227:, a military operation involving 190 paratroopers, assisted by the Belgian army and UNAMIR, to evacuate expatriates from Rwanda. The operation was later described by Gerard Prunier as a "disgrace," as the French and Belgians refused to allow any Tutsi to accompany them; those who boarded the evacuation trucks were forced off at Rwandan government checkpoints, where they were killed. The French also separated several expatriates and children from their Tutsi spouses, rescuing the foreigners but leaving the Rwandans to likely death. The French did, however, rescue several high-profile members of Habyarimana's government, as well as his wife, Agathe; in some instances, French troops used UNAMIR vehicles, without the permission of head of UNAMIR
205:
was to provide training in marksmanship and infiltration tactics for an elite unit in preparation for attacks behind the RPF lines. Further, a Col. Didier Tauzin (who was later to re-enter Rwanda during the genocide under a fake name Col. Didier
Tibault) was head of the French operation that had helped the Rwandan forces "spectacularly save the situation" in turning back the RPF offensive in February 1993. The French claim no evidence exists that these French officers were directly involved in the genocide.
278:
reported that some military officers in Paris had talked openly of "breaking the back of the RPF." According to France's
National Assembly, there were no documented large-scale killings in Zone Turquoise once it was established. By that same source, it seems the French intervention did provide some significant humanitarian relief in the areas it controlled. However, the French military presence effectively helped the perpetrators of genocide to escape from the RPF and flee into neighboring Zaire.
25:
59:
118:, largely preventing further waves of genocide within the purported safe zone. In practice, the zone enabled many genocidal Hutus to safely escape to Zaire in advance of the victorious RPF soldiers. The facts related to the French role in the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi have formed the focus of ongoing debate, and diplomatic relations between France and Rwanda have frequently been strained since 1994.
432:, appointed a panel of experts to investigate France's actions, through the state archives, to determine the involvement of France in the genocide. This panel would consist of eight researchers and historians. Reportedly, the team will be given access to classified documents from the foreign and defense ministries, the external intelligence service
374:
commission would now "wait for
President Kagame to declare whether the inquiry was valid." In July 2008, Kagame threatened to indict French nationals over the genocide if European courts did not withdraw arrest warrants issued against Rwandan officials, which by then included broader indictments against 40 Rwandan army officers by Spanish judge
155:
Anglophone influence at the expense of French influence. In
Melvern's analysis, the policy of France was to avoid a military victory by the RPF. The policy had been made by a secretive network of military officers, politicians, diplomats, businessmen, and senior intelligence operatives. At its centre was Mitterrand. As a matter for the
365:
mass killings in the Zone
Turquoise, the implication of the testimony as conveyed to the foreign press was that Bihozagara had a sitting ambassador's insight into French policy at the time of the genocide. In fact, Bihozagara was a founding member of the RPF and close Kagame ally under whose watch as Minister of Rehabilitation the
361:. Kagame denied the allegations, decrying them as politically motivated, and broke diplomatic relationships with France. He then ordered the formation of a commission of his own Rwandan Justice Ministry's employees that was officially "charged with assembling proof of the involvement of France in the genocide".
