506:, who moved to the University of Chicago in 1945. Westheimer applied the principles of statistical mechanics to the structure of organic molecules, to better understand the ways in which molecules are assembled from atoms. Westheimer first consulted Mayer about applying techniques from statistical mechanics to the racemization of optically active biphenyls. All of his calculations were worked out by hand. The work became a model for studies of other elements and is considered foundational. The field of
654:, also known as the "Westheimer Report", encouraged the federal government to increase spending on fundamental research in chemistry, to achieve parity with other physical sciences. It identified biochemistry as a promising and overlooked area for medical and pharmaceutical research. The report's recommendations were implemented, and it is still considered to be "comprehensive, definitive, and forward-looking".
703:"Over a span of four decades, Westheimer repeatedly demonstrated an ability to take up a fundamental scientific problem — one that appeared either insoluble or very difficult — and to solve it in an elegant and completely definitive way... He enjoyed going on to new challenges more than exploiting the large new areas that he had opened up."
592:
this route and the importance of stereochemical rearrangements of the intermediates. Westheimer developed a set of guidelines, based on experimental observations, also known as
Westheimer's rules. They have been widely used for describing and predicting the products and stereochemistry of substitution reactions involving phosphorus.
448:. Westheimer related electrostatics to their effects on the properties of organic compounds. Kirkwood and Westheimer published four classical papers developing fundamental ideas in enzymology about the theory of the electrostatic influence of substituents on the dissociation constants of organic acids. They developed a
591:
Westheimer also approached the reactions of phosphate transfer through mechanisms that involve five-coordinate intermediates. In 1968, Westheimer examined pseudorotation in phosphate ester chemistry and predicted the occurrence of pseudo-rotation of oxyphosphoranes. He showed the significance of
679:
As well as emphasizing the need for fundamental research, Westheimer was concerned about other political issues. He argued against wars in
Vietnam and Iraq. He was aware of environmental issues, supporting measures to decrease pollution, combat global warming, increase energy conservation, and
528:
to explain how the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase removed hydrogen from the alcohol molecule, enabling the body to metabolize alcohol. The researchers published two classic papers in 1953, "the first demonstration of the enzymatic discrimination between the two enantiotopic hydrogen atoms on the
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615:. The singly ionized form in the phosphodiester linkages of nucleic acids resists being hydrolyzed by water, but is not so stable that it won't undergo enzymatic hydrolysis. This work continues to challenge and inspire researchers studying biological chemistry and reactions in
329:
in 1986 "For his series of extraordinary, original and penetrating investigations of the mechanisms of organic and enzymic reactions, which have played an unequaled role in the advancement of our knowledge of the ways in which chemical and biochemical processes proceed."
424:
from 1953 to 1983. He served as chairman of the chemistry department at
Harvard from 1959 to 1962. He became the Morris Loeb Professor of Chemistry at Harvard in 1960. He retired from teaching to become Professor Emeritus in 1983, and retired from research in 1988.
537:, the enantiotopic and diastereotopic relationships between groups (or atoms) within molecules. In 2006, their 1953 paper (part I) received a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of the History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society.
384:
Westheimer completed his Ph.D. with E.P. Kohler. Although
Westheimer described Kohler's organic chemistry class as "marvelous", Kohler gave Westheimer little direction or feedback about his research, which was largely self-directed. Another of Kohler's students,
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of the active site of proteins. The identification of the "active sites" of an enzyme is difficult in cases where proteins have hydrocarbon-rich sites. In 1962, Westheimer and others demonstrated the synthesis of p-nitrophenyl diazoacetate and the subsequent
524:. Vennesland and Fisher's results were puzzling in that a specific hydrogen in the pair at C1 in ethanol appeared to be uniquely reactive in the presence of the enzyme. Westheimer joined the project and helped develop an explanation based on the idea of
380:"The notion that Conant essentially was saying, 'Well, that problem is all right, but good God, you can do better,' was very important to me. From then on, I tried to ask myself about problems, whether they were really worth the investment of time."
552:
He proposed that ATP transfers phosphate through a reactive monomeric metaphosphate species. While this did not turn out to be the literal case, many enzymic reactions do proceed through transition states that have this as a significant component.
1859:
Wang, Yong; Kumar, Devesh; Yang, Chuanlu; Han, Keli; Shaik, Sason (July 2007). "Theoretical Study of -Demethylation of
Substituted -Dimethylanilines by Cytochrome P450: The Mechanistic Significance of Kinetic Isotope Effect Profiles".
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methylene carbon atom of ethanol." The phenomenon they reported was not named enantiospecificity until much later. Westheimer designed additional experiments that proved their initial conjecture and established the isotope-based
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The
Westheimer medal was established in his honor in 2002. The medal is awarded by Harvard University "for distinguished research into the field of chemistry", particularly in the areas of organic and biological chemistry.
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In 1933, Conant became president of
Harvard in 1933 and ceased doing research. Nonetheless, Conant's interactions with Westheimer had a lasting effect, impressing Westheimer with the need "to do important things".
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approached
Westheimer about a project she and her student Harvey Fisher were doing, involving isotopes in enzyme reactions. Vennesland had developed a project involving the fate of hydrogen atoms in
549:. He continued his interest in reaction mechanisms, isotopes and oxidation. In 1955, Westheimer published the first of many articles on the chemistry of phosphate esters and phosphorus derivatives.
283:, applying techniques from physical to organic chemistry and integrating the two fields. He explored the mechanisms of chemical and enzymatic reactions, and made fundamental theoretical advances.
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on dipole substituted acids, showing that they could coexist in the same physical world. Elaborations and fuller testing of their ideas have required forty years and the development of computers.
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In a 1961 article, Westheimer applied ideas from statistical mechanics to the effects of isotopic substitution on the reactivity of organic molecules. His work on the magnitude of
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reactions. He hesitated to discuss his work on the triphenyl carbinol series with physical chemists because of the secrecy requirements of the project. Other researchers such as
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437:, from 1936 to 1937. He became an instructor in 1937 and a Professor in 1948. As a lecturer in chemistry he taught the university's first course in physical organic chemistry.
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group into a bifunctional reagent enabled it to react with the enzyme. The photolabel generated a reactive carbenoid species capable of inserting into hydrocarbon C-H bonds.
276:
from 1953 to 1983, becoming the Morris Loeb
Professor of Chemistry in 1960, and Professor Emeritus in 1983. The Westheimer medal was established in his honor in 2002.
564:
structure's dependence on the kinetic isotope effect is known as the
Westheimer Effect. The standard nontunnelling approach to KIEs is developed from Westheimer and
360:. When told that Conant would not take on new students, Westheimer outwaited him and was finally accepted as his last graduate student. Westheimer did some work on
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Glad, Sanne Schrøder; Jensen, Frank (January 1997). "Kinetic Isotope Effects and Transition State Geometries. A Theoretical Investigation of E2 Model Systems".
7104:
601:, "Why nature chose phosphates", discusses the importance of phosphates as signaling and building blocks for living organisms. Phosphates possess a value of
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develop alternative energy sources. He advocated that science needed to be taught in new ways, to better educate nonscientists about scientific issues.
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Westheimer, F. H.; Kirkwood, J. G. (September 1938). "The Electrostatic Influence of Substituents on the Dissociation Constants of Organic Acids. II".
