1163:
King
Charles realized he needed them as allies, he sent special missions that were uninformed about local political, military, and diplomatic situations, and were ignorant of personalities and political factionalism. Ignorance produced a series of blunders that ruined their efforts to find allies. King Louis XIV of France, by contrast, developed the most sophisticated diplomatic service, with permanent ambassadors and lesser ministers in major and minor capitals, all preparing steady streams of information and advice to Paris. Diplomacy became a career that proved highly attractive to rich senior aristocrats who enjoyed very high society at royal courts, especially because they carried the status of the most powerful nation in Europe. Increasingly, other nations copied the French model; French became the language of diplomacy, replacing Latin. By 1700, the British and the Dutch, with small land armies, large navies, and large treasuries, used astute diplomacy to build alliances, subsidizing as needed land powers to fight on their side, or as in the case of the Hessians, hiring regiments of soldiers from mercenary princes in small countries. The balance of power was very delicately calculated, so that winning a battle here was worth the slice of territory there, with no regard to the wishes of the inhabitants. Important peacemaking conferences at Utrecht (1713), Vienna (1738), Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) and Paris (1763) had a cheerful, cynical, game-like atmosphere in which professional diplomats cashed in victories like casino chips in exchange for territory.
843:
1053:
1155:(1618–1648), where religion and ideology had been powerful motivating forces for warfare. Westphalia, in the realist view, ushered in a new international system of sovereign states of roughly equal strength, dedicated not to ideology or religion but to enhance status, and territorial gains. The Catholic Church, for example, no longer devoted its energies to the very difficult task of reclaiming dioceses lost to Protestantism, but to build large-scale missions in overseas colonial possessions that could convert the natives by the thousands Using devoted members of society such as the Jesuits. According to
1037:"prolific in genius, in common sense, and in organizing ability. It could properly have been expected that intelligence, comprehension and high purpose would be applied to the control of human relations in general and to the relations between states and peoples in particular. The fact was almost completely opposite. It was a period of marked unintelligence, immorality and frivolity in the conduct of international relations, marked by wars undertaken for dimly conceived purposes, waged with the utmost brutality and conducted by reckless betrayals of allies."
19:
865:, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement; however, religious changes in the English national church proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere in Europe. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (
1529:
1016:
1454:) and the efforts by the kings to create a centralized state, Ancien RĂ©gime France remained a country of systemic irregularities: administrative (including taxation), legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions and prerogatives frequently overlapped, while the French nobility struggled to maintain their own rights in the matters of local government and justice, and powerful internal conflicts (like the
221:
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939:. The intellectual leaders of this movement regarded themselves as a courageous elite, and regarded their purpose as one of leading the world toward progress and out of a long period of doubtful tradition, full of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny, which they believed began during a historical period they called the
1362:, and important states in southern Italy. The Spanish claims to Naples and Sicily dated back to the 15th century, but had been marred by rival claims until the mid-16th century and the rule of Philip II. There would be no Italian revolts against Spanish rule until 1647. The death of the Ottoman emperor
1099:
and much of
Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Catholic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. For the first time since the days of Martin Luther,
337:
as well as the lessening of the influence of all faiths upon national governments. Many historians have identified the early modern period as the epoch in which individuals began to think of themselves as belonging to a national polity—a notable break from medieval modes of self-identification, which
903:
Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the
Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and also the theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in
1162:
Diplomacy before 1700 was not well developed, and chances to avoid wars were too often squandered. In
England, for example, King Charles II paid little attention to diplomacy, which proved disastrous. During the Dutch war of 1665–67, England had no diplomats stationed in Denmark or Sweden. When
908:
in the 1960s look at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the
Reformation was then seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement and
1033:
The 17th century saw very little peace in Europe – major wars were fought in 95 years (every year except 1610, 1669 to 1671, and 1680 to 1682.) The wars were unusually ugly. Europe in the late 17th century, 1648 to 1700, was an age of great intellectual, scientific, artistic and cultural
1358:, Spain, rather than the Habsburg empire, was identified as a more powerful nation than France and England globally. Furthermore, despite attacks from other European states, Spain retained its position of dominance with apparent ease. Spain controlled the Netherlands until the
992:, and vice versa. However, "Renaissance" is properly used in relation to a diverse series of cultural developments; which occurred over several hundred years in many different parts of Europe—especially central and northern Italy—and span the transition from late
1494:—representatives of royal power in the provinces—did much to undermine local control by regional nobles. The same was true of the greater reliance shown by the royal court on the "noblesse de robe" as judges and royal counselors. The creation of regional
1266:(1525) initiated the Habsburg primacy in Italy and the replacement of France as the main European power. Nevertheless, religious wars forced Charles V to abdicate in 1556 and divide the Habsburg possessions between Spain and Austria. The next Holy Roman
1461:
The need for centralization in this period was directly linked to the question of royal finances and the ability to wage war. The internal conflicts and dynastic crises of the 16th and 17th centuries (the wars between
Catholics and Protestants and the
735:
within the Roman
Catholic Church through a variety of new spiritual movements, reforms of religious communities, the founding of seminaries, the clarification of Catholic theology as well as structural changes in the institution of the Church.
586:
as a unified political entity was destroyed. Many kings and rulers used this radical shift in the understanding of the world to further consolidate their sovereignty over their territories. For instance, many of the
Germanic states (as well as
366:, a device that fundamentally changed the circulation of information. Movable type, which allowed individual characters to be arranged to form words and which is an invention separate from the printing press, had been invented earlier in China.