208:
The French report claimed that the HRW and
Melvern analyses omitted countervailing facts known as of their writing â specifically, that there were no arms delivery by France or facilitated by France once it deemed large-scale killings likely, let alone during the mass genocide proper; and that one of
199:
Official deliveries of arms by the French government to other governments are regulated by well-defined rules, but in the case of Rwanda â as in many others â the rules were rarely followed. According to the
National Assembly investigative commission, thirty-one of thirty-six deliveries of weapons to
154:
show how the RPF invasion in
October 1990 was considered as clear aggression by an Anglophone neighbour on a Francophone country. The documents are said to argue that the RPF was a part of an "Anglophone plot", involving the President of Uganda, to create an English-speaking "Tutsi-land" and increase
364:
In testimony before the commission, Jacques
Bihozagara, who was presented as "former ambassador to France", claimed that "Operation Turquoise was aimed only at protecting genocide perpetrators, because the genocide continued even within the Turquoise zone." Beside misrepresenting the timeline of the
162:
Melvern goes on to state that most of Rwanda's arms deals were negotiated through the
Rwandan embassy in Paris, even if these weapons were not used for the genocide. When the genocide was over, according to her, extensive records were found in the embassy offices, but none of them concerned Rwanda's
381:
Findings of the commission were released at Kagame's order on August 5, 2008. The report accused the French government of knowing of preparations for the genocide and helping to train the ethnic Hutu militia members; it accused 33 senior French military and political officials of involvement in the
328:
The report concluded that there had been errors of judgment pertaining to the Rwanda Armed Forces, but before the genocide only; further errors of judgment about the scale of the threat, at the onset of the genocide; over-reliance on the UNAMIR mission without awareness that it would be undercut by
277:
primarily as a mission to protect Hutu from the RPF, including some who had participated in the genocide. The French remained hostile to the RPF, and their presence temporarily stalled the RPF's advance. According to HRW, Opération Turquoise had another purpose: Preventing a victory by the RPF. HRW
204:
HRW went on to provide that a former French policeman who had also served as security consultant to Habyarimana, Captain Paul Barril, was hired by the Rwandan Ministry of Defense to conduct a training program for 30 to 60 men, eventually to grow to 120, at Bigogwe military camp in the northwest. He
410:
Chief among them has been an iron determination to keep the world's attention focused on the genocide, rather than on the role of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), the force that took power in 1994, bringing President Paul Kagame to power. In recent years uncomfortable questions have been raised
401:
A statement accompanying the release claimed that "French soldiers themselves directly were involved in assassinations of Tutsis and Hutus accused of hiding Tutsis ... French forces committed several rapes on Tutsi survivors", though the latter was not documented in the report. A BBC report
369:
occurred in 1995. His attitude and statements at that time led to reports that he had ordered that massacre, making him too much of a political liability for the RPF to keep as minister. Bihozagara was subsequently ambassador to Belgium, and then to France from September 2001 onwards; but in the
125:
regime that has ruled Rwanda since 1994 (described in greater detail below), Rwanda repeatedly broke diplomatic relations with France; the Rwandan government shut down all French institutions in Rwanda, including schools and cultural organisations, with only some being subsequently reopened; the
654:
N° 1271: ASSEMBLĂE NATIONALE: CONSTITUTION DU 4 OCTOBRE 1958: ONZIĂME LĂGISLATURE: EnregistrĂ© Ă la PrĂ©sidence de l'AssemblĂ©e nationale le 15 dĂ©cembre 1998: RAPPORT D'INFORMATION: DĂPOSĂ: en application de l'article 145 du RĂšglement: PAR LA MISSION D'INFORMATION(1) DE LA COMMISSION DE LA DĂFENSE
517:
N° 1271: ASSEMBLĂE NATIONALE: CONSTITUTION DU 4 OCTOBRE 1958: ONZIĂME LĂGISLATURE: EnregistrĂ© Ă la PrĂ©sidence de l'AssemblĂ©e nationale le 15 dĂ©cembre 1998: RAPPORT D'INFORMATION: DĂPOSĂ: en application de l'article 145 du RĂšglement: PAR LA MISSION D'INFORMATION(1) DE LA COMMISSION DE LA DĂFENSE
312:
The commission released its final report on December 15, 1998. It documented ambiguities and confusion in both the French and UN responses. Regarding Opération Turquoise, it regretted that the intervention took place too late, though it claimed that this was better than the lack of any response
373:
The political character of that investigation was in turn further averred when the commission issued its report solely to Kagame â symbolically on November 17, 2007, exactly one year after BruguiĂšre's announcement â and the head of the Rwandan commission, Jean de Dieu Mucyo, stated that the
324:
The Parliamentary Commission did not find any evidence of French participation in the genocide, of collaboration with the militias, or of willful disengagement from endangered populations, to the contrary. It documented multiple French operations, all at least partly successful, to disable
187:
Melvern attributes other forms of French support for the regime. She reports that, according to Belgian intelligence in Rwanda, French diplomats advised opposition politicians that if they wanted to stop the RPF, they had to give their support to President Habyarimana.