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Kirkwood, J. G.; Westheimer, F. H. (September 1938). "The Electrostatic Influence of Substituents on the Dissociation Constants of Organic Acids. I".
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Westheimer, F. H.; Fisher, Harvey F.; Conn, Eric E.; Vennesland, Birgit (May 1951). "The enzymatic transfer of hydrogen from alcohol to DPN".
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Agmon, Noam (1985). "Extensions of the Melander-Westheimer Postulate: Isotope Effects in Reactions with Equilibrium Values Far from Unity".
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1450:
Hursthouse, M. B.; Moss, G. P.; Sales, K. D. (1978). "Chapter 3. Theoretical chemistry: Applications of molecular mechanics calculations".
948:"The Stereochemistry and Reaction Mechanism of Dehydrogenases and Their Coenzymes, DPN (NAD) and TPN (NADP): the Work of Birgit Vennesland"
338:
Frank Henry Westheimer was born on January 15, 1912, to Henry F. Westheimer (1870–1960) and Carrie C (Burgunder) Westheimer (1887–1972) of
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In 1943, Westheimer began publishing on the mechanisms of chromic acid oxidations, publishing a "masterly review" of the area in 1949.
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Westheimer, F. H.; Mayer, Joseph E. (December 1946). "The Theory of the Racemization of Optically Active Derivatives of Diphenyl".
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Frank H. Westheimer was married in 1937 to Jeanne E. Friedman. They had two children, Ellen Westheimer and Ruth Susan Westheimer.
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568:. The Melander-Westheimer postulate has successfully predicted the ways in which KIEs and transition state (TS) structures vary.
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Westheimer, F. H. (1 June 1961). "The Magnitude of the Primary Kinetic Isotope Effect for Compounds of Hydrogen and Deuterium".
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Frank H. Westheimer, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Leon Gortler at Harvard University on 4 and 5 January 1979
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Frank H. Westheimer, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Leon Gortler at Harvard University on 4 and 5 January 1979
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Kohler, E. P.; Westheimer, F. H.; Tishler, M. (February 1936). "Hydroxy Furans. I. Beta Hydroxy Triphenylfuran".
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at Conant's suggestion. Conant also suggested that Westheimer work during the summer with Alsoph Corwin at
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Laitinen, Herbert A. (March 1966). "Editorial. The Westheimer Report: Where is Analytical Chemistry?".
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He chaired the National Academy of Sciences Committee for the Survey of Chemistry from 1964 to 1965.
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Benner, Steven; Corey, Elias J. (2018). "Frank Henry Westheimer. 15 January 1912—14 April 2007".
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Ault, Addison (September 2008). "Frank Westheimer's Early Demonstration of Enzymatic Specificity".
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to form diazoacetylchymotrypsin, which was then photolyzed. The introduction of an aliphatic
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353:, where he earned his masters in chemistry in 1933 and his doctorate in chemistry in 1935.
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taught there. Westheimer worked with Kirkwood on problems in organic chemistry involving
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Westheimer's first academic appointment was an independent Research Associateship at the
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1554:"The Enzymatic Transfer of Hydrogen. II. The Reaction Catalyzed by Lactic Dehydrogenase"
1513:"The Enzymatic Transfer of Hydrogen. I. The Reaction Catalyzed by Alcohol Dehydrogenase"
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in 1988; the Repligen Award for the Chemistry of Biological Processes in 1992; and the
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for two terms, from 1973 to 1975 and 1976-1978, as well as being a Councillor of the
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In 1953, soon after completing the work on alcohol dehydrogenase, Westheimer moved to
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in 1980, the Robert A. Welch Foundation Award in 1982, the Golden Plate Award of the
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2668:"New chemistry medal is established: Named for professor emeritus Frank Westheimer"
1391:"Chemistry Dept. Shapes Venture in Biochemistry Bloch, Westheimer Named Professors"
830:"New chemistry medal is established: Named for professor emeritus Frank Westheimer"
581:
468:
315:
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Loewus, F. A.; Ofner, P.; Fisher, H.F.; Westheimer, F. H.; Vennesland, B. (1953).
1193:"The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details Frank H. Westheimer"
2179:
Kamerlin, Shina C. L.; Sharma, Pankaz K.; Prasad, Ram B.; Warshel, Arieh (2013).
1658:"Biological Phosphoryl-Transfer Reactions: Understanding Mechanism and Catalysis"
456:. Their Kirkwood-Westheimer model for an ellipsoid cavity reconciles the work of
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Reich, Hans J.; Hondal, Robert J. (21 March 2016). "Why Nature Chose Selenium".
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Westheimer, F. H. (December 1949). "The Mechanisms of Chromic Acid Oxidations".
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2362:"Jews elected to foreign membership in the British Royal Society, 1901-Present"
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2715:"Frank Westheimer, 95, Who Developed Model Valuable in Biochemistry, Dies"
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Lassila, Jonathan K.; Zalatan, Jesse G.; Herschlag, Daniel (7 July 2011).
1426:"Frank Westheimer, 95, Who Developed Model Valuable in Biochemistry, Dies"
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2695:"Frank H. Westheimer, major figure in 20th century chemistry, dies at 95"
1463:
913:"Frank H. Westheimer, major figure in 20th century chemistry, dies at 95"
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2079:
Chemical Biology of Nucleic Acids Fundamentals and Clinical Applications
2021:
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1143:
1113:
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Simoni, Robert D.; Hill, Robert L.; Vaughan, Martha (January 16, 2004).
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Erdmann, Volker A.; Markiewicz, Wojciech T.; Barciszewski, Jan (2014).
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synthesis with Corwin, Westheimer gained needed laboratory experience.
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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Fisher, H. F.; Conn, E. E.; Vennesland, B.; Westheimer, F. H. (1953).
1086:
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2530:"Frank H. Westheimer among winners of the National Medal of Science"
2432:"Westheimer Report Seeks Increase In Spending for Chemical Research"
762:"Frank Henry Westheimer: The celebration of a lifetime in chemistry"
1897:"Photoaffinity labeling in target- and binding-site identification"
867:"The beginnings of physical organic chemistry in the United States"
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1812:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press. p.
1333:. Vol. 6, no. 10. Columbia University. 7 November 1980
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Repligen Corporation Award in Chemistry of Biological Processes
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475:. He was a supervisor at the Explosives Research Laboratory in
2508:"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement"
2136:
Westheimer, FH (6 March 1987). "Why nature chose phosphates".
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99:
2726:
Wang, Linda (23 April 2007). "Frank Westheimer dies at 95".
2082:(Aufl. 2014 ed.). Berlin: Springer Verlag. p. 43.
1480:
Perspectives on structure and mechanism in organic chemistry
612:
110:
Mechanisms of enzyme catalysis, and kinetic isotope effects
2048:. Vol. 25. London: Academic Press. pp. 122–139.
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Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
1946:
Singh, A; Thornton, ER; Westheimer, FH (September 1962).
691:
in 1981, the U.S. National Medal of Science in 1986, the
560:(KIEs) is still the basis of understanding in the field.
1483:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley. p. 135.
