791:
partners in their marriages. These small groups of blacks were generally descended from French and
Spanish mixed marriages. Under the French, the women in these marriages had the same rights as white women and could hold property. These black women hoped to remain financially independent both for themselves and for the sake of protecting their children from Missouri's restrictive laws. This level of black female agency also made female-centered households attractive to widows. The traditional idea of husband dominating wife could not be the central idea in these elite marriages because of women's importance in bringing income into the family. Women had to exercise caution in married relationships, however, as marrying a black man who was still a slave would make the free black woman legally responsible for his behavior, good or bad.
671:
rural free
Negroes moving to cities, such as Richmond and Petersburg of Virginia, Raleigh and Wilmington of North Carolina, Charleston of South Carolina, and Savannah (and later Atlanta) of Georgia. The South overall developed two distinct groups of free Negroes. Those in the Upper South were more numerous: the 1860 census showed only 144 free Negroes in Arkansas, 773 in Mississippi, and 932 in Florida, while in Maryland there were 83,942; in Virginia, 58,042; in North Carolina, 30,463; and in Louisiana, 18,647. Free blacks in the Lower South were more urban, educated, wealthier, and were generally of mixed race with white fathers, compared to free blacks in the Upper South. Despite these differences, the Southern states passed similar laws to regulate black life, borrowing from one another.
533:
1696:, a considerable number of colonists felt that the time had come to end slavery and give the free Negroes some fruits of liberty. This sentiment, added to economic considerations, led to the immediate or gradual abolition of slavery in six northern states, while there was a swelling flood of private manumissions in the South. Little actual gain was made by the free Negro even in this period, and by the turn of the century, the downward trend had begun again. Thereafter the only important change in that trend before the Civil War was that after 1831 the decline in the status of the free Negro became more precipitate."
680:
Negroes were perceived as "an evil of no ordinary magnitude," undermining the system of slavery. Slaves had to be shown that there was no advantage in being free; thus, free
Negroes became victims of the slaveholders' fears. The legislation became more forceful; the free Negro had to accept his new role or leave the state. In Florida, for example, the legislation of 1827 and 1828 prohibited them from joining public gatherings and "giving seditious speeches", and laws of 1825, 1828, and 1833 ended their right to carry firearms. They were barred from jury service and from testifying against whites. To
782:, who promised freedom to any slave who fought on the side of the British during the war. Black people also fought on the American side, hoping to gain benefits of citizenship later on. During the Civil War, free blacks fought on both the Confederate and Union sides. Southern free Black people who fought on the Confederate side were hoping to gain a greater degree of tolerance and acceptance among their white neighbors. The hope of equality through the military was realized over time, such as with the equalization of pay for Black and white soldiers a month before the end of the Civil War.
44:
692:
whose county they resided. The Negro, when registering, had to give his name, age, color, sex, and occupation and had to pay one dollar to register ... All
Negroes over twelve years of age had to have a guardian approved by the probate judge ... The guardian could be sued for any crime committed by the Negro; the Negro could not be sued. Under the new law, any free Negro or mulatto who did not register with the nearest probate judge was classified as a slave and became the lawful property of any white person who claimed possession."
944:
2048:(1965), p. 19. "Quite plainly the free Negro could not escape contamination from the concept of racial inferiority, and the Negro servant's descent into slavery was paralleled by the free Negro's loss of social and political status. When the black race came to be identified with slavery, the fortunes of the free Negro became indissolubly linked with the fortunes of the slaves. When the Negro slave came to be regarded as some sort of sub-human, the concept applied with equal force to Negroes who were free."
4810:
277:. From 1770 until 1860 the rate of natural population growth among American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that of Britain. This was sometimes attributed to very high birth rates: "U.S. slaves, then, reached similar rates of natural increase to whites not because of any special privileges but through a process of great suffering and material deprivation".
1725:(1965), p. 16. "Symptomatic of the changing public attitude was the passage of a law in 1793 forbidding the migration of free Negroes into Virginia, and another, in 1806, which provided that every Negro freed thereafter must leave the state within twelve months unless granted special permission to remain. All of the other slaveholding states enacted some such laws; they varied in severity but not in substance."
1105:
717:
seemingly allowed the elite class to exploit the slave trade without any hint that he might be planning any sort of divine retribution. In fact, the very opposite had happened and slaveholders were seemingly rewarded with great material wealth. The judiciary confirmed this subordinate status even when explicitly racialized laws were not in place. A South
Carolina judge editorialized in an 1832 case:
839:
1848:(1965), p. 13. "When the Civil War began, there were in the slaveholding states roughly a quarter of a million free Negroes living precariously in the shadow of slavery. Though they constituted a relatively small segment of the total population, they were of sufficient social importance to have occasioned the enactment of a great many laws which severely discriminated against them."
561:. This additional counting of the slave population resulted in those states having political power in excess of the white voting population. The South dominated the national government and the presidency for years. Congress adopted legislation that favored slaveholders, such as permitting slavery in territories as the nation began to expand to the West. The
385:, they were not deemed a threat to the White population to warrant anti-Black legislation. However, historian Ira Berlin states that this figure could be as high as 25 percent due to errors in census collection, ambiguous status of runaway slaves, white-passing persons, and slaves who lived as if they were free but did not have the papers to prove it.
662:
South, as cities gave free blacks a wider range of economic and social opportunities. Most southern cities had independently black-run churches as well as secret schools for educational advancement. Northern cities also gave blacks better opportunities. For example, free
Negroes who lived in Boston generally had more access to formal education.
763:
being cooks, cleaning women, seamstresses, and child-nurturers. Despite this, in certain areas, free Black women could become prominent members of the free Black community, running households and constituting a significant portion of the free Black paid labor force. One of the most highly skilled professions for a woman was teaching.