272:
triangle, an area occupying approximately a fifth of Rwanda. Radio France International estimates that Turquoise saved around 15,000 lives, but the timing of the invasion, with the genocide coming to an end and the RPF's ascendancy, led many Rwandans to interpret
485:
apologized to the Rwandan people and said that France had not heeded warnings of impending carnage and had for too long "valued silence over examination of the truth". Macron also noted that France had not been an accomplice in the killings. Rwanda's president,
329:
the United States and other parties; and ineffective diplomacy. Ultimately, it concluded that France had been the foreign power most involved in limiting the scale of the genocide once it got started, though it regretted that more had not been done.
655:
NATIONALE ET DES FORCES ARMĂES ET DE LA COMMISSION DES AFFAIRES ĂTRANGĂRES, sur les opĂ©rations militaires menĂ©es par la France, d'autres pays et l'ONU au Rwanda entre 1990 et 1994. Online posting. National Assembly of France. December 15, 1998.
518:
NATIONALE ET DES FORCES ARMĂES ET DE LA COMMISSION DES AFFAIRES ĂTRANGĂRES, sur les opĂ©rations militaires menĂ©es par la France, d'autres pays et l'ONU au Rwanda entre 1990 et 1994. Online posting. National Assembly of France. December 15, 1998.
172:
A French military co-operation team was openly acknowledged to be in Rwanda, and was thought to have included forty seven people. These people were attached to key units in the army and in the gendarmerie as "advisers" or "technical
94:
intended to restore the rights of Rwandan Tutsis both within Rwanda and exiled in neighboring countries following over four decades of anti-Tutsi violence. France provided arms and military training to Habyarimana's militias, the
167:
in France. The book also relates other forms of military assistance the government of France gave the Rwandan government, similar to what France was doing in many other African countries and part of the "Françafrique" politics:
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825:
See decision of the QuatorziĂšme Chambre du Tribunal de PremiĂšre Instance de Bruxelles on December 10, 2002. Jacques Bihozagara had sued the magazine African International Times for defamation in reporting this, but lost.
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A list of Rwandan officers prepared by Rwandan army officers within the Rwandan Ministry of Defense and dated March 5, 1994, shows three French nationals working as "technical assistants" in the reconnaissance
439:
In March of 2021 the commission finished their report, which found that while France bore responsibility for not breaking with the regime sooner, there was no evidence of French complicity in the genocide.
1488:
108:
406:, denied French responsibility in connection with the genocide but said that political errors had been made. Another BBC report delved into the motivations for the Rwandan report and stated that:
1698:
478:, who was also French foreign affairs minister during the 1994 genocide, tweeted that "implicating France in the Rwandan genocide is a disgrace and a historical distortion."
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the tasks that the Rwandan regime hired Barril for was to recover a pre-payment for a likely fraudulent arms delivery deal, that was stopped by the French authorities.
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317:. The report documented mixed success at disarming the Rwandan Army and militias, but a definite and systematic attempt (though not fast enough as far as then-General
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The suspicions about United Nations and French policies in Rwanda between 1990 and 1994 and allegations that France supported the Hutus led to the creation of a
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231:. The French abandoned their embassy in Kigali, in the process shredding hundreds of documents containing details of their relationship with the old regime.
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about the war crimes the RPF are alleged to have committed during and after 1994. While stressing there can be no equation between genocide and war crimes,
33:
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298:
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Aloys Ntabakuze was sentenced to life imprisonment for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes in 2008. He is appealing his sentence. (see
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acknowledged that France made "mistakes" during the genocide, although, according to a BBC report, he "stopped short of offering a full apology".
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989:
309:, which accused the French army of protecting the Hutus during the genocide, was instrumental in establishing this Parliamentary commission.