1195:
since the mid-1400s and for the entire Early modern period. Despite the lack of a centralized political structure in a period in which national monarchies were emerging, the
Habsburg Emperors of the Early modern period came close to form a
333:. As such, historians have attributed a number of fundamental changes to the period, notably the increasingly rapid progress of science and technology, the secularization of politics, and the diminution of the absolute authority of the
353:
The beginning of the early modern period is not clear-cut, but is generally accepted to be in the late 15th century or early 16th century. Significant dates in this transitional phase from medieval to early modern Europe can be noted:
923:"The Age of Enlightenment" refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a period which includes the Age of Reason. The term also more specifically refers to a historical intellectual movement,
816:. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, came under the influence of Protestantism. Southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the
574:(in fact, this consolidation of power from the land-owning nobles to the titular monarchs was one of the most prominent themes of the Middle Ages). Among the most notable political changes included the abolition of
1705:
The papacy continued to exercise significant diplomatic influence during the Early modern period. The Popes were frequently assembling Holy
Leagues to assert Catholic supremacy in Europe. During the Renaissance,
1159:, the realist model assumes that "foreign policies were guided entirely by "Realpolitik," by the resulting struggle for resources and, eventually, by the search for what became known as a 'balance of power.'
1993:
1498:
had initially the same goal of facilitating the introduction of royal power into newly assimilated territories, but as the parlements gained in self-assurance, they began to be sources of disunity.
1660:
127:
The modern period was characterized by profound changes in many realms of human endeavor. Among the most important include the development of science as a formalized practice, increasingly rapid
1685:
was the largest country with a large population and was very powerful. It was the largest semi-democratically governed polity of its time. It had low taxes but managed to field thousands of
1044:, 1618–1648, which had an extremely negative impact on the civilian population of Germany and surrounding areas, with massive loss of life and disruption of the economy and society.
1631:'s regime in 1649 . The Caroline era was dominated by the growing religious, political, and social conflict between the King and his supporters, termed the Royalist party, and the
1115:
of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of
747:. Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland.
1374:
in 1571 cemented the status of Spain as a superpower in Europe and the world. The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies of the Spanish Monarch in the Americas, Asia (
1347:
monarchs, the empire was brought under greater crown control and increased its revenues from the Indies. The crown's authority in The Indies was enlarged by the papal grant of
3807:
1466:'s internal family conflict) and the territorial expansion of France in the 17th century demanded great sums which needed to be raised through taxes, such as the land tax (
680:, Germany, commonly used to post notices to the University community. It was very widely publicized across Europe and caught fire. Luther began by criticizing the sale of
1083:
and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the
2527:
1718:
and worked to preserve their primacy among the Italian princes. During the Counter-Reformation, the Papacy supported Catholic powers and factions all over Europe.
4028:
2278:
The History and Determination of the Line of Demarcation Established by Pope Alexander VI Between the Spanish and Portuguese Fields of Discovery and Colonization
707:
The Reformation ended in division and the establishment of new church movements. The four most important traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation were
3503:
2710:
Klein, Alexander, and Jelle Van Lottum. "The Determinants of International Migration in Early Modern Europe: Evidence from the Maritime Sector, c. 1700–1800."
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and East Asia. The ensuing rise of global systems of international economic, cultural and intellectual exchange played an important role in the development of
1990:
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1278:(1618–1648). The Habsburgs controlled the elective monarchies of Hungary and Bohemia as well, and eventually turned these states into hereditary domains.
95:
Some of the more notable trends and events of the early modern period included the Reformation and the religious conflicts it provoked (including the
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1635:
opposition that evolved in response to particular aspects of Charles' rule. The colonization of North America continued apace, with new colonies in
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1913:
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112:
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declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull
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317:
Regardless of the precise dates used to define its beginning and end points, the early modern period is generally agreed to have comprised the
1028:
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1977:
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999:
The term "early modern" is most often applied to Europe, and its overseas empire. However, it has also been employed in the history of the
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1600:(1603–1625). Overseas exploration and establishment of trading factories sped up, with the first permanent settlements in North America at
238:
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provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The core motivation behind the Reformation was
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3445:
1428:, and the Valois Dynasty's attempts at re-establishing control over the scattered political centres of the country were hindered by the
3782:
3299:
2174:
954:
731:. Subsequent Protestant churches generally trace their roots back to these initial four schools of the Reformation. It also led to the
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1128:
the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.
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3701:
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2499:
2117:
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159:. As such, the early modern period is often associated with the decline and eventual disappearance (at least in Western Europe) of
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The initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The availability of the
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was signed dividing the world into two regions of exploration, where each had exclusive rights to claim newly discovered lands.
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2840:, edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., (vol. 5: The Age of the Baroque and Enlightenment 1600–1800, Gale, 2005), pp. 336–341.
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1076:
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1583:, among others, composed highly innovative and powerful plays. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad. At home the
155:, and later in France, Germany and England. The early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of
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The Habsburgs expanded their control within and outside the Holy Roman Empire as a result of the dynastic policy pursued by
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1486:) and by contributions of men and service from the nobility. The key to this centralization was the replacing of personal
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1332:, the Americas. To prevent conflict between Portugal and Castile (the crown under which Columbus made the voyage), the
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had no foundation in the gospel. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as
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and the crystallization of kingdoms into nation-states. Perhaps even more significantly, with the advent of the
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systems organized around the king and other nobles by institutional systems around the state. The creation of
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period in the arts, and receives contemporary application in the unity of science movement which includes
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in 1517. The precise dates of its end point also vary and are usually linked with either the start of the
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in Massachusetts in 1620. One king now ruled England and Scotland; the latter was fully absorbed by the
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48:, roughly the mid 15th century to the late 18th century. Historians variously mark the beginning of the
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Philosophy and the Arts in Central Europe, 1500–1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities
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Gaston Zeller, "French diplomacy and foreign policy in their European setting." in Carsten, ed.,
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John A. Mears, "The Emergence Of The Standing Professional Army In Seventeenth-Century Europe,"
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and the publication of enduringly influential works of political and social philosophy, such as
342:), language, or feudal allegiance (belonging to the manor or extended household of a particular
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routinely beat other respectable opponents such as the Ottomans, the Swedes and the Russians.
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The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750: Volume I: Peoples and Place
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broke England's ties with the Catholic Church, becoming the sole head of the English Church.
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The intellectual developments of the period included the creation of the economic theory of
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Divided by Faith. Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe.
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was established and successfully defended against the Catholic powers of Spain and France.
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The Hessian mercenary state: ideas, institutions, and reform under Frederick II, 1760–1785
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dynasties. Much of the medieval political centralization of France had been lost in the
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by crossing the Atlantic. He landed on a continent uncharted by Europeans and seen as a
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The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350–1750
812:. Much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the
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political and national convictions again outweighed religious convictions in Europe.
