 2543: 2530: 2519:. Retrieved 2507: 2503: 2490: 2447: 2443: 2433: 2400: 2396: 2386: 2361:. Retrieved 2357: 2347: 2336:. Retrieved 2332: 2323: 2303: 2296: 2269: 2265: 2255: 2230: 2226: 2220: 2201: 2180:. Retrieved 2171: 2161: 2128: 2124: 2111: 2086: 2082: 2069: 2050: 2046: 2036: 2022:(2): 86–89. 2019: 2015: 2009: 1998:the original 1981: 1973:the original 1930: 1926: 1916: 1889: 1885: 1875: 1858: 1854: 1848: 1823: 1819: 1806: 1794:. Retrieved 1787:the original 1782: 1778: 1731: 1643: 1639: 1629: 1610: 1604: 1585: 1464: 1452: 1435:type A toxin 1432: 1429: 1415: 1401: 1385: 1371: 1362: 1354: 1345: 1336: 1322: 1309: 1288:acepromazine 1280:Vasodilators 1278: 1275:Vasodilators 1269:acepromazine 1250: 1211: 1194: 1190: 1181: 1167: 1145: 1132:veterinarian 1116: 1092: 1083: 1071: 1032: 1026: 1020: 1014: 1008: 1003: 986: 977: 974:Nerve blocks 955: 946: 943:Hoof testing 862: 851:, and serum 846: 843:Risk factors 761: 755: 754: 741: 739: 731: 729: 710: 707:road founder 706: 704: 686: 678: 660:abscessation 652: 640: 632: 615: 606: 597: 589: 572: 568: 564: 531: 511: 496: 493: 469: 460:black walnut 448:carbohydrate 441: 438:Inflammation 413: 396: 358: 354: 348: 326: 310: 309: 270: 254: 244: 237: 230: 223: 211: 187: 157: 148: 138: 131: 124: 117: 105: 93:Please help 88:verification 85: 61: 54: 48: 47:Please help 44: 3681:Equine hoof 2766:: 599–603. 2702:(1): 91–7. 2632:(1): 71–7. 2535:Shulman L. 1443:contracture 1187:Cryotherapy 1171:cryotherapy 1078:vasculature 983:Radiographs 865:radiographs 849:adiponectin 804:A retained 797:synthesise 644:radiographs 603:Acute phase 423:endotoxemia 379:basal cells 367:coffin bone 295:coffin bone 216:"Laminitis" 110:"Laminitis" 3670:Categories 3626:B000Z4DW38 3557:Strasser H 3325:2022-09-14 3234:2023-11-30 3163:2023-11-30 3125:2023-11-30 3100:2023-11-30 3076:2023-11-30 3004:2023-11-30 2932:2023-11-30 2861:2023-11-30 2679:2008-04-19 2521:2008-04-19 2363:2023-11-30 2338:2023-11-30 1967:Rooney J. 1502:References 1486:Horse hoof 1296:concussion 1265:detomidine 1238:diclofenac 1226:suxibuzone 1197:Bal a Bali 1178:Management 832:herbicides 799:adipokines 699:See also: 636:osteolysis 333:euthanasia 291:Radiograph 227:newspapers 121:newspapers 50:improve it 3639:The Horse 3320:FormaHoof 3284:1932-6203 3203:0749-0739 3120:The Horse 3071:The Horse 3044:0425-1644 2972:0749-0739 2901:0749-0739 2830:0749-0739 2464:0425-1644 2417:0425-1644 2358:The Horse 2089:: 68–73. 1613:. Mosby. 1491:Horseshoe 1313:orthotics 1257:lidocaine 1234:firocoxib 1164:Treatment 1124:Endotoxic 1113:Prognosis 1073:Venograms 1068:Venograms 859:Diagnosis 795:fat cells 732:stagnant 711:breakover 689:histamine 648:Venograms 608:testing. 410:Mechanism 363:epidermal 315:ungulates 311:Laminitis 197:talk page 56:talk page 3559:(2003). 3393:10029854 3302:37155654 3293:10166494 3254:PLOS ONE 3211:20699187 3134:cite web 3052:21496082 2980:20699187 2838:14575166 2735:Saunders 2716:18167116 2670:Archived 2583:14 March 2557:20 March 2548:Archived 2512:Archived 2482:35076950 2425:15147134 2372:cite web 2288:16772514 2247:16553154 2176:Archived 2153:19954615 2145:27363591 1949:15375054 1867:13816616 1840:21333362 1662:17975975 1470:See also 1439:tenotomy 1319:Trimming 1292:sedation 1261:morphine 1253:ketamine 1222:Flunixin 913:Lameness 900:Sweating 806:placenta 783:cortisol 516:(MMPs). 