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684:. As any synagogue, this was used for more than just religious services. It was also the social center of the community where members could carry out many everyday activities. This close connection between religious and everyday life was common in ghetto life. The creation of the ghetto and the corresponding isolation created a sense of self-sufficiency in the Jewish community. Within the synagogue Jewish leaders were selected, regulations from the Rabbis were issued, bankruptcies were declared and corporal punishments were carried out. The seats in the synagogue could be rented by members of the community and were auctioned off if fees were owed.
1631:
1410:
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541:, which already existed, trade was less established in Frankfurt than in other German cities. Therefore, many Frankfurt Jews worked as bankers and provided loans to craftsmen, farmers, and nobles from the area surrounding Frankfurt. As a side business, they often bought and sold pawned goods. This led to a small trade in horses, wine, and grain as well as cloth, dresses, and jewelry. Because of the limited market, these enterprises remained small. Based on the amount of tax paid by the Frankfurt Jews, the wealth of the community was inferior to that of the Jewish communities in
1619:
1134:
1506:
989:
38:
521:(German, lit. "Citizens List", a list of people who lived in the city and were granted any rights and privileges due to that city). However, the second community, rebuilt in 1360, had a different and lower status. Each individual had to individually negotiate an agreement with the town council which included how long they would stay in the city, the amount of tribute they would pay and the regulations they must follow. In 1366 Emperor Charles IV instructed his representative Siegfried to prevent Jews from becoming
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council rejected the imperial
Heretics Tax, claiming that only they had the right to tax the Frankfurt Jews. This action, which the Jewish population had little influence over, caused the entire population to be placed under an Imperial Edict and forced them to flee Frankfurt to avoid punishment. Only in 1424 were they allowed to return after the Emperor acknowledged that the Frankfurt Council was correct in rejecting the Heretics Tax.
95:
780:) sent representatives to Frankfurt for this conference. The conference dealt primarily with topics that the Jews had jurisdiction over, and for which five Courts of Justice existed. Some of these topics were: the fraud in trade and coinage, responsibilities to local authorities, religious questions and ritual regulations. However, the resolutions of the conference were declared treason in Germany.
724:
Jews, these regulations included a number of arbitrary, restrictive and discriminatory rules. The laws regulated the right to live in the city, the collection of deliveries and the acceptable professions. Every Jew was required to wear a circular yellow mark on his or her clothes to identify as a Jew. Furthermore, the influx of Jews into
Frankfurt was strictly limited.
154:
1307:, the poor of Frankfurt moved in. Although the picturesque streetscape attracted tourists and painters, the city wanted to redevelop the urban area. So, in 1874 the desolate buildings on the west side of the street were razed. Then in 1884 nearly all the houses on the east side of the street were also demolished. The few remaining buildings included the
1522:(9–10 November 1938). These included the synagogues at Alt Heddernheim 33, Börneplatz, Börnestraße, Conrad-Weil-Gasse, Freiherr-vom-Stein-Straße, Friedberger Anlage 5–6, Hermesweg 5–7, Inselgasse 9, Marktplatz (Ortsteil Höchst), Obermainanlage 8, Ostendstraße 18, Rechneigrabenstraße 5 (Niederhofheim'sche Synagoge), Schloßstraße 5, and Unterlindau 21.
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1824:"Review: Rivka Ulmer: Turmoil, Trauma, and Triumph. The Fettmilch Uprising in Frankfurt am Main (1612–1616) According to Megillas Vintz. A Critical Edition of the Yiddish and Hebrew Text Including an English Translation (= Judentum und Umwelt – Realms of Judaism; Bd. 72), Bern / Frankfurt a.M. [u.a.]: Peter Lang 2001, 216 S., 8 fig"
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protection and support. When a large number fled the city, he lost a source of income. To make up for this loss, he confiscated houses of those who had fled and sold them to the city of
Frankfurt. Those who returned to the city were allowed by the Emperor to negotiate with the city of Frankfurt to repurchase their belongings.
173:. The street was about 330 meters long, three to four meters wide, and had three town gates. The gates were locked at night as well as on Sundays and Christian holidays. Due to the narrow street and the limited access, the Judengasse was destroyed three times by fire in the 18th century alone, in 1711, 1721 and 1796.
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gardens of Saint
Bartholomew's Cathedral and was walled very early in its history. In 1349, during a Succession Crisis for the Holy Roman Emperor, the city of Frankfurt declared for Günther von Schwarzburg against Charles IV. When they expected an attack from Charles, the Jewish Cemetery was fortified with eleven
356:, on behalf of his father Frederick II, issued a document pardoning the citizens of Frankfurt. It declared a pardon without payment on damages because the pogrom occurred, "from carelessness rather than deliberation." The general pardon is an example of the weak political power of the Hohenstaufen in Frankfurt.