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of the Earth and the establishment of regular European contact with the Americas and
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began to develop in a nascent form, first in the northern Italian republics such as
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Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church
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Strangers nowhere in the world: the rise of cosmopolitanism in early modern Europe
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From Renaissance Monarchy to Absolute Monarchy: French Kings, Nobles & Estates
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Levine, David. "The Population of Europe: Early Modern Demographic Patterns." in
2346:, revised edition. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966, pp. 4–6.
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Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations
1140:. European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.
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There were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the
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The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800
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were focused on administrative centralisation. Despite, however, the notion of "
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Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe
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Bax, Ernest Belfort. "Gracchus Babeuf and the Conspiracy of the Equals", 1911
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from 1590 to 1868 is also sometimes referred to as the "early modern" period.
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The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power.
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The expression "early modern" is sometimes used as a substitute for the term
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2850:(6 vol 2000), 3000 pp; overview vol. 1 pp. 165–77, plus hundreds of articles
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criticizing the practice of indulgences to the door of the Castle Church in
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179:, especially in Northern Europe. The early modern period also witnessed the
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The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe 1660–1789
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2769:(1953), Despite the narrow title is a general survey of European history.
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The end date of the early modern period is variously associated with the
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1079:, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population. Roman Catholic
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245: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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in 1648, Europe's borders were largely stable. 1708 map by Herman Moll
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1408:(French for "old regime") was the political and social system of the
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The Counter-Reformation: Catholic Europe and the Non-Christian World
2039:
The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 2: The Reformation, 1520–1559
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1513: First formulation of modern politics with the publication of
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invaded Italy, drastically altering the status quo and beginning a
1754:, Papal claims to universal authority came effectively to an end.
1527:
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1492: The first documented European voyage to the Americas by the
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A history of diplomacy in the international development of Europe
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Christians living in principalities where their denomination was
758:, though many other factors played a part, including the rise of
1742:. Gregory XIII is also responsible for the establishment of the
660:. It is typically dated from 1517, lasting until the end of the
547:, which began in Britain in about 1750, or the beginning of the
347:
164:
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A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present
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The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603
879:
The following outcomes of the Protestant Reformation regarding
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had been largely based upon religion (belonging to a universal
175:, creating a formidable new opposition to the dominance of the
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Toward the Modern Economy: Early Industry in Europe, 1500–1800
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The structure of the Spanish Empire was established under the
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Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World
2611:, edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 1: 2001), pp. 165–177.
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Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689
1416:
that started in 1789. The Ancien RĂ©gime was ruled by the
960:, and also led to the rise of liberalism and the birth of
88:
in 1789 or with the more vaguely defined beginning of the
2732:
edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 2, 2001), pp. 145–157.
996:
civilization and the opening of the early modern period.
2660:
Inky Fingers: The Making of Books in Early Modern Europe
1661:
History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)
1034:
achievement. Historian Frederick Nussbaum says it was:
895:, and "dark" outcomes have been identified by scholars.
871:) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions.
80:
to the Americas in 1492, or the start of the Protestant
2740:
New Cambridge Modern History: The Old Regime, 1713–1763
131:, and the establishment of secularized civic politics,
1563:
in English cultural history. It was the height of the
1378:), Europe and some territories in Africa and Oceania.
2588:
Witch Hunts and State Building in Early Modern Europe
2362:. New York: Oxford University Press 1947, pp. 181–82.
984:
Difference between 'early modern' and the Renaissance
2595:
The Economy of Europe in an Age of Crisis, 1600–1750
953:, the Latin American independence movement, and the
595:
in an attempt to slip out of the grasp of the Pope.
551:
in 1789, which drastically transformed the state of
4360:
4324:
4317:
4259:
4209:
4202:
4159:
4143:
4107:
4098:
3989:
3982:
3947:
3906:
3850:
3726:
3719:
3689:
3682:
3641:
3634:
3589:
3526:
3519:
3418:
3223:
3039:
2979:
2946:
1250:The main opponents of the Habsburg Empire were the
945:. This movement also provided a framework for the
931:as a means to establish an authoritative system of
2331:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
2855:War and Society in Early Modern Europe: 1495–1715
2817:The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848
2810:The Foundations of Early Modern Europe, 1460–1559
2514:The Foundations of Early Modern Europe: 1460–1559
636:The Protestant Reformation was a reform-oriented
2629:Transitions to capitalism in early modern Europe
2607:Dewald, Jonathan. "The Early Modern Period." in
2428:The Ancien Regime: A History of France 1610–1774
684:, insisting that the Pope had no authority over
2037:For a wide range of causes see G.R. Elton, ed.
983:
668:in 1648. It was launched on 31 October 1517 by
4029:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
2836:"The State Church in Early-Modern Europe." in
2538:, Studies in Modern History, Pearson Education
1722:assembled the Catholic coalition that won the
191:and represents an identifiable early phase of
3497:
2924:
2833:(2015); Volume II: Cultures and Power (2015).
1970:The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church
1551:This period refers to England 1558–1603. The
909:textured and rich because of its diversity."
857:decisively after 1547. The separation of the
8:
2892:Discussion of the medieval/modern transition
2876:The Emergence of the Great Powers, 1685–1715
2767:The triumph of science and reason, 1660–1685
2667:Cultures of Calvinism in Early Modern Europe
2665:Gribben, Crawford, and Graeme Murdock, eds.
2526:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2162:The triumph of science and reason, 1660–1685
1734:. Worldwide religious missions, such as the
1478:
1468:
4019:History of European Jews in the Middle Ages
2567:European International Relations, 1648–1815
2320:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers 1989, p. 21.
1555:is the period associated with the reign of
1351:, giving it power in the religious sphere.
1107:, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:
804:The Roman Catholic Church responded with a
4321:
4206:
4104:
3986:
3723:
3686:
3638:
3523:
3504:
3490:
3482:
2931:
2917:
2909:
2894:, from the introduction to the pioneering
2636:The European Demographic System, 1500–1820
2296:. Cambridge University Press. p. 35.