444:placenta 359:lamellae 3262:Bibcode 2909:7704823 2646:8420909 2473:9304133 2182:30 July 2103:4493753 1908:7321364 1796:28 July 1481:Farrier 1455:seromas 1419:pastern 1128:farrier 853:insulin 787:insulin 750:Barbaro 748:winner 656:seromas 580:farrier 575:laminae 472:insulin 385:to the 371:phalanx 355:laminae 339:Laminae 328:founder 303:pastern 241:scholar 135:scholar 3654: 3624: 3605: 3586: 3567: 3545: 3526: 3503: 3484: 3465: 3446: 3391: 3347: 3300: 3290: 3282: 3209: 3201: 3050: 3042: 2978: 2970: 2907: 2899: 2836: 2828: 2741: 2714: 2644: 2609:3 June 2480: 2470: 2462: 2423: 2415: 2311: 2286: 2245: 2208: 2151: 2143: 2101: 1947: 1906: 1865: 1838: 1738: 1660: 1617: 1592: 1267:, and 1214:NSAIDS 891:artery 889:palmar 734:anoxia 667:Causes 490:Trauma 419:Sepsis 375:dermal 323:cattle 319:horses 243: 236: 229: 222: 214: 137: 130: 123: 116: 108: 3369:(PDF) 2673:(PDF) 2666:(PDF) 2551:(PDF) 2540:(PDF) 2515:(PDF) 2500:(PDF) 2149:S2CID 2121:(PDF) 2099:S2CID 2079:(PDF) 2001:(PDF) 1990:(PDF) 1816:(PDF) 1790:(PDF) 1775:(PDF) 1230:COX-2 1228:, or 1136:acute 930:band. 351:axial 306:wall. 301:, or 248:JSTOR 234:books 142:JSTOR 128:books 3652:ISBN 3622:ASIN 3603:ISBN 3584:ISBN 3565:ISBN 3543:ISBN 3524:ISBN 3501:ISBN 3482:ISBN 3463:ISBN 3444:ISBN 3389:PMID 3345:ISBN 3298:PMID 3280:ISSN 3207:PMID 3199:ISSN 3140:link 3048:PMID 3040:ISSN 2976:PMID 2968:ISSN 2905:PMID 2897:ISSN 2834:PMID 2826:ISSN 2739:ISBN 2712:PMID 2642:PMID 2611:2017 2585:2017 2559:2017 2478:PMID 2460:ISSN 2421:PMID 2413:ISSN 2378:link 2309:ISBN 2284:PMID 2243:PMID 2206:ISBN 2184:2014 2141:PMID 1945:PMID 1904:PMID 1863:OCLC 1836:PMID 1798:2014 1736:ISBN 1658:PMID 1615:ISBN 1590:ISBN 1326:frog 1236:and 1130:and 810:foal 321:and 220:news 114:news 3416:doi 3381:doi 3377:214 3288:PMC 3270:doi 3191:doi 3032:doi 2960:doi 2889:doi 2818:doi 2768:doi 2704:doi 2700:232 2634:doi 2630:202 2468:PMC 2452:doi 2405:doi 2274:doi 2270:136 2235:doi 2133:doi 2091:doi 2055:doi 2024:doi 1935:doi 1894:doi 1828:doi 1824:140 1648:doi 1099:MRI 357:or 203:by 97:by 3672:: 3637:. 3412:29 3410:. 3387:. 3375:. 3371:. 3318:. 3296:. 3286:. 3278:. 3268:. 3258:18 3256:. 3252:. 3227:. 3205:. 3197:. 3187:26 3181:. 3156:. 3136:}} 3132:{{ 3118:. 3093:. 3069:. 3046:. 3038:. 3028:43 3026:. 3022:. 2996:. 2974:. 2966:. 2956:26 2950:. 2925:. 2903:. 2895:. 2885:10 2879:. 2854:. 2832:. 2824:. 2814:19 2808:. 2791:51 2789:. 2764:17 2762:. 2710:. 2698:. 2640:. 2628:. 2602:. 2576:. 2546:. 2542:. 2510:. 2508:49 2506:. 2502:. 2476:. 2466:. 2458:. 2448:54 2446:. 2442:. 2419:. 2411:. 2401:36 2399:. 2395:. 2374:}} 2370:{{ 2356:. 2331:. 2282:. 2268:. 2264:. 2241:. 2231:47 2229:. 2192:^ 2170:. 2147:. 2139:. 2129:49 2127:. 2123:. 2097:. 2087:53 2085:. 2081:. 2053:. 2049:. 2045:. 2020:16 2018:. 1992:. 1957:^ 1943:. 1931:87 1929:. 1925:. 1902:. 1890:43 1888:. 1884:. 1857:. 1834:. 1822:. 1818:. 1783:IV 1781:. 1777:. 1750:^ 1670:^ 1656:. 1644:68 1642:. 1638:. 1510:^ 1263:, 1259:, 1255:, 1244:, 752:. 454:, 446:, 335:. 59:. 3660:. 3641:. 3628:. 3611:. 3592:. 3573:. 3551:. 3532:. 3509:. 3490:. 3471:. 3452:. 3422:. 3418:: 3395:. 3383:: 3353:. 3328:. 3304:. 3272:: 3264:: 3237:. 3213:. 3193:: 3166:. 3142:) 3128:. 3103:. 3079:. 3054:. 3034:: 3007:. 2982:. 2962:: 2935:. 2911:. 2891:: 2864:. 2840:. 2820:: 2793:. 2774:. 2770:: 2747:. 2718:. 2706:: 2682:. 2648:. 2636:: 2613:. 2587:. 2561:. 2524:. 2484:. 2454:: 2427:. 2407:: 2380:) 2366:. 2341:. 2317:. 2290:. 2276:: 2249:. 2237:: 2214:. 2186:. 2155:. 2135:: 2105:. 2093:: 2063:. 2057:: 2051:1 2030:. 2026:: 1951:. 1937:: 1910:. 1896:: 1869:. 1859:4 1842:. 1830:: 1800:. 1744:. 1664:. 1650:: 1623:. 1598:. 838:. 421:/ 277:) 271:( 259:) 255:( 245:· 238:· 231:· 224:· 207:. 193:. 164:) 158:( 153:) 149:( 139:· 132:· 125:· 118:· 91:. 66:) 62:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index