1996:"Pseudo-rotation in the hydrolysis of phosphate esters"
611:
that allows them to be doubly ionized at physiological
533:
of enzymes. This work was essential to understanding
356:
Westheimer came to Harvard hoping to do research with
494:
Westheimer was also influenced by the development of
2388:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
264:(January 15, 1912 – April 14, 2007) was an American
7130:
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
7031:
7010:
6795:
6443:
6292:
6141:
5962:
5768:
5616:
5535:
5437:
5326:
5237:
5158:
5086:
5028:
4937:
4829:
4720:
4601:
4496:
4407:
4299:
4153:
4029:
4010:
3906:
3715:
3529:
3347:
3203:
3066:
3008:
2949:
2861:
2821:
2802:
237:
221:
207:
197:
114:
106:
78:
59:
37:
21:
1805:
1808:Visions of the future: chemistry and life science
661:'s science advisory committee from 1967 to 1970.
5077:Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences
685:U.S. National Academy Award in Chemical Sciences
2483:"Welch Award in ChemistryPast Award Recipients"
2230:"Why nature chose phosphate to modify proteins"
701:
471:, from 1943 to 1945, Westheimer worked for the
378:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
7145:Members of the American Philosophical Society
6765:
6519:
2762:
1708:Kohen, Amnon; Limbach, Hans-Heinrich (2006).
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1125:
1123:
510:, as it is now known, has wide applications.
8:
1632:"Citations for Chemical Breakthrough Awards"
440:During Westheimer's second year at Chicago,
2659:Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry
2626:A Conversation with Fred W. McLafferty 2006
1948:"The photolysis of diazoacetylchymotrypsin"
1895:Smith, Ewan; Collins, Ian (February 2015).
1255:Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry
1022:
1020:
6772:
6758:
6750:
6526:
6512:
6504:
5613:
5602:
5083:
5072:
4493:
4482:
4007:
3996:
3063:
3052:
2799:
2788:
2769:
2755:
2747:
2629:, 90 minute video, for Cornell University.
1714:. Boca Raton, Fla.: Taylor & Francis.
1452:Annu. Rep. Prog. Chem., Sect. B: Org. Chem
1157:
1155:
1153:
984:
982:
516:In 1950, University of Chicago biochemist
396:, Westheimer worked with physical chemist
29:
18:
2574:
2253:
2204:
2011:
1963:
1922:
1681:
1569:
1528:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1350:
1348:
963:
860:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
777:
755:
753:
483:, discovering a new acidity function for
1711:Isotope effects in chemistry and biology
1703:
1701:
1301:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1102:Journal of the American Chemical Society
941:
939:
937:
935:
933:
751:
749:
747:
745:
743:
741:
739:
737:
735:
733:
664:Westheimer served on the Council of the
404:. Hammett was a founder of the field of
2778:United States National Medal of Science
2623:McLafferty, Fred W.; Abruña, Héctor D.
1591:
1589:
1358:Introduction to computational chemistry
1060:
1058:
906:
904:
902:
900:
898:
896:
894:
823:
821:
729:
683:Among Westheimer's many honors are the
2666:Cromie, William J. (October 3, 2002).
2045:Advances in physical organic chemistry
1187:
1185:
828:Cromie, William J. (October 3, 2002).
1674:10.1146/annurev-biochem-060409-092741
874:Bulletin for the History of Chemistry
674:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
657:Westheimer was a member of President
643:in 1976, and a foreign member of the
7:
7120:Foreign members of the Royal Society
1636:Division of the History of Chemistry
1327:"Chandler Medal to Frank Westheimer"
1268:Hargittai, István (September 2002).
799:
797:
795:
793:
791:
789:
7105:National Medal of Science laureates
2181:"Why nature really chose phosphate"
1952:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
1862:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B
952:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
491:were first to publish in the area.
473:National Defense Research Committee
1994:Westheimer, F.H.. (January 1968).
1389:Saxe, Robert L. (April 27, 1954).
672:(1981-1984), and Secretary of the
652:Chemistry: Opportunities and Needs
635:Westheimer became a member of the
571:Westheimer introduced the idea of
279:Westheimer did pioneering work in
14:
2713:Pearce, Jeremy (April 21, 2007).
2559:"ACS 1988 National Award Winners"
1846:Isotope Effects on Reaction Rates
1424:Pearce, Jeremy (April 21, 2007).
314:and determined the mechanisms of
2648:Gortler, Leon (5 January 1979).
2458:"NAS Award in Chemical Sciences"
1744:The Journal of Organic Chemistry
1244:Gortler, Leon (5 January 1979).
394:National Research Council Fellow
2728:Chemical & Engineering News
2693:Corey, E. J. (April 19, 2007).
2563:Chemical & Engineering News
2516:American Academy of Achievement
2185:Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics
1067:The Journal of Chemical Physics
1029:The Journal of Chemical Physics
991:The Journal of Chemical Physics
911:Corey, E. J. (April 19, 2007).
689:American Academy of Achievement
7095:20th-century American chemists
670:American Philosophical Society
641:American Philosophical Society
460:on dibasic acids with that of
133:NAS Award in Chemical Sciences
1:
6818:Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar
2793:Behavioral and social science
2228:Hunter, T. (13 August 2012).
2111:"Why nature chose phosphates"
2000:Accounts of Chemical Research
1965:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)60265-0
1662:Annual Review of Biochemistry
1598:Journal of Chemical Education
1571:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)66182-4
1530:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)66181-2
965:10.1016/S0021-9258(20)73581-7
306:; explored the mechanisms of
2462:National Academy of Sciences
2317:National Academy of Sciences
779:10.1016/0045-2068(92)90038-5
666:National Academy of Sciences
637:National Academy of Sciences
212:National Academy of Sciences
2601:. American Chemical Society
1804:Thompson, J. M. T. (2001).
1779:Israel Journal of Chemistry
1197:National Science Foundation
595:Westheimer's 1987 paper in
420:from 1936 to 1954, and at
272:from 1936 to 1954, and at
7161:
7140:21st-century American Jews
7135:20th-century American Jews
7110:Harvard University faculty
7100:Jewish American scientists
6850:William Alexander Gambling
5681:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
2393:doi:10.1098/rsbm.2018.0009
2291:10.1021/acschembio.6b00031
1902:Future Medicinal Chemistry
1477:Carroll, Felix A. (2010).
452:electrostatic analysis of
406:physical organic chemistry
294:electrostatic analysis of
281:physical organic chemistry
202:Physical organic chemistry
6541:
5612:
5601:
5082:
5071:
4656:William Hayward Pickering
4492:
4481:
4006:
3995:
3062:
3051:
2798:
2787:
2740:10.1021/cen-v085n017.p010
2640:Science History Institute
2633:Center for Oral History.
2576:10.1021/cen-v065n035.p048
2197:10.1017/S0033583512000157
1848:. New York: Ronald Press.
865:Roberts, John D. (1996).
811:Science History Institute
804:Center for Oral History.
639:in 1954, a member of the
416:Westheimer taught at the
327:National Medal of Science
255:
190:
168:National Medal of Science
28:
7115:Dartmouth College alumni
6105:Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.