1968:"Trent, Council of" in Cross, F. L. (ed.)
1627:(1625–1645), followed by his beheading by
1274:and maintained Germany at peace until the
1215:into the Habsburg inheritance. Their son,
1147:on wars and diplomacy have emphasized the
875:Consequences of the Protestant Reformation
782:that questioned much traditional thought.
358:1450: The invention of the first European
2188:Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church
1458:) protested against this centralization.
1448:" (typified by the king's right to issue
1235:(son of Philip and Joanna) inherited the
305:Learn how and when to remove this message
171:greatly altered the religious balance of
2803:Memory in early modern Europe, 1500–1800
2757:History of European Diplomacy, 1451–1789
2730:Encyclopedia of European Social History,
2399:The Oxford Handbook of the Ancien RĂ©gime
2329:Schwaller, John F., "Patronato Real" in
2112:. Oxford University Press. p. 215.
1151:(1648) as a dividing line. It ended the
17:
2869:Women and gender in early modern Europe
2848:Encyclopedia of European Social History
2650:From Despotism To Revolution: 1763–1789
2643:Ideas of Liberty in Early Modern Europe
2609:Encyclopedia of European Social History
1961:
1366:in 1566 and the naval victory over the
739:The largest Protestant groups were the
2581:Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History
2519:
1689:who composed of nobility who followed
1575:. This was also the time during which
1075:(1618–1648), which devastated much of
1003:. In the historiography of Japan, the
688:and that the Catholic doctrine of the
72:in Italy in the 1490s, the end of the
2781:Earlier diplomatic history, 1492–1713
2725:(5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline
2705:The rise and fall of the great powers
2414:
1541:: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession
1533:Elizabeth ushers in Peace and Plenty.
972:and classical eras in music, and the
861:(or Anglican Church) from Rome under
117:European colonization of the Americas
7:
4168:Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486)
2838:Arts and Humanities Through the Eras
2186:Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of"
2026:The protestant reformation in Europe
1730:sided with the Catholics during the
1111:All parties would now recognise the
243:adding citations to reliable sources
4378:History of the Mediterranean region
3581:International relations (1648–1814)
3446:History of the Mediterranean region
2681:Scandinavia in the Early Modern Era
2458:The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714
1324:'s plan to sail west to reach the
770:, the perceived corruption of the
535:and marks the end of the medieval
440:, with the final expulsion of the
207:Europe about 1560, as in the 1923
14:
4135:Greek scholars in the Renaissance
3702:Journalism of Early Modern Europe
1972:, Oxford University Press, 2005 (
1914:International relations 1648–1814
1262:in a series of Italian wars. The
1243:and its territories in 1516, and
1029:International relations 1648–1814
566:had yielded to the notion of the
3431:Bibliography of European history
3026:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
2723:An Encyclopedia of World History
2619:Competition For Empire 1740–1763
2602:European Urbanization, 1500–1800
2239:The New Cambridge Modern History
2226:Britain and the World: 1649–1815
2175:History of Europe – Demographics
2010:The Reformation: A Brief History
1205:Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor
904:depth. However, the rise of the
219:
151:as well as in the cities of the
4368:History of Western civilization
3654:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
3456:History of Western civilization
3059:Christianity in the Middle Ages
2904:Society for Renaissance Studies
2752:(3rd ed. 2009, 2 vol), 1412 pp.
2456:Barry Coward, and Peter Gaunt.
2280:(1892) online in Gutenberg.org.
733:Catholic or Counter Reformation
512:Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
230:needs additional citations for
78:voyages of Christopher Columbus
3997:Christianity in the modern era
3783:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
3300:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
3243:Christianity in the modern era
3014:Christianity in late antiquity
2862:Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789
2783:(1949), covers all of Europe;
2241:vol. 5 (1961) pp. 198–99, 206.
1683:Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1665:Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
955:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
778:, and the new learning of the
373:The conquest of Constantinople
92:in late 18th century England.
68:in 1485, the beginning of the
1:
4342:History of the European Union
4180:Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
3970:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756
3934:War of the Spanish Succession
3451:History of the European Union
2823:; advanced diplomatic history
2791:Diplomatic History, 1713–1933
2360:The Spanish Empire in America
2211:Hamish Scott, book review in
1714:were largely involved in the
1233:Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
1047:
968:. It is matched by the high
853:The Reformation reshaped the
501:to the door of the church in
4245:Early Netherlandish painting
2474:The Early Stuarts, 1603–1660
2387:– via Encyclopedia.com
1866:Electorate of the Palatinate
1681:In early modern Europe, the
1048:Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648
820:, which left it devastated.
4425:History of Europe by period
3886:Absolute monarchy in France
3830:Lands of the Bohemian Crown
3410:Russian invasion of Ukraine
3021:Crisis of the Third Century
2541:Benjamin J. Kaplan (2007),
2379:, The Gale Group Inc., 2004
2177:". Encyclopædia Britannica.
1567:, and saw the flowering of
419:monarchy, in the person of
56:printing in the 1450s, the
4448:
4352:Military history of Europe
4347:Maritime history of Europe
4240:Dutch and Flemish painting
4151:Science in the Renaissance
3466:Military history of Europe
3461:Maritime history of Europe
2545:Cambridge University Press
2490:Major, J. Russell (1994).
2106:Margaret C. Jacob (1991).
2094:The Reformation: A History
2053:George Huntston Williams,
1654:
1505:
1412:from about 1450 until the
1385:
1343:(1516–1700) and under the
1285:
1040:The worst came during the
1026:
927:. This movement advocated
916:
827:
629:
562:The role of nobles in the
465:which would punctuate the
32:, also referred to as the
4390:
4337:Genetic history of Europe
4086:European wars of religion
3929:Second Hundred Years' War
3436:Genetic history of Europe
2590:Nisus Publications, 2017.
2430:(1999), political survey
2426:Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie,
2215:(Oct 2013) pp. 1239–1241.
2213:English Historical Review
2135:, accessed June 12, 2011.