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The regulations determined that no more than 500 Jewish families live in
Frankfurt. In the 60 years before the pogrom, the Jewish population had increased tenfold from 43 to 453. The law now put an upper limit on the growth that was allowed in the Jewish community. Jewish marriages were limited to 12
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found that the resolutions of the
Conference surpassed the privileges that he had granted. As a result, the Emperor's protection was withdrawn for some 25 years. Rebellions and pogroms resulted in several cities with a significant Jewish population. In 1631 a large fine was paid by the communities to
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Virtually every facet of life was regulated by the council's regulations pertaining to the Jewish community. For example, Jews were not allowed to leave the ghetto during nights, Sundays, Christian holidays or during the election and coronation of the Holy Roman
Emperor. In addition to isolating the
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After another order from the
Emperor Frederick III, in 1458, the council finally began building houses outside the city wall and moat. In 1462 the Jews were forced to relocate into these houses. This was the beginning of the isolated and closed off ghetto. In 1464 the city established eleven houses,
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In 1360 the
Emperor again granted the right for a Jewish settlement in Frankfurt. The Emperor claimed the right to taxes raised from the newly resettled population. The right to half the taxes was then sold to the Archbishop of Mainz, who then sold the rights to Frankfurt. An Imperial representative
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In June 1349 the
Emperor Charles IV transferred the special Jewish tax to the city of Frankfurt for 15,200 pounds. The responsibility for protecting the Jewish population thereby shifted from the Imperial Representative to the town council of Frankfurt. Technically, the Frankfurt Jews were no longer
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One significant difference was that Jews were explicitly allowed to engage in wholesale businesses, trading commodities, such as grain, wine, cloth, silk, and other textiles. The Emperor may have allowed the Jews the wholesale business to weaken the powerful Christian traders, which had usurped the
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On 28 September 1614, the Emperor issued a sentence against Fettmilch and his followers. On 27 November, Fettmilch was arrested. He and 38 others were accused of disobedience and rebellion against the Emperor, but charged for their persecution of Jews. On 28 February 1616, Fettmilch and six others
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In the mid-14th century, renewed violence was directed against the Frankfurt Jews. Ludwig the Bavarian (Luis IV) arrested some members of the Jewish community for alleged crimes. Reacting to the arrests, many local Jews fled the city. The Frankfurt Jews had paid a special tax to the Emperor for his
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ordered the destruction of the cemetery. By the end of the war, about two-thirds of the headstones were destroyed. Today only a small portion of the cemetery is still in the original condition. In 1996 11,134 small tablets were placed in the cemetery, each one engraved with the name of a Jewish
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Four people lost their lives in the flames, and many valued objects were destroyed, including books, manuscripts and Torah scrolls. After the disaster, the inhabitants of the lane were allowed to rent houses in Christian Frankfurt until their homes were rebuilt. Those who could not afford the rent
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could not be enlarged, new houses were created by dividing existing houses. Also, on both sides of the lane, backrows of dwellings were built, so that there were four rows of houses in the ghetto. Finally, additional stories were added to the dwellings and the upper stories were built forward over
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By the end of 14th century, the Jewish community had grown large enough to establish a new synagogue, where the Jews participated in services, conducted business, swore judicial oaths, and heard proclamations from the emperor or the town council. Following the service, the rabbi would collect owed
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In the 1980s, during the construction of the new Administration Building for the city's Public Utilities, portions of the Mikwe (ritual bath) and several foundations of Jewish houses were discovered. This led to a nationwide debate on the future of these remnants of Jewish culture. In 1992, the
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The tension was caused by the guilds' demand for greater participation in urban and fiscal policies. The guilds wanted a reduction in grain prices, as well as some anti-Jewish regulations, such as a limitation in the number of Jews and a 50% reduction in the interest rate that Jewish moneylenders
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would be left to the Jewish community. It was now possible, in 1471, to pave the road, build a second well and a warm bath. The city council maintained the rights to the land and to any houses erected, regardless of who had built them. For any developed plot within the ghetto, the city received a
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The largest area of Jewish owned property in the city was the cemetery. The cemetery had been used since about 1270 and is first mentioned in a purchase document from 1300. Until 1333 when Emperor Ludwig the Bavarian expanded the city, the cemetery lay outside the city walls. It bordered on some
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By 1431 the town council considered options for dealing with the Jews. Since the town was often in conflict with either the emperor or the Archbishop of Mainz over the Jewish population, this had become a pressing issue. The council debated the creation of a ghetto in both 1432 and 1438 without
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essentially disowned the Jewish money lenders to the benefit of their Christian debtors. At the same time, the town council used a rigid new tax law to restrict the growth of the community. Between 1412 and 1416, the number of Jewish households dropped from about 27 to about 4. In 1422 the town
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Out of fear of looting, the gates to the ghetto were locked. The neighboring Christians finally allowed the Jews to flee the burning ghetto when it appeared that the fire would spread if it could not be contained. Even with the additional firefighting help the residents were unable to save the
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In late 1613, the Town Council reached an agreement with Fettmilch and his supporters. This granted the guilds increased power and rights. However, the population of Frankfurt then learned that the city had extensive debts and that the Town Council had misappropriated the Jewish tax collected.
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Post-war usage of the area included a car park, a petrol station and a wholesale flower market. The decision to build an administrative complex triggered a public discussion as to what should be done with the archaeological remains uncovered during the excavation in 1977. The foundations of 19
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demanded that the town council punish the looters and better protect the Jewish community. After extensive negotiations, the council decided that repayment would occur but only in the annulment of taxes and fees owed. Reconstruction occurred very slowly because a majority of the community was
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A result of the new laws was that the regulations were not to be renewed every three years and therefore constituted a permanent grant of residency. However, the Jews continued to be treated as an alien group, who had a lower status than citizens and non-citizen residents alike. They remained
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However, modern research questions this. Charles IV appears to have given the city of Frankfurt tacit approval for the pogrom, as mentioned above. Additionally, the plague did not reach Frankfurt until autumn 1349. It appears that some local leaders saw the loss of imperial protection as an
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in 1348 – the Emperor included a statement in the promise that turned out to be fatal. The Emperor stated that Frankfurt would not be held responsible if the Jews were killed as a result of sickness or riots. It also stated that the belongings of the deceased would revert to the city.