1844:
1778:
460:), created by three students of political science, the president of the parliamentary mission for information for Rwanda, former minister
66:, part of the international force supporting the relief effort for Rwandan refugees, adjusts the concertina wire surrounding the airport.
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490:, praised Macron's statements saying that it was "an act of tremendous courage", "more valuable than an apology" and "the truth".
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In the para-commandos, under Colonel Aloys Ntabakuze, there were four French nationals including a major in the French Army.
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In the Rwandan air corps, there were two French flying instructors, a navigator, an air traffic controller, and a mechanic.
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language of instruction in Rwandan schools "has even been switched from French to English"; and Rwanda strove to join the
1144:, Catherine Coquio, Association internationale de recherche sur les crimes contre l'humanité et les génocides (AIRCRIGE)"
1829:
1824:
302:
499:
163:
relationship with France, as the documents had been systematically destroyed by Colonel Sebastien Ntahobari, Rwanda's
984:, "L'honneur Ă jamais perdu de M. Mitterrand" (p.67-74) & "GĂ©nocide au Rwanda" (p.279-287), Neva Editions, 2019.
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genocide-inciting radio broadcasts, tasks which the UN and the United States had rejected calls for assistance with.
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As a result of these actions and subsequent tensions between the two governments, after a progressive rift with the
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1819:
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1376:
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of the opposing RPF forces was concerned, in documentation of the latter's communications with the French forces).
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intervening period Rwanda had closed its French embassy and purged personnel, precluding continuity of records.
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87:
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338:
236:
218:
151:
115:
83:
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395:
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in November 2006. President Kagame himself was not indicted, as he had immunity under French law as a
337:
Following an investigation of the plane crash of April 6, 1994 that killed both the Rwandan President
977:
1305:
195:(HRW) early after the genocide also reported on French armaments support for the regime. It states:
891:
795:
164:
1082:"France to throw open archives on Rwanda genocide to clarify its role 25 years after the massacre"
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1467:
1243:
416:
346:
192:
107:, which were among the government's primary means of operationalizing the genocide following the
1239:
953:
58:
1389:
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stated that "France asks to be pardoned by the people of Rwanda, but not by their government".
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1247:
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1207:
1089:
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656:
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383:
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and precipitated the genocide, and in which three French crew had also died, the French judge
228:
156:
91:
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1518:
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403:
387:
241:
75:
1165:
1666:
1661:
482:
468:
429:
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says RPF leaders do have a case to answer. "Their victims also deserve justice," she says.
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41:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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Near the end of the 100-day genocide, French troops were deployed to establish the
1381:"Twenty years after genocide France and Rwanda give different versions of history"
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Securing Human Rights?: Achievements and Challenges of the UN Security Council
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Guerre coloniale française et génocide rwandais : implication et négation
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78:
has been a source of controversy and debate both within and beyond France and
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genocide, including then-President Mitterrand and his then general secretary
200:
Rwanda during the years 1990 to 1994 were made "without following the rules."
796:"Génocide rwandais: le rapport sur le rÎle de la France remis à Paul Kagamé"
565:
269:
1053:"Macron appoints team to investigate French action during Rwandan genocide"
1026:"FRANCE RESETS AFRICAN RELATIONS: A POTENTIAL LESSON FOR PRESIDENT TRUMP"
812:
535:
449:
261:
1139:
1115:"France was not complicit in Rwandan genocide, Macron commission claims"
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957:
342:
245:
630:"Acknowledging Genocide » French Soldiers: A Private Initiative?"
253:
79:
71:
1402:
827:
1565:
301:, which published its report on December 15, 1998. In particular,
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1555:
249:
150:, documents released from the Paris archive of former president
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Parts of this article (those related to 2021 historians' report
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248:, and civilians in danger; from bases in the Zairian cities of
16:
France's role in assisting the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi
1180:"Macron asks Rwanda to forgive France over 1994 genocide role"
921:
240:, a UN-mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for
18:
1287:
A Thousand Hills: Rwanda's Rebirth and the Man Who Dreamed It
1213:
Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda
589:
587:
256:, the French entered southwestern Rwanda and established the
134:, thus becoming one of only two members that were not former
1489:
Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira
223:
During the first few days of the genocide, France launched
109:
assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira
436:, and the archives of then president François Mitterrand.