5551:S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan
3182:Burrhus Frederic Skinner
366:Johns Hopkins University
349:in 1932. He went on to
334:Early life and education
161:William H. Nichols Medal
154:Welch Award in Chemistry
71:Cambridge, Massachusetts
6732:Wilfred A. van der Donk
5416:Cathleen Synge Morawetz
3334:George Ledyard Stebbins
3255:James Augustine Shannon
2158:10.1126/science.2434996
1844:Melander, Lars (1960).
1274:Chemistry International
558:kinetic isotope effects
392:In 1935 and 1936, as a
320:kinetic isotope effects
286:Westheimer worked with
6840:Malcolm Ferguson-Smith
5873:Joseph O. Hirschfelder
5860:Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
4816:Harry George Drickamer
4762:Hans Wolfgang Liepmann
4436:M. Frederick Hawthorne
4310:John D. Baldeschwieler
3550:Daniel E. Koshland Jr.
3232:Earl W. Sutherland Jr.
2246:10.1098/rstb.2012.0013
1791:10.1002/ijch.198500122
1355:Jensen, Frank (2008).
709:
573:photoaffinity labeling
477:Bruceton, Pennsylvania
382:
302:on the calculation of
262:Frank Henry Westheimer
7064:Frank Westheimer
6708:David W. Christianson
6464:Sylvester James Gates
5850:William Alfred Fowler
5832:Robert Rathbun Wilson
5645:Robert Burns Woodward
4457:Geraldine L. Richmond
4205:Howard E. Simmons Jr.
3488:Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
3417:Vernon B. Mountcastle
3273:Sterling B. Hendricks
3090:Marshall W. Nirenberg
3085:Theodosius Dobzhansky
2933:William Julius Wilson
2635:"Frank H. Westheimer"
2313:"Frank H. Westheimer"
1361:. Chichester: Wiley.
806:"Frank H. Westheimer"
760:Zerner, Burt (1992).
522:alcohol dehydrogenase
496:statistical mechanics
479:. He did research on
435:University of Chicago
429:University of Chicago
418:University of Chicago
270:University of Chicago
7046:G. Evelyn Hutchinson
7040:Anatole Abragam
6937:Michael J. D. Powell
6823:Pierre Deslongchamps
6624:Christopher T. Walsh
6435:Warren M. Washington
6399:Fay Ajzenberg-Selove
6308:Jeremiah P. Ostriker
6253:Martin Schwarzschild
6034:Solomon J. Buchsbaum
6026:J. Robert Schrieffer
5996:E. Margaret Burbidge
5840:Nicolaas Bloembergen
5817:Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
5696:Vladimir K. Zworykin
5448:John Griggs Thompson
5371:Martin David Kruskal
5211:Kurt Otto Friedrichs
4684:Erwin Wilhelm Müller
4638:Ralph Brazelton Peck
4593:Jack St. Clair Kilby
4520:John Robinson Pierce
4487:Engineering sciences
4418:Jacqueline K. Barton
4273:George M. Whitesides
4192:Dudley R. Herschbach
4130:Richard B. Bernstein
4099:Walter H. Stockmayer
3647:Elizabeth F. Neufeld
3578:G. Evelyn Hutchinson
3468:Stanley Norman Cohen
3455:Rita Levi-Montalcini
3291:Keith Roberts Porter
3154:Alfred H. Sturtevant
3149:Michael Heidelberger
3121:Fritz Albert Lipmann
2657:. Philadelphia, PA:
2487:The Welch Foundation
2406:Analytical Chemistry
2342:search.amphilsoc.org
2338:"APS Member History"
2279:ACS Chemical Biology
2115:The Curious Waveform
2042:Bethell, D. (1989).
1464:10.1039/OC9787500023
1253:. Philadelphia, PA:
766:Bioorganic Chemistry
504:Maria Goeppert-Mayer
442:John Gamble Kirkwood
288:John Gamble Kirkwood
268:. He taught at the
147:Arthur C. Cope Award
6582:Frank H. Westheimer
6564:Stephen J. Benkovic
6485:Shirley Ann Jackson
6404:Charles P. Slichter
6248:Marshall Rosenbluth
6240:Wallace S. Broecker
6193:Eugene M. Shoemaker
5954:Victor F. Weisskopf
5901:Herbert S. Gutowsky
5883:Edgar Bright Wilson
5724:George Kistiakowsky
5342:Stephen Cole Kleene
4853:George H. Heilmeier
4840:Mildred Dresselhaus
4731:Edward H. Heinemann
4661:Frederick E. Terman
4625:Richard T. Whitcomb
4546:Clarence L. Johnson
4507:Theodore von Kármán
4394:Stephen J. Benkovic
4373:Mostafa A. El-Sayed
4360:Marvin H. Caruthers
4315:Ralph F. Hirschmann
4255:Darleane C. Hoffman
4145:Harden M. McConnell
4086:Frank H. Westheimer
3898:Stanley B. Prusiner
3862:Robert J. Lefkowitz
3621:Howard Martin Temin
3478:Maurice R. Hilleman
3473:Joseph L. Goldstein
3412:Donald A. Henderson
3329:Earl Reece Stadtman
3314:Elizabeth C. Crosby
3278:Orville Alvin Vogel
3108:Donald D. Van Slyke
3057:Biological sciences
2672:The Harvard Gazette
2512:www.achievement.org
2436:The Harvard Crimson
2418:10.1021/ac60235a600
2240:(1602): 2513–2516.
2150:1987Sci...235.1173W
2117:. February 23, 2009
2022:10.1021/ar50003a002
1610:2008JChEd..85.1246A
1395:The Harvard Crimson
1313:10.1021/ja01293a020
1176:10.1021/cr60211a004
1144:10.1021/cr60142a002
1114:10.1021/ja01149a561
1079:1946JChPh..14..733W
1041:1938JChPh...6..513W
1003:1938JChPh...6..506K
834:The Harvard Gazette
647:of London in 1983.
508:molecular mechanics
500:Joseph Edward Mayer
402:Columbia University
358:James Bryant Conant
340:Baltimore, Maryland
304:molecular mechanics
300:Joseph Edward Mayer
228:James Bryant Conant
126:Willard Gibbs Award
52:Baltimore, Maryland
7058:Henry Stommel
7018:David Attenborough
6885:Christopher Hooley
6678:Hung-Wen (Ben) Liu
6636:Rowena G. Matthews
6618:David S. Eisenberg
6600:W. Wallace Cleland
6570:Harold A. Scheraga
6357:G. Brent Dalrymple
6175:Arthur L. Schawlow
6082:James A. Van Allen
5973:Philip W. Anderson
5929:Richard P. Feynman
5855:Linus Carl Pauling
5490:Dennis P. Sullivan
5047:John B. Goodenough
4980:Edwin N. Lightfoot
4948:Yuan-Cheng B. Fung
4929:Kenneth N. Stevens
4697:Raymond D. Mindlin
4620:Harold E. Edgerton
4465:A. Paul Alivisatos
4344:Stephen J. Lippard
4323:Ernest R. Davidson
4260:Harold S. Johnston
4094:William S. Johnson
4058:George C. Pimentel
3893:Susan L. Lindquist
3875:Francis S. Collins
3769:Victor A. McKusick
3744:Francisco J. Ayala
3726:Nancy C. Andreasen
3676:Robert A. Weinberg
3450:Har Gobind Khorana
3435:Michael E. DeBakey
3422:George Emil Palade
3394:Wendell L. Roelofs
3384:Howard L. Bachrach
3214:Barbara McClintock
3116:Edward F. Knipling
2719:The New York Times
2438:. December 4, 1965
1915:10.4155/fmc.14.152
1618:10.1021/ed085p1246
1430:The New York Times
1270:"Candid Chemistry"
547:Harvard University
541:Harvard University
489:Christopher Ingold
422:Harvard University
351:Harvard University
345:He graduated from
274:Harvard University
216:Harvard University
92:Harvard University
7072:
7071:
7023:Margaret Thatcher
6992:Charles Weissmann
6875:Richard Henderson
6747:
6746:
6720:John S. Blanchard
6696:Richard Armstrong
6606:William P. Jencks
6594:Judith P. Klinman
6588:Jeremy R. Knowles
6576:William W. Parson
6501:
6500:
6497:
6496:
6493:
6492:
6430:Esther M. Conwell
6370:Robert N. Clayton
6362:Riccardo Giacconi
6326:Raymond Davis Jr.