1425:) and Berliner Straße. Börneplatz (which would not return to this name until 1978) became the location of the Blumengroßmarkthalle (German: Flower wholesale market) which disappeared in the 1970s. Börne Street was not rebuilt, which makes it nearly impossible to identify the
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Only ten years later, a second fire broke out in the ghetto on 28 January 1721. Within eleven hours, the entire northern part of the lane was in flames. Over 100 houses burned down and some houses were looted and damaged by Christian inhabitants. Due to the damage and theft,
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was added with an inscription reading "Protected by the Roman Imperial Majesty and the Holy Empire". The first act of the returning Jews was returning the desecrated synagogue and devastated cemetery to religious use. The anniversary of the return was celebrated as
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Two weeks after the Emperor left the city, on 24 July 1349, all the Jews of Frankfurt were beaten to death or burnt as their houses were set aflame. The exact number of victims is unknown, but is estimated to have been 60. In older historical sources, fanatic
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was opened in a carefully preserved basement underneath of the Administration Building. The museum displays the preserved foundations of a section of the ghetto, as well as some artifacts discovered in the construction. The museum is a branch office of the
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visited the city to encourage the town council to enforce the Church Dress Order. That demanded, that female Jews wear a blue veil and all males wear yellow rings on their sleeves. However, adherence to these regulations was enforced only for a short time.
1102:. Kléber hoped to make the Austrian Commander von Wartensleben surrender by bombarding the city in the evening of 12 July and the afternoon of 13 July. A further shelling throughout the night of 13–14 July caused extensive damage. The northern part of the
934:
subjects of the Town Council and, unlike Christians, could not apply for citizenship. The Law of 1616 explicitly forbade the Jews from even calling themselves "citizen". Finally, Jews paid more than other residents in extra tariffs and additional taxes.
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The first concern of the Jewish community was the reconstruction of the destroyed synagogue. By the end of September 1711, they had finished the new building. It was constructed on the old foundations and consisted of three parts: the actual synagogue
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At the end of the 14th century, the Frankfurt Jews were subject to increased restrictions. Legislation of 1386 forbade the employment of Christians and restricted the number of Jewish servants in a household. A general "Jewish Debt Amnesty" issued by
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taxes and dispense punishments for minor offenses. Recent archeological excavations have revealed a 5.6 square meter (60 sq. ft.) area under the synagogue. This area was deep enough to reach the underground water level and most likely served as a
859:, about 1,380 individuals, were driven into the Jewish Cemetery whilst their houses were plundered and partly destroyed. On the following day, the Jews were forced to leave the city. They found refuge in the surrounding communities, particularly
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recorded that a few Christians and 180 Jews died during the pogrom. It also records that 24 Jews avoided death by accepting baptism, while under the protection of the city fathers. During the attacks, the synagogue was plundered and the
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Frankfurt was one of the last cities in Europe to allow the Jews to leave the ghetto. The Frankfurt city council was generally anti-semitic. In 1769 the council responded to a Jewish petition to leave the ghetto on Sunday afternoons as
395:
The Frankfurt Jews were promised, by the Emperor and his descendants, the right to administer their own homes, cemeteries, synagogues and all the easements. In view of the growing number of pogroms – Jews were held responsible for the
180:
in 1462. By the 16th century, the number of inhabitants rose to over 3,000, living in 195 houses. The ghetto had one of the highest population densities in Europe. Contemporary documents described it as narrow, oppressive and dirty.
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The Jewish population reached its lowest point in 1416 and then grew continuously. In the second half of the 15th century, Frankfurt's Jews provided an increasingly substantial tax revenue. Following the expulsion of the Jews from
1292:. Acknowledging the desires of the Christian majority, the rights of the Jews were again curtailed. However, the requirement to live in the ghetto was not renewed. In 1864 Frankfurt became the second German city, following the
1895:
965:. The house was one of the largest in the ghetto, with a frontage of 9.5 meters (30 ft) and was located directly opposite to the synagogue. Strong winds and the density of the buildings spread the fire. Additionally, the
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Within the next century, the ghetto's population grew until the original houses were no longer sufficient. The Jews were then allowed to expand the ghetto into the city moat. Following the expansions of 1552 and 1579, the
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Following the fire, a number of inhabitants left the ghetto to live in Frankfurt with Christian landlords. It was not until 1729 that the town council forced the last 45 families living in Frankfurt back into the ghetto.
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Once the rebellious craftsmen learned of the Imperial Interdiction, they took to the streets in protest. The mob directed its anger against the weakest members of the dispute, the Jews. They stormed the gates of the
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was sent to Frankfurt to collect the taxes and safeguard the rights of the Jews. In 1372 the city purchased the office from the Emperor for 6,000 marks. This put the control of Jewish taxes back to the city.