1543:, c. 1572, attributed to
1432:). Much of the reigns of
1182:Holy Roman Empire of the
1118:cuius regio, eius religio
1067:The Reformation led to a
789:, which gave rise to the
766:that eroded faith in the
448:; the Spanish government
415:gave way to early modern
379:signalled the end of the
44:and the beginning of the
2897:Cambridge Modern History
2867:Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E.
2318:Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808
2290:Tracy, James D. (1993).
2148:(1969) 50#1 pp. 106–115
2146:Social Science Quarterly
1996:August 13, 2013, at the
1673:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
1524:Kingdom of Great Britain
1364:Suleiman the Magnificent
1258:. The Habsburgs clashed
1069:series of religious wars
64:in 1453, the end of the
4373:History of Christianity
3955:French–Habsburg rivalry
3914:French Wars of Religion
3441:History of Christianity
2846:Stearns, Peter N., ed.
2765:Nussbaum, Frederick L.
2516:. W.W. Norton & Co.
2432:excerpt and text search
2403:excerpt and text search
2397:See William Doyle, ed.
2276:Edward Gaylord Bourne,
2160:Frederick L. Nussbaum,
2081:The English Reformation
2055:The Radical Reformation
1732:French wars of religion
1520:Commonwealth of England
1476:) and the tax on salt (
1440:and the early years of
1207:. Maximilian I married
1103:Two main tenets of the
1071:that culminated in the
1063:to be freely exercised.
97:French Wars of Religion
40:between the end of the
4118:Renaissance philosophy
4034:Protestant Reformation
3842:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
3649:Fall of Constantinople
3265:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
2812:(2nd ed. 1994) 240 pp.
2793:(1946), broad summary
2712:Social Science History
1934:Protestant Reformation
1787:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
1758:Other political powers
1738:, were established by
1585:Protestant Reformation
1559:(1558–1603) and was a
1548:
1479:
1469:
1225:Ferdinand II of Aragon
1223:of Spain (daughter of
1213:Burgundian Netherlands
1180:was also known as the
1064:
1024:
850:
212:
129:technological progress
58:Fall of Constantinople
52:with the invention of
26:
4397:History of philosophy
4272:Industrial Revolution
3670:Scientific Revolution
3345:Industrial Revolution
2871:(Cambridge UP, 2019).
2714:44.1 (2020): 143–167
2627:DuPlessis, Robert S.
1924:Scientific Revolution
1861:Electorate of Bavaria
1655:Further information:
1531:
1506:Further information:
1386:Further information:
1334:Treaty of Tordesillas
1286:Further information:
1191:held the position of
1145:"realist" perspective
1055:
1018:
1011:Diplomacy and warfare
958:Constitution of May 3
845:
664:(1618–1648) with the
568:Divine Right of Kings
545:Industrial Revolution
537:Roman Catholic Church
335:Roman Catholic Church
327:Scientific Revolution
254:"Early modern Europe"
206:
90:Industrial Revolution
46:Industrial Revolution
25:: Map of Europe, 1595
21:
4123:Renaissance humanism
4007:Bohemian Reformation
3965:Treaties of Nijmegen
3576:Age of Enlightenment
3400:European debt crisis
3395:European integration
3335:Age of Enlightenment
3175:Republic of Florence
2534:John Coffey (2000),
2510:Rice, Eugene, F. Jr.
1950:Age of Enlightenment
1919:Early Modern warfare
1892:Early Modern Romania
1843:Early Modern Germany
1779:Republic of Florence
1736:Jesuit China mission
1508:Early modern Britain
1322:Christopher Columbus
1237:Habsburg Netherlands
1211:, thus bringing the
1057:Treaty of Westphalia
919:Age of Enlightenment
913:Age of Enlightenment
889:economic development
690:merits of the saints
658:Protestant Reformers
514:gains the crowns of
434:Christopher Columbus
362:printing process by
239:improve this article
141:Capitalist economies
34:post-medieval period
4420:Early modern period
4309:Revolutions of 1848
4230:Florentine painting
4081:Counter-Reformation
4002:Proto-Protestantism
3960:Peace of Westphalia
3803:Seventeen Provinces
3662:Printing Revolution
3556:Early modern Europe
3551:Early modern period
3513:Early modern Europe
3365:Revolutions of 1848
3295:Early modern France
3076:Anglo-Saxon England
2981:Classical antiquity
2738:Lindsay, J. O. ed.
2696:Jacob, Margaret C.
2686:Hill, David Jayne.
2586:de Gouges, Linnea.
2572:Blanning, T. C. W.
2333:vol. 4, pp. 323–24.
2250:Charles W. Ingrao,
2092:Patrick Collinson,
2008:Kenneth G. Appold,
1940:Counter-Reformation
1882:Early Modern Sweden
1814:Kingdom of Portugal
1748:Peace of Westphalia
1726:against the Turks.
1602:Jamestown, Virginia
1581:William Shakespeare
1577:Elizabethan theatre
1565:English Renaissance
1516:Kingdom of Scotland
1392:Early modern France
1376:Spanish Philippines
1349:powers of patronage
1292:Early Modern period
1268:Emperor Ferdinand I
1229:Isabella of Castile
1217:Philip the Handsome
1200:in Western Europe.
1193:Holy Roman Emperors
1149:Peace of Westphalia
1105:Peace of Westphalia
1097:Spanish Netherlands
1021:Peace of Westphalia
838:English Reformation
806:Counter-Reformation
787:Radical Reformation
666:Peace of Westphalia
589:English Reformation
559:and modern Europe.
555:and ushered in the
533:Counter-Reformation
467:Italian Renaissance
385:Battle of Castillon
50:early modern period
36:, is the period of
30:Early modern Europe
4039:Ninety-five Theses
3825:Kingdom of Bohemia
3739:Free imperial city
3707:The General Crisis
3471:Crusading movement
3375:Russian Revolution
3210:Hundred Years' War
3106:Maritime republics
3009:Early Christianity
2999:Hellenistic period
2956:Paleolithic Europe
2860:Wiesner, Merry E.
2805:(Oxford UP, 2017).
2801:Pollmann, Judith.
2772:Parker, Geoffrey.
2672:Gutmann, Myron P.
2669:(Oxford UP, 2019).