6214:Albert Overhauser
6157:Edwin M. McMillan
6118:Arnold O. Beckman
6095:Paul Ching-Wu Chu
6072:Paul C. Lauterbur
6049:Robert Hofstadter
6001:Maurice Goldhaber
5988:Charles H. Townes
5939:Edward M. Purcell
5906:Frederick Rossini
5760:Wolfgang Panofsky
5691:John H. Van Vleck
5607:Physical sciences
5597:
5596:
5593:
5592:
5559:Solomon W. Golomb
5519:Andrew J. Viterbi
5514:Leonard Kleinrock
5461:Calyampudi R. Rao
5429:Ronald R. Coifman
5337:George F. Carrier
5318:Donald C. Spencer
5313:Saunders Mac Lane
5248:Marshall H. Stone
5198:Shiing-Shen Chern
5105:Solomon Lefschetz
5067:
5066:
5063:
5062:
5004:David J. Wineland
4972:John M. Prausnitz
4913:C. Kumar N. Patel
4908:James L. Flanagan
4876:John Roy Whinnery
4863:H. Guyford Stever
4845:Nick Holonyak Jr.
4808:George W. Housner
4803:Willis M. Hawkins
4798:Daniel C. Drucker
4780:Robert Byron Bird
4772:Bernard M. Oliver
4679:Peter C. Goldmark
4666:Wernher von Braun
4612:George E. Mueller
4585:Nathan M. Newmark
4580:J. Presper Eckert
4559:Claude E. Shannon
4528:Charles S. Draper
4477:
4476:
4473:
4472:
4444:Judith P. Klinman
4328:Gábor A. Somorjai
4239:Isabella L. Karle
4226:George S. Hammond
4187:Gertrude B. Elion
4140:Rudolph A. Marcus
3991:
3990:
3987:
3986:
3917:Ralph L. Brinster
3836:Torsten N. Wiesel
3813:Norman E. Borlaug
3800:Solomon H. Snyder
3795:J. Michael Bishop
3754:Mario R. Capecchi
3634:Salome G. Waelsch
3565:E. Donnall Thomas
3440:Theodor O. Diener
3339:Paul Alfred Weiss
3167:Bernard B. Brodie
3103:George G. Simpson
3047:
3046:
3043:
3042:
2992:Michael I. Posner
2893:Eleanor J. Gibson
2845:George J. Stigler
2813:Neal Elgar Miller
2599:"Nakanishi Prize"
1874:10.1021/jp072347v
1868:(26): 7700–7710.
1756:10.1021/jo9618379
1368:978-0-470-01186-7
1331:University Record
1087:10.1063/1.1724095
1049:10.1063/1.1750303
1011:10.1063/1.1750302
705:Elias James Corey
631:Awards and honors
518:Birgit Vennesland
347:Dartmouth College
312:Birgit Vennesland
259:
258:
246:Roberta F. Colman
238:Doctoral students
192:Scientific career
83:Dartmouth College
7152:
6774:
6767:
6760:
6751:
6690:Ronald T. Raines
6672:Michael Marletta
6612:James A. Spudich
6558:Robert H. Abeles
6552:Thomas C. Bruice
6528:
6521:
6514:
6505:
6313:Gilbert F. White
6258:George Wetherill
6152:Allan M. Cormack
6110:Jack Steinberger
6090:D. Allan Bromley
6039:H. Richard Crane
6016:Frederick Reines
6006:Helmut Landsberg
5921:George Uhlenbeck
5822:Vladimir Haensel
5784:Allan R. Sandage
5755:Herbert C. Brown
5737:Herbert Friedman
5663:Leon M. Lederman
5635:Julian Schwinger
5614:
5603:
5572:Alexandre Chorin
5546:Richard A. Tapia
5527:David B. Mumford
5355:Alberto Calderón
5300:Joseph B. Keller
5287:Michael Freedman
5256:Herman Goldstine
5110:H. Marston Morse
5084:
5073:
5012:Rudolf E. Kálmán
4996:Robert S. Langer
4988:Jan D. Achenbach
4821:Herbert E. Grier
4572:Igor I. Sikorsky
4533:Othmar H. Ammann
4494:
4483:
4449:Jerrold Meinwald
4218:Norman Hackerman
4197:Glenn T. Seaborg
4112:William O. Baker
4040:F. Albert Cotton
4008:
3997:
3974:Mary-Claire King
3867:Bert W. O'Malley
3823:Thomas E. Starzl
3818:Phillip A. Sharp
3805:Charles Yanofsky
3787:Evelyn M. Witkin
3782:James E. Darnell
3608:Paul C. Zamecnik
3573:Mary Ellen Avery
3545:Herbert W. Boyer
3540:Baruj Benacerraf
3511:Joshua Lederberg
3501:Viktor Hamburger
3463:Michael S. Brown
3309:Robert H. Burris
3064:
3053:
3000:Mortimer Mishkin
2925:William K. Estes
2909:Roger N. Shepard
2901:Robert K. Merton
2885:George A. Miller
2832:Herbert A. Simon
2800:
2789:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2748:
2743:
2722:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2662:
2656:
2644:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2578:
2569:(35): 48. 1987.
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2539:. March 12, 1986
2534:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2401:
2395:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2358:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2257:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2208:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2144:(4793): 1173–8.