731:
after a new set of regulations were issued in 1616. The Laws of 1616 also stated that only 12 weddings would be permitted per year in the ghetto. Even wealthy and influential inhabitants, such as the banker
763:
The central role of Frankfurt's Jews in Jewish spiritual life is best illustrated in the Rabbinical Conference held in Frankfurt in 1603. Many of the most important Jewish communities in Germany (including
1569:. First mentioned in 1180, the cemetery had served the Jewish community until 1828. The oldest graves date from about 1270, which makes the Frankfurt Jewish Cemetery the second oldest in Germany (after
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ordered the resettlement of all Jews living near the cathedral, as the singing in the synagogue was disturbing the Christian services in the cathedral. Then, in 1446 a murder occurred on a Jew known as
1036:
The town council required that all reconstruction in the lane follow strict building codes. The builders' drawings, collected and archived by the council, allow an excellent reconstruction of the old
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The Law of 1616 was revised several times, for example in 1660. Each revision improved the situation of the Jews. However, the Jewish Laws remained a medieval legal construct until the 19th century.
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were forced to search for homes in surrounding Jewish communities. Jews who had lived in the ghetto without permission were expelled. The Jewish community of Frankfurt set the date of the fire (24
1252:, he donated a large sum of money. Despite von Dalberg's efforts, Frankfurt issued a new set of Jewish regulations in 1807 that attempted to reestablish the ghetto. Finally in 1811 Dalberg's
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was organized rather than spontaneous. One reason presented is that the fighting lasted more than a day. Secondly, a fortified tower where 70 Jews had taken refuge was captured. Finally, a
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1892:
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The ghetto remained a very crowded section of town owing to both rapid population growth and the refusal of Frankfurt's municipal authorities to allow the ghetto's area to expand.
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ordered that equal rights be granted to all religious creeds. One of his first acts was to repeal the old municipal law forbidding the Jews from walking on a main ring road, the
1421:
Following the destruction of World War II, the area was completely leveled and built over. From 1952 to 1955 roads were built including the Kurt-Schumacher-Straße (named after
823:
could charge. Aside from the guilds, merchants and independent craftsmen also supported Fettmilch in hopes of annulling their debts by restricting the number of moneylenders.
1322:
By 1854 the Jewish community had torn down the old synagogue (built in 1711) to build a new synagogue in 1859 to 1860. The new synagogue would become the spiritual center of
1630:
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As a reaction to the Fettmilch Rebellion, a new set of regulations were issued in 1616. However, these laws, originating with the Imperial Commissioners from Hessen and the
413:
opportunity to clear their debts and acquire new property. The church yard of St. Bartholomew's Cathedral, for instance, was expanded into what had been Jewish property.
176:
Initially, some 15 families with about 110 members lived in Frankfurt's Judengasse when they were forcibly removed from the city and relocated to the ghetto by decree of
2287:
602:(1519), Frankfurt gained importance as a financial center. One reason for this was that the city council allowed only the most prosperous Jews to settle in the city.
1164:... an example of the unbounded arrogance of this people, who expend every effort to take all opportunities to set themselves up as equals to the Christian citizens.
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at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York. This collection contains original materials dating back to 1719 documenting life in the Jewish community of Frankfurt am Main.
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was hit and started to burn, destroying about a third of the houses. Following the damage to the entire city, the Austrian garrison was forced to surrender.
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refers to the set of special regulations which defined the rights and restrictions applicable to a Jewish resident from the Middle Ages to the 19th century.
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In business the Jews were broadly granted the same rights that Christian non-citizen residents had. These non-citizen rights, which had evolved during the
1525:
The deportation of the Jewish residents to their deaths in the East quickened in pace after Kristallnacht. Their property and valuables were taken by the
1256:
eliminated the requirements to live in the ghetto and abolished all special Jewish taxes. However, the Jewish community had to pay a lump sum of 440,000
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subjects of the Emperor but of the city council. Nevertheless, the Emperors maintained an interest in the Jewish population until the end of the Empire.
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During the 15th century, the guilds, facing competition from the Jewish traders, were able to increase restrictions on the Jews. Nevertheless, when
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most Jews had left the former ghetto during the 19th century and settled in the neighboring suburb, "Ostend". After the Jews had moved out of the
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assessed a tax on the Jewish communities to pay for his Italian Campaign in 1497, Frankfurt's contribution was second only to that of the city of
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attacked a rabbi and his pupils in their school. All three events imply a measure of planning and the presence of soldiers or a strong militia.
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with limited control from the Emperor. This new wealth and freedom led to the total domination of city government by a few wealthy patricians.
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were located in this area. During this time the Frankfurt Jews were allowed to travel throughout the city, which was an unusual freedom in the
1796:
903:
The Fettmilch Rebellion was remarkable as for the first time many Christian commentators had supported the Jewish community in this dispute.
380:. As a Free Imperial City, Frankfurt was only responsible to the Holy Roman Emperor and not to local princes. The city operated as a virtual
843:, who had been neutral, entered the conflict. He demanded a reinstatement of the Town Council and threatened anyone who opposed him with an
1241:
703:
During the economic growth at the end of the 14th century, the Jewish population increased from 260 in 1543 to about 2,700 in 1613. As the
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is under the Customer Service Center for the Frankfurt Public Utilities, which was built in 1990. This south end is accessible from the
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which were defended by local Jews. After several hours of fighting at the barricades, the mob entered the ghetto. All inhabitants of the
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masters, from setting their own laws or holding their own courts. In 1424 the town council collected all the individual regulations into
900:
includes a merry march which remembers the joyful return. However, the Jews never received the promised compensation for their losses.
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one dance hall, two pubs, and a community center at its own expense. The cold bath and synagogue were built by the Jewish community.
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1714:) relate to the Frankfurt event: one was signed by R. Shmuel b. Avraham HaLevi; the second is of anonymous authorship, appearing in
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At the end of the 19th century, most of the buildings in the Judengasse were demolished. The area suffered major destruction during
81:
59:
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construction of houses, the general lack of fire walls and the corbelled upper floors allowed the fire to race through the ghetto.