2658:Grafton, Anthony.
2634:Flinn, Michael W.
2555:Aldershot: Ashgate
2549:Joseph S. Freedman
2476:(Oxford UP, 1959).
2342:Mecham, J. Lloyd,
2267:(1996) pp. 581–82.
2228:(1980), pp. 38–39.
2202:(1996) pp. 593–94.
2164:(1953) pp. 147–48.
2028:(Routledge, 2014).
1897:Kingdom of Hungary
1852:Kingdom of Prussia
1829:Kingdom of Bohemia
1792:Republic of Venice
1769:Early Modern Italy
1744:Gregorian calendar
1614:Acts of Union 1707
1598:James I of England
1569:English literature
1549:
1512:Kingdom of England
1426:Hundred Years' War
1356:Philip II of Spain
1198:universal monarchy
1143:Scholars taking a
1065:
1025:
978:logical positivism
951:French Revolutions
906:new social history
851:
656:, and other early
499:ninety-five theses
457:1494: French king
389:Hundred Years' War
364:Johannes Gutenberg
213:
167:. The Protestant
62:Hundred Years' War
27:
4407:
4406:
4401:History of Europe
4386:
4385:
4282:French Revolution
4277:Age of Revolution
4255:
4254:
4235:Venetian painting
4198:
4197:
4190:Leonardo da Vinci
4094:
4093:
3978:
3977:
3919:Thirty Years' War
3858:Habsburg monarchy
3815:Habsburg monarchy
3788:Cossack Hetmanate
3773:Portuguese Empire
3734:Holy Roman Empire
3715:
3714:
3697:Absolute monarchy
3678:
3677:
3630:
3629:
3479:
3478:
3405:COVID-19 pandemic
3350:French Revolution
3325:Habsburg monarchy
3305:Cossack Hetmanate
3285:Portuguese Empire
3275:Absolute monarchy
3270:Thirty Years' War
3165:Holy Roman Empire
3090:Bulgarian Empire
3049:Early Middle Ages
2966:Bronze Age Europe
2940:History of Europe
2815:Schroeder, Paul.
2789:Petrie, Charles.
2779:Petrie, Charles.
2721:Langer, William.
2417:, pp. xx–xxi
2303:978-0-521-45735-4
2200:Europe: A History
2024:Andrew Johnston,
1978:978-0-19-280290-3
1945:Thirty Years' War
1873:Tsardom of Russia
1835:Habsburg monarchy
1824:Holy Roman Empire
1807:Kingdom of Naples
1802:Republic of Genoa
1783:Duchy of Florence
1750:and the birth of
1740:Pope Gregory XIII
1724:Battle of Lepanto
1657:History of Poland
1623:was the reign of
1557:Queen Elizabeth I
1451:lettres de cachet
1446:absolute monarchy
1414:French Revolution
1410:Kingdom of France
1396:Kingdom of France
1388:History of France
1372:Battle of Lepanto
1341:Spanish Habsburgs
1310:Catholic Monarchs
1276:Thirty Years' War
1256:Kingdom of France
1178:Holy Roman Empire
1172:Holy Roman Empire
1153:Thirty Years' War
1113:Peace of Augsburg
1081:House of Habsburg
1073:Thirty Years' War
1042:Thirty Years' War
925:The Enlightenment
859:Church of England
855:Church of England
830:Church of England
824:Church of England
818:Thirty Years' War
808:initiated by the
672:, who posted his
662:Thirty Years' War
648:and continued by
553:European politics
549:French Revolution
446:Iberian Peninsula
436:; the end of the
413:Wars of the Roses
400:king of England,
315:
314:
307:
289:
101:Thirty Years' War
86:French Revolution
66:Wars of the Roses
4437:
4322:
4267:Great Divergence
4225:Italian painting
4207:
4105:
3987:
3939:Seven Years' War
3881:House of Bourbon
3837:Protestant Union
3808:Economic history
3724:
3687:
3639:
3566:Age of Discovery
3546:High Renaissance
3524:
3506:
3499:
3492:
3483:
3340:Great Divergence
3255:Age of Discovery
3200:Late Middle Ages
3170:High Middle Ages
3081:Byzantine Empire
3064:Christianization
3054:Migration Period
2989:Classical Greece
2961:Neolithic Europe
2933:
2926:
2919:
2910:
2853:Tallett, Frank.
2808:Rice, Eugene F.
2748:Merriman, John.
2617:Dorn, Walter L.
2531:
2525:
2517:
2505:
2477:
2472:Godfrey Davies,
2470:
2464:
2460:(5th ed. 2017),
2454:
2448:
2443:D. M. Palliser,
2441:
2435:
2424:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2369:
2363:
2356:Haring, Clarence
2353:
2347:
2340:
2334:
2327:
2321:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2287:
2281:
2274:
2268:
2261:
2255:
2248:
2242:
2235:
2229:
2222:
2216:
2209:
2203:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2171:
2165:
2158:
2152:
2142:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2123:
2103:
2097:
2090:
2084:
2077:
2071:
2070:(Ashgate, 2005).
2064:
2058:
2051:
2045:
2035:
2029:
2022:
2016:
2006:
2000:
1987:
1981:
1966:
1929:Age of Discovery
1857:Duchy of Bavaria
1848:Duchy of Prussia
1746:. Following the
1677:Golden Liberties
1608:in 1610, and at
1484:
1474:
1430:Wars of Religion
1304:Age of Discovery
1296:Crown of Castile
1288:History of Spain
1272:Council of Trent
1245:Habsburg Austria
1209:Mary of Burgundy
1189:House of Austria
1176:Since 1512, the
1085:Crown of Bohemia
885:Protestant ethic
810:Council of Trent
774:, the impact of
654:Huldrych Zwingli
582:, the notion of
529:Council of Trent
404:, was killed at
381:Byzantine empire
310:
303:
299:
296:
290:
288:
247:
223:
215:
209:William Shepherd
181:circumnavigation
70:High Renaissance
38:European history
23:Abraham Ortelius
4447:
4446:
4440:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4430:Western culture
4410:
4409:
4408:
4403:
4382:
4356:
4313:
4251:
4217:Renaissance art
4194:
4185:Matteo Palmieri
4155:
4139:
4128:Northern Europe
4100:
4090:
3974:
3943:
3902:
3866:House of Stuart
3846:
3711:
3674:
3626:
3597:Northern Europe
3585:
3561:Elizabethan era
3515:
3510:
3480:
3475:
3414:
3380:Interwar period
3355:Napoleonic Wars
3219:
3190:Mongol invasion
3143:Crown of Aragon
3035:
2975:
2971:Iron Age Europe
2942:
2937:
2888:
2759:(1928) 324 pp.