680:
678:
676:
474:
In April 2016, 2017 conservative presidential candidate,
82:. France actively supported the Hutu-led government of
1361:(2nd ed.). Kampala: Fountain Publishers Limited.
159:, this foreign policy was not referred to parliament.
467:
In 2010, during a visit to Rwanda, French President
1758:
1707:
1649:
1596:
1544:
1498:
1440:
954:"Rwanda accuses France directly over 1994 genocide"
888:"France took part in 1994 genocide: Rwandan report"
1329:
621:
619:
617:
615:
607:http://www.unictr.org/tabid/155/Default.aspx?id=10
1240:Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda
720:
197:
448:On November 27, 2004 in a televised debate on
353:indicted nine associates of Rwandan president
1418:
8:
1699:National Unity and Reconciliation Commission
146:In the analysis of investigative journalist
555:
553:
1694:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
1425:
1411:
1403:
1332:Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide
744:
625:
1588:Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines
526:
524:
299:French Parliamentary Commission on Rwanda
293:French Parliamentary Commission on Rwanda
287:French Parliamentary Commission on Rwanda
90:, which since 1990 had been engaged in a
1358:The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide
780:
402:commented that French Foreign Minister,
913:
911:
909:
890:. AFP. February 5, 2008. Archived from
863:"Spanish judge indicts Rwanda officers"
756:
708:
696:
684:
667:
593:
578:
510:
452:, after the showing of the French film
1003:"Rwanda report raises issue of motive"
791:
789:
768:
1146:. Pressafrique.com. December 14, 2005
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1045:
650:
648:
646:
644:
642:
640:
638:
428:In April of 2019 France's President,
305:, former president of the French NGO
7:
861:Tracy Wilkinson (February 7, 2008).
1267:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
918:"France accused in Rwanda genocide"
808:"France accused on Rwanda killings"
732:
532:"France admits genocide 'mistakes'"
234:In late June 1994, France launched
1304:McGreal, Chris (11 January 2007).
934:Rwanda: French accused in genocide
394:, and his chief aide at the time,
14:
952:Arthur Asiimwe (August 5, 2008).
1390:"UNAMIR â Historical Background"
1377:Radio France International (RFI)
828:http://www.inshuti.org/biloa.htm
76:1994 genocide against the Tutsi
23:
1113:Willsher, Kim (26 March 2021).
1001:Martin Plaut (August 5, 2008).
1453:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa
1:
842:. Afrik.com. October 31, 2001
424:President Macron's Commission
1080:Samuel, Henry (2019-04-05).
86:against the Tutsi-dominated
1336:. London and New York, NY:
1024:Genin, Aaron (2019-04-30).
982:Hallier Edernellement vĂŽtre
840:"Le Rwanda revient Ă Paris"
1866:
1657:Great Lakes refugee crisis
1261:Fassbender, Bardo (2011).
423:
290:
216:
1774:
303:François-Xavier Verschave
282:Subsequent investigations
1355:Prunier, GĂ©rard (1999).
1242:(Report). New York, NY:
798:, AFP, November 17, 2007
390:, then-Foreign Minister
1845:FranceâRwanda relations
1840:Peacekeeping operations
1684:Rwandan genocide denial
1604:Rwandan Patriotic Front
1463:Belgian colonial empire
1289:. London: Wiley Books.
500:FranceâRwanda relations
88:Rwandan Patriotic Front
1766:Double genocide theory
1745:Kwibuka T20 Tournament
1629:Operation Support Hope
1609:International response
421:
386:, then-Prime Minister
202:
67:
1388:United Nations (II).
1030:The California Review
444:Subsequent statements
408:
396:Dominique de Villepin
333:Kagame-ordered report
291:Further information:
61:
978:Jean-Pierre Thiollet
351:Jean-Louis BruguiĂšre
313:whatsoever from the
1830:Massacres in Rwanda
1825:Mass murder in 1994
1714:Genocide memorials
1641:UNSC Resolution 935
1619:Opération Turquoise
1119:www.theguardian.com
783:, pp. 479â521.