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ghetto. Within 24 hours every house had burned to the ground. Fortunately, the wind shifted before the fire could spread further.
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palatinate (Kurmainz), were based largely on anti-Semitic attitudes and did little to support the rights of the Jewish community.
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and one of the earliest ghettos in Germany. It existed from 1462 until 1811 and was home to Germany's largest Jewish community in
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Despite the extensive damage from the battle, the destruction had a benefit to the Jewish community. The bombardment led to the
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1706:) discussion of the status of one of the captured women who eventually returned to the Jewish community, is Resp. Or Zarua (by
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buildings were found and five of these can be seen at the "Museum Judengasse" which was incorporated into the new building.
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the lane until they nearly touched each other. On lower houses, large – often multi-story –
1497:(German: New Boerne Platz), parts of the outline of the destroyed Börneplatz synagogue have been marked on the pavement.
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by the Hebrew calendar, the Jews who had fled were led back into Frankfurt by Imperial soldiers. Above the gates to the
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1444:. Along this road the last remnants of the old wall that made up the west side of the ghetto can be seen. The wide
1319:, Gutele Rothschild (born Schnaper), lived in this house even after her five sons were elevated to nobility in 1817.
2044:. Band 9 der Schriftenreihe des Jüdischen Museums Frankfurt am Main. Frankfurt am Main 2006. Societäts-Verlag,
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was attacked and looted, and the Jews were expelled from the city. Two Jews and one assailant were killed in the
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works were printed in the ghetto. Whenever the Jewish communities of Germany collected money for the poor Jews in
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River. This prosperous section of the city was also the center of political life in Frankfurt. The town hall, the
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1033:), this synagogue seemed backward and medieval. The architecture may have reflected the isolation of the ghetto.
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2030:. Band 1 der Schriftenreihe des Jüdischen Museums Frankfurt am Main. Sigmaringen 1995, Thorbecke-Verlag,
2028:„Und groß war bei der Tochter Jehudas Jammer und Klage...": Die Ermordung der Frankfurter Juden im Jahre 1241
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Elieser ben Nathan (who died between 1145 and 1152) mentioned the Jewish community in Frankfurt in his book
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1710:), vol. 1, section 747 (see also the response by his son, Resp. Haim Or Zarua, 221). Three known elegies (
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before deportation, and they were subjected to extreme violence during transport to the stations for the
1005:), the three-story women's synagogue to the north (which was partly separate from the synagogue) and the
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and the guilds between 1612 and 1614 led to the Fettmilch uprising in 1614, named after its ringleader,
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Copper engraving of the Judengasse in Frankfurt am Main after the fire, 1713. In the collection of the
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was used for interments. Around this time, the old Jewish cemetery was closed and left undisturbed.
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Captivity, conversion, and communal identity: sexual angst and religious crisis in Frankfurt, 1241
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The Jewish community of Frankfurt was one of the most important in Germany in the 16th century. A
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in Frankfurt began on 8 August 1819, and ended on 12 August with arrival of a military presence.
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Die Judengasse in Frankfurt am Main. Ergebnisse der archäologischen Untersuchungen am Börneplatz
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and other locations, including Frankfurt, certain privileges relating to reductions in fees and
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Saloniki; and the third has been attributed to R. Yehudah b. Moshe HaKohen. see: Rachel Furst,
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It is likely that Jews were amongst the earliest inhabitants of Frankfurt. On 18 January 1074,
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On 14 January 1711, one of the largest fires that ever occurred in Frankfurt broke out in the
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were destroyed. All of this occurred despite the fact that the Jews had been protected by the
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1296:(1862), to remove all restrictions on citizens' rights and to grant civic equality to Jews.
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From 1828 until 1929 Jews were buried in the Jewish Cemetery, next to the main cemetery on
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Before the slaughter of the Jewish community in 1349, Frankfurt's Jews were listed in its
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and reconstruction left no visible signs of the ghetto in today's townscape of Frankfurt.
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644:. The town council secretary recorded this in his book with three crosses, the notation
341:, is questionable. Another theory is that the pogrom was actually an attack against the
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Most of the synagogues in Frankfurt were severely damaged or destroyed by the Nazis on
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1366:. The Synagogue was built in 1882 and also destroyed in 1938 during the Kristallnacht.
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are believed to be responsible for initiating the murders as a response to the plague.
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for an improvement of their status, which had not changed significantly following the
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In the 14th century, Frankfurt lacked a powerful mercantile upper class. Despite the
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per year, whilst Christians had to prove only that their wealth allowed a marriage.
2117:
Friedrich Schunder: "Das Reichsschultheißenamt in Frankfurt am Main bis 1372," in:
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1417:'s name is located in the center of the picture with a rock placed on her memorial.
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Street. A memorial plaque on the synagogue indicates the location of Number 41
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Fettmilch declared the Council deposed and seized the city gates. Consequently,
529:(the Jewish regulations). The regulations were read each year in the synagogue.
245:
17:
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Following the end of the Confederation of the Rhine and reestablishment of the
1211:. However, the lobbying efforts of the Jews were in vain. Only the war between
1090:
troops, Kléber positioned his troops to attack the garrison. The French army's
1017:
elements, including Gothic arches, an independent façade, columns, and a large
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is unclear owing to the scarcity of sources. The theory that it was led by the
1727:
1414:
1254:
Highest Regulation, for the equality of civil right of the Jewish Municipality
1200:
687:
In 1465 the city council decided that the cost of further construction on the
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The ghetto was located outside the city walls east of the medieval city wall (
2208:
2195:
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1767:, MacMillan Press and University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, p. 76.