2703:Kennedy, Paul.
2641:Gatti, Hilary.
2600:de Vries, Jan.
2593:de Vries, Jan.
2579:Cameron, Euan.
2565:Black, Jeremy.
2562:
2560:Further reading
2518:
2508:
2502:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2480:
2471:
2467:
2455:
2451:
2442:
2438:
2425:
2421:
2413:
2409:
2401:(2012) 656 pp.
2396:
2392:
2382:
2380:
2373:"Ancien Regime"
2371:
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1998:Wayback Machine
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1984:
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1695:Polish military
1679:
1669:Crown of Poland
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1629:Oliver Cromwell
1619:The tumultuous
1610:Plymouth Colony
1596:was the reign
1553:Elizabethan Era
1526:
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1384:
1345:Spanish Bourbon
1306:
1300:Crown of Aragon
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1264:Battle of Pavia
1187:. The Habsburg
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1134:Pope Innocent X
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640:from the Roman
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450:expels the Jews
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2886:External links
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1759:
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1687:Winged Hussars
1652:
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1625:King Charles I
1545:Lucas de Heere
1537:The Family of
1503:
1500:
1383:
1380:
1368:Ottoman Empire
1283:
1280:
1270:completed the
1252:Ottoman Empire
1241:Habsburg Spain
1221:Joanna the Mad
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1138:Zelo Domus Dei
1130:
1129:
1122:
1049:
1046:
1027:Main article:
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1001:Ottoman Empire
985:
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935:, ethics, and
917:Main article:
914:
911:
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899:Historiography
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764:Western Schism
752:printing press
695:sola scriptura
630:Main article:
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557:Napoleonic era
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4332:Art of Europe
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4260:End of period
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3891:Ancien RĂ©gime
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2755:Mowat, R. B.
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2501:0-8018-5631-0
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2494:. JHU Press.
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2316:Lynch, John.
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2066:A.D. Wright,
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1752:nation-states
1749:
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1728:Pope Sixtus V
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1407:
1406:Ancien RĂ©gime
1401:
1400:Ancien RĂ©gime
1397:
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1199:
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1184:German nation
1179:
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1123:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1106:
1101:
1098:
1094:
1093:Slovene Lands
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1054:
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1038:
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1022:
1017:
1010:
1008:
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1002:
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981:
979:
975:
974:neo-classical
971:
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948:
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930:
926:
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881:human capital
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726:
723:) tradition,
722:
718:
715:(also called
714:
710:
705:
703:
702:
697:
696:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
670:Martin Luther
667:
663:
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651:
647:
646:Martin Luther
644:initiated by
643:
639:
633:
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611:
610:
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601:
596:
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593:Protestantism
590:
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569:
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564:Feudal System
560:
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546:
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495:Martin Luther
492:
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331:Enlightenment
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256: –
255:
251:
250:Find sources:
244:
240:
234:
233:
228:This section
226:
222:
217:
216:
210:
205:
199:Periodization
198:
196:
194:
193:globalization
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
153:Low Countries
150:
146:
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138:
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122:
120:
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111:, widespread
110:
109:nation states
106:
102:
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93:
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87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
54:moveable type
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
24:
20:
16:
4173:
4166:
3924:Cabinet wars
3555:
3512:
3385:World War II
3238:Early modern
3237:
3215:Kalmar Union
3086:Papal States
3004:Roman Empire
2895:
2875:
2868:
2861:
2854:
2847:
2837:
2830:
2816:
2809:
2802:
2790:
2780:
2773:
2766:
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2749:
2739:
2729:
2722:
2711:
2704:
2697:
2687:
2680:
2673:
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2635:
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2618:
2608:
2601:
2594:
2587:
2580:
2573:
2566:
2552:
2542:
2535:
2513:
2491:
2484:Bibliography
2473:
2468:
2457:
2452:
2444:
2439:
2427:
2422:
2410:
2398:
2393:
2381:, retrieved
2376:
2367:
2359:
2351:
2343:
2338:
2330:
2325:
2317:
2312:
2292:
2285:
2277:
2272:
2264:
2259:
2251:
2246:
2238:
2233:
2225:
2224:J.R. Jones,
2220:
2212:
2207:
2199:
2194:
2187:
2182:
2169:
2161:
2156:
2145:
2140:
2128:
2108:
2101:
2093:
2088:
2080:
2075:
2067:
2062:
2054:
2049:
2038:
2033:
2025:
2020:
2009:
2004:
1985:
1969:
1964:
1774:Papal States
1716:Italian Wars
1704:
1680:
1645:Rhode Island
1643:(1635), and
1621:Caroline era
1618:
1606:Newfoundland
1604:in 1607, in
1593:Jacobean era
1591:
1589:
1550:
1536:
1535:Detail from
1532:
1477:
1467:
1460:
1449:
1403:
1360:Dutch revolt
1353:
1338:
1308:In 1492 the
1307:
1249:
1202:
1181:
1175:
1167:Major states
1161:
1157:Hamish Scott
1142:
1137:
1131:
1125:
1116:
1102:
1066:
1039:
1036:
1032:
998:
987:
940:
924:
922:
902:
878:
866:
852:
803:
784:
749:
738:
721:Presbyterian
706:
699:
693:
635:
617:
607:
600:mercantilism
597:
561:
542:
497:nailing his
493:begins with
479:
459:Charles VIII
360:movable type
352:
316:
301:
292:
282:
275:
268:
261:
249:
237:Please help
232:verification
229:
157:mercantilism
137:nation state
126:
94:
33:
29:
28:
15:
4304:Nationalism
4114:Philosophy:
4069:Switzerland
4059:Lutheranism
3534:Renaissance
3370:World War I
3360:Nationalism
3248:Reformation
3233:Renaissance
3205:Black Death
3138:Kievan Rus'
3041:Middle Ages
2761:online free
2383:26 February
1909:Renaissance
1720:Pope Pius V
1641:Connecticut
1418:late Valois
1260:with France
990:Renaissance
929:rationality
834:Anglicanism
801:movements.