721:United Nations (II)
711:, pp. 186â187.
561:France and genocide
339:Juvénal Habyarimana
237:Opération Turquoise
219:Opération Turquoise
213:During the genocide
152:François Mitterrand
142:Before the genocide
84:Juvénal Habyarimana
1672:Massacres of Hutus
1468:Rwandan Revolution
1244:Human Rights Watch
1236:Des Forges, Alison
816:, October 24, 2006
699:, p. 285 286.
569:, August 8, 2008.
538:. 25 February 2010
417:Human Rights Watch
347:Cyprien Ntaryamira
193:Human Rights Watch
111:on April 6, 1994.
68:
1835:Military scandals
1820:History of Africa
1792:
1791:
1478:Rwandan Civil War
1458:Kingdom of Rwanda
1448:History of Rwanda
1379:(10 April 2014).
1368:978-9970-02-089-8
1347:978-1-85984-588-2
1306:"France's shame?"
1296:978-0-470-12015-6
1274:978-0-19-964149-9
1227:978-0-09-947893-5
990:978-2-35055-273-6
942:, August 6, 2008.
924:, August 5, 2008.
413:Alison Des Forges
242:displaced persons
157:French presidency
56:
55:
1857:
1805:Rwandan genocide
1679:Second Congo War
1491:
1434:Rwandan genocide
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559:Linda Melvern, "
557:
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404:Bernard Kouchner
388:Edouard Balladur
165:military attaché
136:British colonies
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27:
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1283:Kinzer, Stephen
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1234:
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1208:Dallaire, Roméo
1206:
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894:on July 8, 2009
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779:
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763:
755:
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745:Fassbender 2011
743:
739:
731:
727:
719:
715:
707:
703:
695:
691:
683:
674:
666:
662:
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626:Des Forges 1999
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592:
585:
577:
573:
558:
551:
541:
539:
530:
529:
522:
516:
512:
508:
496:
483:Emmanuel Macron
469:Nicolas Sarkozy
454:"Tuez les Tous"
446:
430:Emmanuel Macron
426:
376:Fernando Andreu
367:Kibeho Massacre
335:
295:
289:
284:
221:
215:
144:
52:
46:
43:
40:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1863:
1861:
1853:
1852:
1850:1994 in Rwanda
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1815:1994 in Africa
1812:
1807:
1797:
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1775:
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1750:Survivors Fund
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1625:United States
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1521:
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1508:
1506:Initial events
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1500:
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1483:Arusha Accords
1480:
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1400:
1385:
1373:
1367:
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1326:Melvern, Linda
1322:
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1279:
1273:
1258:
1252:
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1226:
1202:
1199:
1197:
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1069:
1041:
1016:
993:
970:
944:
939:New York Times
926:
905:
879:
853:
831:
818:
800:
785:
773:
761:
749:
737:
725:
713:
701:
689:
687:, p. 235.
672:
670:, p. 234.
660:
634:
611:
598:
596:, p. 120.
583:
571:
549:
520:
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384:Hubert VĂ©drine
334:
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315:United Nations
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258:zone Turquoise
229:Roméo Dallaire
217:Main article:
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116:Turquoise Zone
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1759:Historigraphy
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1708:Commemoration
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1571:Impuzamugambi
1569:
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1253:1-56432-171-1
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1086:The Telegraph
1083:
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868:
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832:
829:
822:
819:
815:
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801:
797:
792:
790:
786:
782:
781:Dallaire 2005
777:
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770:
765:
762:
758:
753:
750:
747:, p. 27.
746:
741:
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734:
729:
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622:
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612:
608:
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599:
595:
590:
588:
584:
581:, p. 58.