1573:). The best known grave in the cemetery is Mayer Amschel Rothschild's tomb.
1561:
A further witness to the Jewish ghetto is the large (11,850 m or 2.93 acres)
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1550:
1452:
at an angle and covers much of the former ghetto. The main synagogue is in
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844:
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591:
542:
127:
2040:
Fritz Backhaus, Gisela Engel, Robert Liberles, Margarete Schlüter (Hrsg.):
1702:
A few Hebrew sources discuss the pogrom as well. One source, a legalistic (
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since 1236, and had a royal appointee running much of the city government.
153:
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897:
753:
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443:
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Memorial to the 11,134 Frankfurt citizens killed during the Holocaust –
228:
Until the Late Middle Ages, the Frankfurt Jews lived in the present-day
2056:
Der Frankfurter Börneplatz. Zur Archäologie eines politischen Konflikts
1703:
1542:
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At the beginning of the 20th century, there were approximately 7000
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Home of the Rothschild family, a major banking family in the ghetto.
260:. Additionally, many non-Jews lived in the Jewish section of town.
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basically follows the northern end of Börne Street and the former
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Die Frankfurter Judengasse. Jüdisches Leben in der Frühen Neuzeit
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The seventeenth century Hebrew book : an abridged thesaurus
880:
727:
Altogether only 500 Jewish families were allowed to live on the
538:
334:
225:. Most likely the community was still very small at this point.
2084:
Frankfurt am Main – Die Geschichte der Stadt in neun Beiträgen
1744:
Frankfurt am Main – Die Geschichte der Stadt in neun Beiträgen
1596:
citizen from Frankfurt who was murdered during the Holocaust.
31:
1288:
in 1816, the Senate agreed upon a series of articles to the
1248:. When a new school was built for the Jewish community, the
368:
By the 14th century, Frankfurt was granted the status of a
700:
would remain virtually unchanged until the 19th century.
680:(German "old school"), was built on the east side of the
2070:
Der erste Rothschild. Biographie eines Frankfurter Juden
1183:, was published. The Frankfurt town council immediately
284:) took place in Frankfurt, brought on by conflicts over
2058:, Frankfurt am Main: Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag, 1988,
625:
Frankfurt city map 1628, showing the curved Judengasse.
930:
power the guilds had lost in the Fettmilch Rebellion.
533:
Crisis and growth of the community in the 15th century
2181:
Online exhibition about the history of the Judengasse
1658:. Juedischesmuseum.de. 21 March 2007. Archived from
1636:
Very few of the headstones are left in the cemetery.
1299:
Due to the crowded and unsanitary conditions on the
1149:
Demolition of the Jewish Ghetto 1875, watercolor by
1086:
besieged Frankfurt. As the city was garrisoned with
2105:
Geschichte der Juden in Frankfurt a. M. (1150–1824)
2100:. Frankfurt am Main 1961. Verlag Frankfurter Bücher
1984:
Rechneigrabenstraße 5 (Niederhofheim'sche Synagoge)
1591:in the cemetery. In November 1942, the Nazi mayor
760:, the money was sent to Frankfurt for transferral.
1742:, in: Frankfurter Historische Kommission (Hrg.):
1369:Following the rise to power of the Nazis in 1933
2114:, Frankfurt am Main 1966, Waldemar Kramer Verlag
957:. The fire started at about 8 p.m. in the House
736:(1744–1812), were not excluded from these Laws.
2283:1796 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1326:in Frankfurt until it was destroyed during the
1264:The ghetto in the 19th and early 20th centuries
348:Frederick II ordered an investigation into the
1740:Frankfurt am Main im Spätmittelalter 1311–1519
1738:Quoted from the original German, Konrad Bund,
1533:which carried them east. Most ended up in new
1094:were positioned north of the city between the
847:which would strip the offender of all rights.
325:Exactly who may have been responsible for the
27:Historical Jewish ghetto in Frankfurt, Germany
2273:1460s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1509:The main synagogue in Frankfurt destroyed on
1141:from the Ravenstein produced City Map (1861).
659:(German "Christ is risen"). In 1452 Cardinal
8:
1684:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. 10 November 1938
2082:Frankfurter Historische Kommission (Hrg.):
1448:Street cuts across a section of the former
1393:nearly all of Frankfurt's Jews, the former
1338:was renamed after the most famous resident
1311:home at Number 148, then used as a museum.
712:were added to increase the available room.
417:The reestablishment of the Jewish community
107:
2119:Archiv für Frankfurts Geschichte und Kunst
2086:. Sigmaringen 1991. Jan Thorbecke Verlag,
1746:. Sigmaringen 1991. Jan Thorbecke Verlag,
961:(German: Acorn) owned by the senior Rabbi
896:, after Fettmilch's first name. The Purim-
676:This first ghetto synagogue, known as the
185:History before the creation of the ghetto
165:) and formed a slight curve from today's
82:Learn how and when to remove this message
1656:"Infobank Judengassse Frankfurt am Main"
1580:. Starting in 1929 the new cemetery on
1054:impoverished by the previous disasters.
45:This article includes a list of general
2288:Museums and exhibits about antisemitism
2170:Infobank about the Judengasse Frankfurt
2022:Note: The following are all in German.