780:Renaissance
772:Roman Curia
760:nationalism
756:theological
729:Anabaptists
725:Anglicanism
709:Lutheranism
682:indulgences
650:John Calvin
632:Reformation
626:Reformation
614:Thomas More
612:(1513) and
604:Machiavelli
584:Christendom
580:Reformation
572:Middle Ages
570:during the
491:Reformation
476:Machiavelli
438:Reconquista
402:Richard III
398:Plantagenet
340:Christendom
323:Reformation
319:Renaissance
173:Christendom
169:Reformation
113:witch hunts
107:and modern
82:Reformation
74:Reconquista
42:Middle Ages
4414:Categories
4297:Napoleonic
4221:Painting:
4108:Philosophy
3590:By country
3133:Viking Age
2948:Prehistory
2415:Major 1994
1989:Quoted in
1956:References
1561:golden age
1539:Henry VIII
1496:parlements
1492:intendants
1438:Louis XIII
1219:, married
1019:After the
1005:Edo period
933:aesthetics
893:governance
863:Henry VIII
847:Henry VIII
797:and other
791:Anabaptist
745:Calvinists
727:, and the
678:Wittenberg
609:The Prince
527:1545: The
505:, Germany.
503:Wittenberg
489:1517: The
481:The Prince
329:, and the
265:newspapers
189:capitalism
133:law courts
105:capitalism
4099:Academic
4049:Huguenots
4044:Calvinism
3990:Overviews
3948:Diplomacy
3896:Louis XIV
3727:Countries
3642:Political
3520:Overviews
3180:Feudalism
3151:Catalonia
2522:cite book
1938:Catholic
1837:(Austria)
1708:Julius II
1691:Sarmatism
1488:patronage
1442:Louis XIV
1330:new world
1247:in 1519.
1239:in 1506,
1061:Calvinism
966:communism
962:socialism
942:Dark Ages
868:via media
799:Pietistic
741:Lutherans
717:Calvinist
701:sola fide
686:purgatory
674:95 Theses
444:from the
432:explorer
421:Henry VII
295:June 2021
161:feudalism
4318:See also
4064:Scottish
4024:Haskalah
4012:Hussites
3983:Religion
3862:England
3751:Germany
3720:Politics
3690:Concepts
3419:See also
3390:Cold War
3185:Crusades
3155:Valencia
2551:(1999),
2512:(1970).
2263:Davies,
2150:in JSTOR
1994:Archived
1903:See also
1712:Paul III
1647:(1636).
1639:(1634),
1637:Maryland
1464:Habsburg
1434:Henry IV
1254:and the
1059:allowed
994:Medieval
947:American
795:Moravian
776:humanism
713:Reformed
622:(1515).
410:medieval
408:and the
406:Bosworth
377:Ottomans
135:and the
99:and the
4210:General
4174:Authors
4144:Science
4074:Radical
4054:English
3877:France
3851:Leaders
3756:Britain
3617:Germany
3602:England
3571:Baroque
3539:Outline
3260:Baroque
3159:Majorca
3071:Francia
2878:(1951)
2857:(2016).
2819:(1994)
2742:(1957)
2707:(2010).
2700:(2017).
2683:(2017).
2662:(2020).
2652:(1944)
2645:(2015).
2631:(2019).
2621:(1940)
2462:excerpt
2254:(2003).
2083:(1991).
2012:(2011)
1831:(Czech)
1633:Puritan
1579:grew.
1502:England
1481:gabelle
1422:Bourbon
1370:at the
1320:funded
1314:Castile
1089:Hungary
1077:Germany
970:baroque
814:Jesuits
576:serfdom
531:begins
520:Hungary
516:Bohemia
430:Genoese
375:by the
344:magnate
279:scholar
165:serfdom
4325:Europe
4101:fields
3746:France
3635:Events
3612:France
3607:Papacy
3147:Aragon
3126:Amalfi
3111:Venice
3099:Second
2900:(1903)
2880:online
2842:online
2829:, ed.
2821:online
2795:online
2785:online
2776:(1996)
2744:online
2734:online
2716:online
2692:online
2676:(1988)
2654:online
2638:(1981)
2623:online
2613:online
2604:(1984)
2597:(1976)
2583:(2001)
2576:(2003)
2569:(2002)
2498:
2447:(1983)
2300:
2265:Europe
2116:
2096:(2006)
2043:online
2014:online
1976:
1701:Papacy
1693:. The
1675:, and
1651:Poland
1573:poetry
1522:, and
1471:taille
1456:Fronde
1398:, and
1382:France
1354:Under
1326:Indies
1318:Aragon
1302:, and
1095:, the
836:, and
768:Papacy
762:, the
711:, the
638:schism
619:Utopia
510:1526:
383:; the
371:1453:
325:, the
321:, the
281:
274:
267:
260:
252:
149:Venice
4361:World
4160:Works
3116:Genoa
3094:First
1282:Spain
937:logic
442:Moors
417:Tudor
286:JSTOR
272:books
211:Atlas
185:South
145:Genoa
4203:Arts
3907:Wars
3527:Eras
3121:Pisa
2528:link
2496:ISBN
2385:2017
2298:ISBN
2114:ISBN
1974:ISBN
1710:and
1590:The
1571:and
1420:and
1404:The
1316:and
1227:and
964:and
949:and
743:and
698:and
518:and
350:).
348:lord
258:news
163:and
147:and
115:and
1312:of
1231:).
1126:not
719:or
616:'s
606:'s
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241:by
139:.
4416::
4399:•
4395:•
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452:.
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391:.
308:)
302:(
297:)
293:(
283:·
276:·
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262:·
235:.
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