580:
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562:
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537:
533:
527:
525:
521:
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498:
497:
493:
491:
489:
484:
481:In May 2021,
479:
477:
472:
470:
465:
463:
459:
458:Kill Them All
455:
451:
443:
441:
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435:
431:
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359:head of state
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148:Linda Melvern
141:
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124:
119:
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112:
110:
106:
105:
104:Impuzamugambi
100:
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93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
65:
64:French marine
60:
50:
38:
35:) need to be
34:
30:
21:
20:
1779:Bibliography
1689:Gacaca court
1613:
1580:
1561:Genocidaires
1545:Perpetrators
1524:Musha Church
1393:. Retrieved
1357:
1331:
1314:. Retrieved
1310:The Guardian
1309:
1286:
1263:
1212:
1188:. Retrieved
1186:. 2021-05-27
1183:
1174:
1160:
1148:. Retrieved
1141:
1134:
1122:. Retrieved
1118:
1108:
1097:. Retrieved
1085:
1061:. Retrieved
1059:. 2019-04-05
1056:
1033:. Retrieved
1029:
1019:
1007:. Retrieved
996:
981:
973:
961:. Retrieved
947:
937:
929:
896:. Retrieved
892:the original
882:
870:. Retrieved
866:
856:
844:. Retrieved
834:
821:
811:
803:
776:
764:
757:McGreal 2007
752:
740:
728:
716:
709:Melvern 2004
704:
697:Prunier 1999
692:
685:Prunier 1999
668:Prunier 1999
663:
601:
594:Melvern 2004
579:Melvern 2004
574:
564:
540:. Retrieved
513:
480:
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235:
233:
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207:
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198:
191:A report by
190:
186:
173:assistants".
161:
145:
132:Commonwealth
120:
113:
102:
96:
70:The role of
69:
44:
36:
1784:Filmography
1576:Interahamwe
1218:Arrow Books
769:Kinzer 2008
488:Paul Kagame
476:Alain Juppé
462:Paul QuilĂšs
392:Alain Juppé
355:Paul Kagame
319:Paul Kagame
98:Interahamwe
1799:Categories
1515:Massacres
1511:Chronology
1473:Hutu Power
1441:Background
1395:2014-07-12
1316:9 February
1216:. London:
1201:References
1190:2022-04-06
1099:2019-05-01
1063:2019-05-01
1035:2019-05-01
1005:. BBC News
345:President
177:battalion.
123:Kagame-led
1650:Aftermath
1529:Nyarubuye
1166:"Twitter"
1094:0307-1235
1057:France 24
963:August 5,
846:March 15,
566:The Times
542:14 August
343:Burundian
275:Turquoise
270:Gikongoro
225:Amaryllis
1718:Bisesero
1597:Response
1328:(2004).
1312:. London
1285:(2008).
1238:(1999).
1210:(2005).
1184:BBC News
1124:26 March
1009:April 2,
898:April 2,
872:April 2,
867:LA Times
813:BBC News
733:RFI 2014
536:BBC News
494:See also
450:France 3
262:Cyangugu
246:refugees
92:conflict
47:May 2022
1738:Nyamata
1733:Ntarama
1728:Murambi
1582:Kangura
1554:by the
1519:Gikondo
1150:May 30,
958:Reuters
128:British
74:in the
37:updated
1723:Kigali
1636:UNAMIR
1614:France
1499:Events
1365:
1344:
1293:
1271:
1250:
1224:
1092:
988:
307:Survie
266:Kibuye
254:Bukavu
80:Rwanda
72:France
1566:Akazu
1338:Verso
506:Notes
130:-led
1556:ICTR
1536:Rape
1363:ISBN
1342:ISBN
1318:2013
1291:ISBN
1269:ISBN
1248:ISBN
1222:ISBN
1152:2011
1126:2021
1090:ISSN
1011:2009
986:ISBN
965:2008
900:2009
874:2009
848:2011
544:2013
434:DGSE
341:and
252:and
250:Goma
101:and
922:BBC
563:",
415:of
1801::
1340:.
1308:.
1246:.
1220:.
1182:.
1117:.
1088:.
1084:.
1072:^
1055:.
1044:^
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