1682:"Virtual Jewish History Tour Frankfurt"
1647:
1608:The Jewish Cemetery as depicted in the
1598:
748:Academy had been established where the
451:
1432:The northern half of the current road
1389:on the west side. After the Nazis had
1021:. Compared to other synagogues of the
503:The Jewish Code of Residence (German:
438:. Later, in 1388 during a war between
1722:, Jewish History (2008) 22: 179–221.
1624:Old Jewish Cemetery on Battonnstraße.
1541:before their murder in camps such as
1537:established by the Nazis such as the
7:
2128:, Thorbecke-Verlag, Stuttgart 2000,
2107:. 2 Bände, Frankfurt a. M. 1925–1927
2098:Das unbekannte Frankfurt. Neue Folge
907:The Jewish Code of Residence of 1616
449:, the cemetery was again fortified.
1456:Street opposite to the junction of
1350:(German: Jews' Market) was renamed
1187:the book and any copies found were
1009:or new synagogue to the south. The
635:reaching a conclusion. In 1442 the
292:of children of such marriages. The
1280:The Börneplatz Synagogue, c. 1890.
473:Remains of destroyed memory stones
157:Part of Staufenmauer at Fahrgasse.
51:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
1397:was totally destroyed during the
1362:and had their own Synagogue, the
740:The rabbinical conference of 1603
201:granted the citizens and Jews of
2175:Gerald J. Oppenheimer Collection
1629:
1617:
1601:
1557:Jewish Cemetery on Battonnstraße
1399:bombing of Frankfurt during WWII
1334:. Following the reconstruction,
1272:The new Main Synagogue, c. 1860.
1195:both the Emperor and the German
490:
478:
466:
454:
352:that lasted some years. In 1246
305:Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
36:
2124:Egon Wamers, Markus Grossbach:
1828:/www.sehepunkte.historicum.net/
1765:Early Modern Germany, 1477–1806
497:Memory stones for murdered Jews
1791:. Leiden: Brill. p. 651.
193:Frankfurter Judengasse in 1868
169:to Börneplatz, near the river
1:
2293:Jews and Judaism in Frankfurt
2278:1462 establishments in Europe
2258:Jewish communities in Germany
1231:brought liberty to the Jews.
1191:. Frankfurt's Jews intensely
941:The Great Ghetto Fire of 1711
875:were executed on Frankfurt's
752:rabbis taught. Additionally,
318:or Jewish dirge records that
234:Saint Bartholomew's Cathedral
2010:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1998:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1986:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1974:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1962:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1950:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1948:Marktplatz (Ortsteil Höchst)
1938:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1926:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1914:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1902:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1883:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1871:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1859:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1847:, Synagogue Internet Archive
1354:(German: Boerne Platz). The
994:Jewish Museum of Switzerland
879:square. On the same day, 20
2146:Museum Judengasse Frankfurt
1830:(in German). Archived from
310:It seems possible that the
286:Jewish-Christians marriages
2309:
1785:Heller, Marvin J. (2011).
796:
668:Construction of the ghetto
2248:Jewish museums in Germany
2185:Google Arts & Culture
2121:, Heft 42, Frankfurt 1954
1893:Freiherr-vom-Stein-Straße
1728:10.1007/s10835-007-9055-2
1708:Isaac ben Moses of Vienna
1151:Carl Theodor Reiffenstein
1113:abolition of the ghetto.
213:. Eighty years later the
2263:Jewish ghettos in Europe
2026:Fritz Backhaus (Hrsg.):
1763:Hughes, Michael (1992).
1313:Mayer Amschel Rothschild
734:Mayer Amschel Rothschild
630:Leading up to the ghetto
1493:. Near the museum, on
1491:Jewish Museum Frankfurt
1239:Grand Duke of Frankfurt
1062:The Bombardment of 1796
1044:The Ghetto Fire of 1721
811:. During the riot, the
789:to settle the dispute.
461:Inside the old cemetery
66:more precise citations.
2054:Michael Best (Hrsg.):
1912:Friedberger Anlage 5–6
1898:22 August 2016 at the
1822:Schnettger, Matthias.
1582:Eckenheimer Landstraße
1513:
1418:
1405:Remnants of the ghetto
1286:Free City of Frankfurt
1281:
1273:
1154:
1142:
1075:
997:
950:
835:
830:The plundering of the
793:The Fettmilch uprising
626:
194:
158:
104:Frankfurter Judengasse
99:
2253:Jewish German history
2243:Religion in Frankfurt
2156:Museumsufer Frankfurt
2112:Die Frankfurter Juden
1508:
1467:The south end of the
1412:
1279:
1271:
1179:, a fervent plea for
1148:
1136:
1129:The end of the ghetto
1069:
991:
948:
845:Imperial Interdiction
829:
803:Tensions between the
787:Archbishop of Cologne
692:rent from the owner.
637:Emperor Frederick III
624:
345:led by Frederick II.
282:Slaughter of the Jews
248:and a mansion of the
192:
156:
97:
2238:History of Frankfurt
2233:Museums in Frankfurt
2209:50.11361°N 8.68694°E
1364:Börneplatz Synagogue
1294:Grand Duchy of Baden
1205:Patent of Toleration
1084:Jean Baptiste Kléber
1080:French Revolutionary
1013:was built with many
981:) as a memorial and
657:Crist ist entstanden
617:The Frankfurt ghetto
295:Annales Erphordenses
2205: /
2152:"Museum Judengasse"
1834:on 25 January 2004.