2133:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2015:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1967:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1926:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1811:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1705:
1696:
1695:
1685:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1593:
1584:
1583:
1573:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1532:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1421:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1352:
1343:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1296:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1252:
1241:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1189:
1180:
1179:
1164:Chemical Reviews
1159:
1148:
1147:
1132:Chemical Reviews
1127:
1118:
1117:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1062:
1053:
1052:
1024:
1015:
1014:
986:
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845:
844:
842:
840:
825:
816:
815:
801:
784:
783:
781:
757:
562:Transition state
454:carboxylic acids
398:Louis P. Hammett
325:He received the
308:enzyme catalysis
296:carboxylic acids
250:Steven A. Benner
223:Doctoral advisor
186:
179:
172:
165:
158:
151:
144:
140:Rosenstiel Award
137:
130:
123:
66:
48:January 15, 1912
47:
45:
33:
23:Frank Westheimer
19:
16:American chemist
7160:
7159:
7155:
7154:
7153:
7151:
7150:
7149:
7075:
7074:
7073:
7068:
7052:Jean Leray
7027:
7006:
7002:Dudley Williams
6912:C David Marsden
6855:Ian Graham Gass
6829:William Douglas
6808:Patrick Bateson
6791:
6778:
6748:
6743:
6738:Michael H. Gelb
6666:Vern L. Schramm
6642:C. Dale Poulter
6537:
6532:
6502:
6489:
6477:Sean C. Solomon
6439:
6391:Daniel Kleppner
6383:Lonnie Thompson
6378:Ralph A. Alpher
6344:W. Jason Morgan
6331:Charles Keeling
6321:Marvin L. Cohen
6288:
6271:John N. Bahcall
6266:Don L. Anderson
6232:Peter Goldreich
6185:Steven Weinberg
6137:
6067:Walter Elsasser
6044:Herman Feshbach
5958:
5896:Samuel Goudsmit
5888:Chien-Shiung Wu
5827:Frederick Seitz
5794:John A. Wheeler
5779:Robert H. Dicke
5764:
5627:Luis W. Alvarez
5608:
5589:
5577:David Blackwell
5531:
5482:Carl R. de Boor
5453:Karen Uhlenbeck
5433:
5387:Louis Nirenberg
5322:
5295:Ralph E. Gomory
5233:
5229:Donald E. Knuth
5216:Hassler Whitney
5154:
5078:
5059:
5024:
4956:Andreas Acrivos
4933:
4921:Eli Ruckenstein
4900:Hermann A. Haus
4871:Calvin F. Quate
4858:Luna B. Leopold
4825:
4716:
4702:Robert N. Noyce
4692:Emmett N. Leith
4651:Manson Benedict
4633:Rudolf Kompfner
4597:
4551:Warren K. Lewis
4488:
4469:
4403:
4365:Peter B. Dervan
4336:John I. Brauman
4295:
4247:Norman Davidson
4174:John D. Roberts
4149:
4117:Konrad E. Bloch
4063:Richard N. Zare
4025:
4002:
3983:
3940:Sallie Chisholm
3922:Rudolf Jaenisch
3902:
3885:J. Craig Venter
3844:Rita R. Colwell
3711:
3697:David Baltimore
3588:Robert W. Kates
3560:David G. Nathan
3555:Edward B. Lewis
3525:
3521:Harland G. Wood
3516:Roger W. Sperry
3371:Glenn W. Burton
3343:
3319:Arthur Kornberg
3286:Roger Guillemin
3263:Hallowell Davis
3227:Daniel I. Arnon
3219:Albert B. Sabin
3199:
3172:Detlev W. Bronk
3144:Harry F. Harlow
3139:Kenneth S. Cole
3126:William C. Rose
3098:Francis P. Rous
3058:
3039:
3004:
2984:Gordon H. Bower
2945:
2941:Robert M. Solow
2857:
2853:Milton Friedman
2817:
2794:
2783:
2775:
2725:
2712:
2703:
2701:
2699:Harvard Gazette
2692:
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2090:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2024:
2013:10.1.1.557.9702
1993:
1992:
1988:
1978:
1976:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1858:
1857:
1853:
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1128:
1121:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1073:(12): 733–738.
1064:
1063:
1056:
1026:
1025:
1018:
988:
987:
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968:
945:
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931:
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917:Harvard Gazette
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836:
827:
826:
819:
803:
802:
787:
759:
758:
731:
726:
718:
697:Nakanishi Prize
693:Priestley Medal
633:
609:
543:
526:enantiotopicity
431:
414:
336:
318:oxidations and
232:Elmer P. Kohler
214:
184:
182:Nakanishi Prize
180:
177:
175:Priestley Medal
173:
170:
166:
163:
159:
156:
152:
149:
145:
142:
138:
135:
131:
128:
124:
121:
119:Centenary Prize
90:
79:Alma mater
74:
68:
64:
55:
49:
43:
41:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7158:
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7007:
7005:
7004:
6999:
6994:
6989:
6987:Felix Weinberg
6984:
6979:
6974:
6972:Brian Spalding
6969:
6967:Edwin Southern
6964:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6932:Michael Pepper
6929:
6924:
6919:
6917:Donald Metcalf
6914:
6909:
6907:George Lusztig
6904:
6899:
6897:Peter Lawrence
6894:
6887:
6882:
6877:
6872:
6867:
6862:
6857:
6852:
6847:
6842:
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6813:Edward Cocking
6810:
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6615:
6609:
6603:
6597:
6591:
6585:
6579:
6573:
6567:
6561:
6555:
6549:
6546:Gregorio Weber
6542:
6539:
6538:
6533:
6531:
6530:
6523:
6516:
6508:
6499:
6498:
6495:
6494:
6491:
6490:
6488:
6487:
6482:
6479:
6474:
6472:Burton Richter
6469:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6447:
6445:
6441:
6440:
6438:
6437:
6432:
6427:
6425:Yakir Aharonov
6422:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6406:
6401:
6396:
6393:
6388:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6372:
6367:
6364:
6359:
6354:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6339:Richard Garwin
6336:
6333:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6303:Willis E. Lamb
6300:
6296:
6294:
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6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6084:
6079:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6062:Philip Abelson
6059:
6056:
6054:Chen-Ning Yang
6051:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6028:
6023:
6021:Bruno B. Rossi
6018:
6013:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5978:Yoichiro Nambu
5975:
5970:
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5957:
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5837:
5834:
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5819:
5814:
5809:
5804:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5789:John C. Slater
5786:
5781:
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5772:
5770:
5766:
5765:
5763:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5749:
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5729:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5698:
5693:
5688:
5683:
5678:
5676:Jacob Bjerknes
5673:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5629:
5624:
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5521:
5516:
5511:
5508:
5503:
5500:
5495:
5492:
5487:
5484:
5479:
5476:
5474:James G. Glimm
5471:
5468:
5466:Elias M. Stein
5463:
5458:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5441:
5439:
5435:
5434:
5432:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5418:
5413:
5410:
5408:Shing-Tung Yau
5405:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5389:
5384:
5381:
5376:
5373:
5368:
5365:
5360:
5357:
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5349:
5344:
5339:
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5330:
5328:
5324:
5323:
5321:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5276:
5274:Antoni Zygmund
5271:
5266:
5263:
5261:Isadore Singer
5258:
5253:
5250:
5245:
5241:
5239:
5235:
5234:
5232:
5231:
5226:
5224:Joseph L. Doob
5221:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5205:
5203:George Dantzig
5200:
5195:
5193:John W. Backus
5190:
5187:
5182:
5179:
5174:
5171:
5169:Richard Brauer
5166:
5162:
5160:
5156:
5155:
5153:
5152:
5150:William Feller
5147:
5144:
5139:
5136:
5131:
5128:
5123:
5120:
5115:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5099:
5097:Norbert Wiener
5094:
5090:
5088:
5080:
5079:
5076:
5069:
5068:
5065:
5064:
5061:
5060:
5058:
5057:
5055:Thomas Kailath
5052:
5049:
5044:
5041:
5036:
5032:
5030:
5026:
5025:
5023:
5022:
5017:
5014:
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5001:
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4805:
4800:
4795:
4792:
4787:
4785:H. Bolton Seed
4782:
4777:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4738:
4736:Donald L. Katz
4733:
4728:
4724:
4722:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4714:
4709:
4707:Earl R. Parker
4704:
4699:
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4689:
4686:
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4671:
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4590:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4561:
4556:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4541:Hugh L. Dryden
4538:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4509:
4504:
4500:
4498:
4490:
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4468:
4467:
4462:
4459:
4454:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4425:
4423:Peter J. Stang
4420:
4415:
4411:
4409:
4405:
4404:
4402:
4401:
4399:Marye Anne Fox
4396:
4391:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4375:
4370:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4354:
4352:Tobin J. Marks
4349:
4346:
4341:
4338:
4333:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4303:
4301:
4297:
4296:
4294:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4281:Stuart A. Rice
4278:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4249:
4244:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4228:
4223:
4220:
4215:
4213:Donald J. Cram
4210:
4207:
4202:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4182:Ronald Breslow
4179:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4157:
4155:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4124:
4122:Elias J. Corey
4119:
4114:
4109:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4088:
4083:
4081:Carl S. Marvel
4078:
4073:
4068:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4053:Roald Hoffmann
4050:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4033:
4031:
4027:
4026:
4024:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4012:
4004:
4003:
4000:
3993:
3992:
3989:
3988:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3969:Stanley Falkow
3966:
3963:
3961:Rakesh K. Jain
3958:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3910:
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3815:
3810:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3764:Gene E. Likens
3761:
3756:
3751:
3749:George F. Bass
3746:
3741:
3738:
3733:
3731:Peter H. Raven
3728:
3723:
3719:
3717:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3665:
3660:
3657:
3655:Alexander Rich
3652:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3636:
3631:
3629:Daniel Nathans
3626:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3610:
3605:
3603:Folke K. Skoog
3600:
3595:
3593:Salvador Luria
3590:
3585:
3583:Elvin A. Kabat
3580:
3575:
3570:
3567:
3562:
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3531:
3527:
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3524:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3496:Katherine Esau
3493:
3490:
3485:
3483:Eric R. Kandel
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3429:
3427:Joan A. Steitz
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3401:
3399:Berta Scharrer
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3366:Seymour Benzer
3363:
3360:
3358:Philip Handler
3355:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3245:Erwin Chargaff
3242:
3240:Britton Chance
3237:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3190:Robert Huebner
3187:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
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3141:
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3095:
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3077:C. B. van Niel
3074:
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3049:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3038:
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3035:Albert Bandura
3032:
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3027:Robert Axelrod
3024:
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3016:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3005:
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2997:
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2989:
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2978:
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2968:R. Duncan Luce
2965:
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2935:
2930:
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2917:Paul Samuelson
2914:
2911:
2906:
2903:
2898:
2895:
2890:
2887:
2882:
2879:
2877:Patrick Suppes
2874:
2872:Leonid Hurwicz
2869:
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2618:External links
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2474:
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2285:(4): 821–841.
2269:
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1986:
1938:
1909:(2): 159–183.
1887:
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1823:978-0521805391
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1503:
1490:978-0470276105
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772:(4): 269–284.
728:
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659:Lyndon Johnson
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498:by physicists
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63:April 14, 2007
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6782:
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6165:
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3774:Harold Varmus
3772:
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3707:Lynn Margulis
3705:
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3702:Jared Diamond
3700:
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3642:Thomas Eisner
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3616:Maxine Singer
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3598:Paul A. Marks
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3407:Stanley Cohen
3405:
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3327:
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3322:
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3307:
3304:
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3299:
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3296:Efraim Racker
3294:
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3250:James V. Neel
3248:
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3162:Horace Barker
3160:
3157:
3155:
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3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3131:Sewall Wright
3129:
3127:
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3119:
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3028:
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3020:
3019:Anne Treisman
3017:
3014:
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3001:
2998:
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2990:
2987:
2985:
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2976:Kenneth Arrow
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2854:
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2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2840:Anne Anastasi
2838:
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2256:
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2239:
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2221:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2129:
2116:
2112:
2106:
2103:
2091:
2089:9783642544514
2085:
2081:
2080:
2072:
2069:
2057:
2055:9780080581644
2051:
2047:
2046:
2038:
2035:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1987:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1958:(9): 3006–8.
1957:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1925:
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1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
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1898:
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1721:9780824724498
1717:
1713:
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1607:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1558:J. Biol. Chem
1555:
1548:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1517:J. Biol. Chem
1514:
1507:
1504:
1492:
1486:
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1473:
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1465:
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1457:
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1314:
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1295:
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1234:
1232:
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1210:
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1188:
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1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1156:
1154:
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1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
985:
983:
979:
966:
961:
957:
953:
949:
942:
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938:
936:
934:
930:
918:
914:
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905:
903:
901:
899:
897:
895:
891:
879:
875:
868:
861:
859:
857:
855:
853:
851:
847:
835:
831:
824:
822:
818:
813:
812:
807:
800:
798:
796:
794:
792:
790:
786:
780:
775:
771:
767:
763:
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
734:
730:
723:
721:
715:
713:
708:
706:
700:
698:
694:
690:
686:
681:
677:
676:(1985-1990).
675:
671:
667:
662:
660:
655:
653:
648:
646:
645:Royal Society
642:
638:
630:
628:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
600:
599:
593:
589:
587:
583:
579:
574:
569:
567:
566:Lars Melander
563:
559:
554:
550:
548:
540:
538:
536:
532:
527:
523:
519:
514:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
465:
463:
462:Arnold Eucken
459:
458:Niels Bjerrum
455:
451:
447:
443:
438:
436:
428:
426:
423:
419:
411:
409:
407:
403:
399:
395:
390:
388:
381:
377:
373:
371:
367:
363:
362:semicarbazone
359:
354:
352:
348:
343:
341:
333:
331:
328:
323:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
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254:
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206:
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196:
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189:
183:
176:
169:
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155:
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141:
134:
127:
120:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
88:
84:
81:
77:
72:
62:
58:
53:
40:
36:
32:
27:
20:
7063:
6889:
6870:Ray Guillery
6827:
6726:Tadhg Begley
6702:Carol Fierke
6581:
6459:Sandra Faber
6454:Sidney Drell
6284:Leo Kadanoff
6279:James Cronin
6227:Hans Dehmelt
6162:Robert Pound
6128:Robert Sharp
5944:John Sinfelt
5911:Verner Suomi
5878:Lewis Sarett
5742:Lars Onsager
5686:Henry Eyring
5653:John Bardeen
5395:Richard Karp
5363:Allen Newell
5142:Jerzy Neyman
4767:Tung-Yen Lin
4744:Bill Hewlett
4674:Morris Cohen
4268:John W. Cahn
4169:Karl Folkers
3930:Lucy Shapiro
3880:Elaine Fuchs
3759:Ann Graybiel
3689:Janet Rowley
3671:James Watson
3663:Ruth Patrick
3506:Philip Leder
3376:Mildred Cohn
3324:Severo Ochoa
3301:E. O. Wilson
2731:
2727:
2718:
2702:. Retrieved
2698:
2675:. Retrieved
2671:
2650:
2638:
2624:
2603:. Retrieved
2593:
2566:
2562:
2553:
2541:. Retrieved
2536:
2524:
2511:
2502:
2490:. Retrieved
2486:
2477:
2465:. Retrieved
2461:
2452:
2440:. Retrieved
2435:
2426:
2409:
2405:
2399:
2386:
2381:
2369:. Retrieved
2365:
2356:
2345:. Retrieved
2341:
2332:
2320:. Retrieved
2316:
2307:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2237:
2233:
2223:
2191:(1): 1–132.