1810:Megillat Vinz, 1648
1610:Jewish Encyclopedia
1434:An der Staufenmauer
1387:Dominican Monastery
1181:religious tolerance
1117:Hep-Hep Riots, 1819
1074:on 13–14 July 1796.
527:der Juden stedikeit
374:Ludwig the Bavarian
2268:Frankfurt-Altstadt
1845:Alt Heddernheim 33
1662:on 5 December 2014
1514:
1419:
1282:
1274:
1229:Kingdom of Prussia
1169:In 1779 the drama
1155:
1143:
1076:
1051:Emperor Charles VI
998:
951:
836:
799:Fettmilch uprising
716:Life in the ghetto
627:
607:Emperor Maximilian
563:Emperor Wenceslaus
430:, or ritual bath.
370:Free Imperial City
280:(from the German;
195:
159:
132:early modern times
100:
98:Museum Judengasse.
2214:50.11361; 8.68694
2103:Isidor Kracauer,
1881:Conrad-Weil-Gasse
1798:978-90-04-18638-5
1565:along the modern
1486:Museum Judengasse
1479:Museum Judengasse
1473:Museum Judengasse
1375:Großer Wollgraben
1309:Rothschild family
1209:Emperor Joseph II
1096:Eschenheimer Gate
834:, 22 August 1614.
809:Vincenz Fettmilch
782:Emperor Rudolf II
288:and the enforced
258:Holy Roman Empire
92:
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1343:
1340:Ludwig Börne
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333:, who had a
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163:Staufenmauer
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139:World War II
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103:
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29:
2212: /
2161:21 December
2068:Amos Elon:
1869:Börnestraße
1612:(1901-1906)
1371:Börnestraße
1344:Börnestraße
1189:confiscated
1023:Baroque era
1019:rose window
924:Middle Ages
407:flagellants
360:The second
207:ShUM-cities
64:introducing
2227:Categories
1857:Börneplatz
1642:References
1589:headstones
1469:Judengasse
1462:Judengasse
1450:Judengasse
1442:Judengasse
1427:Judengasse
1415:Anne Frank
1395:Judengasse
1385:after the
1379:Börneplatz
1360:Börneplatz
1352:Börneplatz
1348:Judenmarkt
1336:Judengasse
1330:under the
1305:Judengasse
1301:Judengasse
1207:issued by
1201:Regensburg
1197:Parliament
1139:Judengasse
1104:Judengasse
1072:Judengasse
1038:Judengasse
955:Judengasse
894:Purim Vinz
887:, a stone
885:Judengasse
857:Judengasse
853:Judengasse
832:Judengasse
813:Judengasse
805:patricians
754:Kabbalahic
729:Judengasse
705:Judengasse
698:Judengasse
689:Judengasse
682:Judengasse
600:Regensburg
555:Regensburg
447:Archbishop
382:City-state
378:Charles IV
331:Dominicans
264:The first
250:Archbishop
122:) was the
117:Jews' Lane
47:references
2200:8°41′13″E
2197:50°6′49″N
1551:Treblinka
1217:coalition
877:Rossmarkt
869:Offenbach
758:Palestine
596:Nuremberg
592:Magdeburg
543:Nuremberg
511:The term
354:Conrad IV
238:Fahrgasse
128:Frankfurt
72:June 2022
1896:Archived
1712:piyyutim
1688:11 March
1666:11 March
1535:ghettoes
1356:Orthodox
1215:and the
1111:de facto
1098:and the
1088:Austrian
1011:Altschul
1007:Neuschul
1003:Altschul
898:Kaddisch
750:halakhic
746:Talmudic
678:Altschul
594:(1493),
590:(1453),
586:(1438),
584:Augsburg
582:(1424),
578:(1420),
574:(1418),
444:Salzburg
442:and the
240:and the
230:old city
199:Henry IV
149:Location
1704:halakha
1543:Sobibor
1527:Gestapo
1391:removed
1381:became
1258:florins
1246:Anlagen
1225:England
1221:Austria
1193:lobbied
1092:cannons
778:Koblenz
774:Cologne
588:Breslau
580:Cologne
364:of 1349
320:archers
290:baptism
268:of 1241
111:
60:improve
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2048:
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1716:Mahzor
1547:Belzec
1213:France
1185:banned
1031:Poland
1027:Prague
1015:Gothic
959:Eichel
865:Höchst
817:pogrom
655:) and
576:Vienna
547:Erfurt
440:Swabia
428:mikvah
339:heresy
274:pogrom
217:based
205:, the
49:, but
1804:3 May
1571:Worms
1332:Nazis
1317:widow
985:day.
979:Tevet
913:Mainz
861:Hanau
770:Fulda
766:Mainz
650:Latin
611:Worms
572:Trier
551:Mainz
523:guild
335:papal
316:qinah
254:Mainz
219:Rabbi
215:Mainz
203:Worms
2163:2022
2130:ISBN
2088:ISBN
2074:ISBN
2060:ISBN
2046:ISBN
2032:ISBN
1806:2022
1793:ISBN
1769:ISBN
1748:ISBN
1690:2014
1668:2014
1549:and
1377:and
1227:and
1137:The
1121:The
983:fast
881:Adar
867:and
785:the
776:and
539:fair
376:and
246:mint
242:Main
171:Main
108:lit.
102:The
2183:at
1724:doi
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1199:in
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