2188:
2184:
2174:
2141:
2137:
2131:
2119:. Retrieved
2114:
2105:
2093:. Retrieved
2078:
2071:
2059:. Retrieved
2044:
2037:
2025:. Retrieved
2006:(3): 70–78.
2003:
1999:
1989:
1977:. Retrieved
1955:
1951:
1941:
1906:
1900:
1890:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1845:
1839:
1827:. Retrieved
1807:
1799:
1782:
1778:
1772:
1747:
1743:
1737:
1725:. Retrieved
1710:
1665:
1661:
1651:
1639:. Retrieved
1635:
1626:
1601:
1597:
1561:
1557:
1547:
1520:
1516:
1506:
1494:. Retrieved
1479:
1472:
1455:
1451:
1445:
1433:. Retrieved
1429:
1398:. Retrieved
1394:
1384:
1372:. Retrieved
1357:
1335:. Retrieved
1330:
1321:
1304:
1300:
1294:
1282:. Retrieved
1277:
1273:
1263:
1246:
1200:. Retrieved
1196:
1167:
1163:
1135:
1131:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1070:
1066:
1032:
1028:
994:
990:
969:. Retrieved
955:
951:
920:. Retrieved
916:
881:. Retrieved
877:
873:
837:. Retrieved
833:
809:
769:
765:
719:
710:
702:
682:
678:
663:
656:
651:
649:
634:
604:
596:
594:
590:
582:chymotrypsin
570:
555:
551:
544:
515:
512:
493:
469:World War II
466:
439:
432:
415:
391:
383:
379:
374:
355:
344:
337:
324:
316:chromic acid
285:
278:
261:
260:
208:Institutions
191:
65:(2007-04-14)
7090:2007 deaths
7085:1912 births
6977:Nigel Unwin
6962:Ian Sneddon
6902:John Lawson
6880:Peter Higgs
6865:George Gray
6860:Ian Gibbons
6845:Alan Fersht
6412:Berni Alder
6219:Frank Press
6100:Walter Kohn
6077:George Pake
6011:Walter Munk
5934:Herman Mark
5916:Henry Taube
5704:Jesse Beams
5658:Peter Debye
5640:Harold Urey
5564:Barry Mazur
5126:John Milnor
5020:Amnon Yariv
4964:Leo Beranek
4790:Ernst Weber
4643:Abel Wolman
4234:Thomas Cech
4164:Elkan Blout
4104:Max Tishler
4021:Roger Adams
3979:Simon Levin
3445:Harry Eagle
3268:Paul Gyorgy
2960:Gary Becker
1604:(9): 1246.
1108:(5): 2403.
481:nitric acid
387:Max Tishler
368:. By doing
7079:Categories
7011:Statute 12
6947:Ivan Roitt
6206:Vera Rubin
5845:Paul Flory
5506:Hyman Bass
5379:John Cocke
5282:Raoul Bott
5185:Kurt Gödel
5177:John Tukey
5134:Paul Cohen
4749:George Low
4712:Simon Ramo
3935:Leroy Hood
3736:Carl Woese
3684:Bruce Ames
3195:Ernst Mayr
2734:(17): 10.
2687:Obituaries
2537:UCSanDiego
2412:(3): 369.
2347:2022-07-20
724:References
44:1912-01-15
6927:Ted Paige
6201:Val Fitch
5269:Peter Lax
5039:Shu Chien
4286:John Ross
4001:Chemistry
3389:Paul Berg
2781:laureates
2585:0009-2347
2008:CiteSeerX
1458:: 23–35.
958:(3): e3.
699:in 1997.
625:ribozymes
578:acylation
531:chirality
485:nitration
370:porphyrin
6982:Ian Ward
6787:elected
6180:Ed Stone
3177:Jay Lush
2299:26949981
2264:22889903
2215:23318152
1974:13913310
1933:25686004
1882:17559261
1764:11671397
1692:21513457
1580:13061493
1539:13061492
535:topicity
290:on the
7032:Foreign
6796:Fellows
6789:in 1983
6783:of the
6781:Fellows
2704:6 March
2677:6 March
2605:9 March
2543:9 March
2492:9 March
2467:9 March
2442:9 March
2371:9 March
2322:9 March
2255:3415839
2206:7032660
2166:2434996
2146:Bibcode
2138:Science
2121:9 March
2095:8 March
2061:8 March
2027:7 March
1979:7 March
1924:4413435
1829:8 March
1727:8 March
1683:3418923
1641:9 March
1606:Bibcode
1496:8 March
1435:6 March
1400:6 March
1374:6 March
1337:6 March
1284:6 March
1202:9 March
1075:Bibcode
1037:Bibcode
999:Bibcode
971:6 March
922:6 March
883:6 March
839:6 March
598:Science
467:During
450:Bjerrum
298:; with
292:Bjerrum
266:chemist
7062:
7056:
7050:
7044:
7038:
6740:(2018)
6734:(2017)
6728:(2016)
6722:(2015)
6716:(2014)
6710:(2013)
6704:(2012)
6698:(2011)
6692:(2010)
6686:(2009)
6680:(2008)
6674:(2007)
6668:(2006)
6662:(2005)
6656:(2004)
6650:(2003)
6644:(2002)
6638:(2001)
6632:(2000)
6626:(1999)
6620:(1998)
6614:(1997)
6608:(1996)
6602:(1995)
6596:(1994)
6590:(1993)
6584:(1992)
6578:(1991)
6572:(1990)
6566:(1989)
6560:(1988)
6554:(1987)
6548:(1986)
2583:
2297:
2262:
2252:
2213:
2203:
2164:
2086:
2052:
2010:
1972:
1931:
1921:
1880:
1820:
1762:
1718:
1690:
1680:
1578:
1537:
1487:
1365:
716:Family
707:, 2007
623:, and
412:Career
198:Fields
185:(1997)
178:(1988)
171:(1986)
164:(1982)
157:(1982)
150:(1982)
143:(1980)
136:(1980)
129:(1970)
122:(1962)
115:Awards
73:, U.S.
54:, U.S.
6444:2010s
6293:2000s
6142:1990s
5963:1980s
5769:1970s
5617:1960s
5536:2010s
5438:2000s
5327:1990s
5238:1980s
5159:1970s
5087:1960s
5029:2010s
4938:2000s
4830:1990s
4721:1980s
4602:1970s
4497:1960s
4408:2010s
4300:2000s
4154:1990s
4030:1980s
4011:1960s
3907:2010s
3716:2000s
3530:1990s
3348:1980s
3204:1970s
3067:1960s
3009:2010s
2950:2000s
2862:1990s
2822:1980s
2803:1960s
2655:(PDF)
2533:(PDF)
2366:JInfo
1251:(PDF)
870:(PDF)
586:diazo
310:with
6481:2014
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