587:
free black person still present by 1860; although it was not enforced, it succeeded in reducing
Arkansas's population of free blacks to below that of any other slave state. A number of Northern states also restricted the migration of free blacks, with the result that emancipated blacks had difficulty finding places to legally settle.
704:
blacks in the South shrank as a significant portion of the free black population migrated northward. Some of the more prominent and talented free black figures moved to the North for its opportunities, draining the South of potential free black leaders. Some returned after the Civil War to participate in the
766:
Many free
African American families in colonial North Carolina and Virginia became landowners and some also became slave owners. In some cases, they purchased members of their own families to protect them until they could set them free. In other cases, they participated in the full slave economy. For
762:
Free Black males enjoyed wider employment opportunities than free Black females, who were largely confined to domestic occupations. While free Black boys could become apprentices to carpenters, coopers, barbers, and blacksmiths, girls' options were much more limited, confined to domestic work such as
726:
Free Black people could not enter many professional occupations, such as medicine and law, because they were barred from the necessary education. This was also true of occupations that required firearm possession, elective office, or a liquor license. Many of these careers also required large capital
272:
The life expectancy of slaves was much higher in the
Thirteen Colonies than in Latin America, the Caribbean or Brazil. This, combined with a very high birth rate, meant that the number of slaves grew rapidly, as the number of births exceeded the number of deaths, reaching nearly 4 million by the time
820:
brought the first legal test of the constitutionality of slavery in
Massachusetts after the American Revolution, asserting that the state's new constitution and its assertions of men's equality under the law meant that slavery could not exist. As a landowner and taxpayer, she is considered to be one
670:
Before the American Revolution, there were very few free blacks in the Southern colonies. The Lower South, except for its cities, did not attract many free blacks. The number of urban free Negroes grew faster than the total free black population, and this growth largely came from a mass migration of
552:
was proposed between northern states which only wanted to count free blacks in congressional apportionment (ignoring slave populations), and slave states which wanted full counting of the slave population. The compromise counted slave populations on the ratio of three-fifths, while free blacks were
474:
rallied many black Americans toward the revolutionary cause and their own hopes of emancipation; both enslaved and free black men fought in the Revolution on both sides. In the North, slaves ran away from their owners in the confusion of war, while in the South, some slaves declared themselves free
400:
gradually also began to allow blacks to fight, giving them promises of freedom in return for their service. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped from plantations or from other venues during the war, especially in the South. Some joined British lines or disappeared in the disruption of war. After the
661:
The lives of free blacks varied depending on their location within the United States. There was a significant free-black bias towards cities, as many rural free blacks migrated to cities over time, both in the North and the South. Cities were the chief destinations for migrating free blacks in the
586:
Southern states also passed harsh laws regulating the conduct of free blacks, in several cases banning them from entering or settling in the state. In Mississippi, a free Negro could be sold into slavery after spending ten days in state. Arkansas passed a law in 1859 that would have enslaved every
1742:
of the Tennessee Supreme Court: "All the slaveholding states, it is believed, as well as many non-slaveholding, like ourselves have adopted the policy of exclusion. The consequence is the free negro cannot find a home that promises even safety in the United States and assuredly none that promises
742:
The 1830s saw a significant effort by white communities to oppose Black people's education, coinciding with the emergence of public schooling in northern American society. Public schooling and citizenship were linked together, and because of the ambiguity that surrounded Black citizenship status,
380:
of 1775β1783, few slaves were manumitted; on the eve of the American Revolution, there was an estimated 30,000 free African Americans in Colonial America which accounts for about 5% of the total African American population with most of free African Americans being mixed race. Since the portion of
790:
Within free black marriages, many women were able to participate more equally in their relationships than elite white women. This potential for equality in marriage can be seen through the example of the "colored aristocracy" of the small black elite in St. Louis, where women were often economic
691:
In Florida, legislation passed in 1847 required all free Negroes to have a white person as a legal guardian; in 1855, an act was passed which prevented free Negroes from entering the state. "In 1861, an act was passed requiring all free Negroes in Florida to register with the judge of probate in
679:
The above numbers reflect a deliberate attempt to expel free Negroes from the deep South. "Southerners came to believe that the only successful means of removing the threat of free Negroes was to expel them from the southern states or to change their status from free persons to ... slaves." Free
805:, in which it was decided that their captors could supersede Pennsylvania's personal liberty law and claim ownership of the Morgans. This case highlighted the constitutional ambiguity of black rights while also illustrating the active effort by some in the white community to limit those rights.
703:
Even with the presence of significant free black populations in the South, free blacks often migrated to Northern states. While this presented some problems, free blacks found more opportunities in the North overall. During the nineteenth century, the number and proportion of population of free
721:
Free negroes belong to a degraded caste of society; they are in no respect on an equality with a white man. According to their condition they ought by law to be compelled to demean themselves as inferiors, from whom submission and respect to the whites, in all their intercourse in society, is
482:
began sending petitions to northern legislatures demanding freedom; by 1800, all of the northern states had abolished slavery or set measures in place to gradually reduce it. While free, blacks often had to struggle with reduced civil rights, such as restrictions on voting, as well as racism,
716:
The economic, military, and scientific superiority of the elite class justified slavery through the idea of "Divine Providence" (i.e., the idea that "Things were as they were because God willed them to be that way"). Black people were thus perceived as members of an inferior race, as God had
528:
made their voices heard through public lecturing. The National Negro Convention encouraged a boycott of slave-produced goods. These efforts were met with resistance, however, as the early 19th century brought renewed anti-black sentiment after the spirit of the Revolution began to die down.
688:, Florida's most populous and wealthiest county (this wealth was due to the higher number of slaves in Leon County than any other county in Florida, who in the 1860 census constituted 73% of its population), petitioned the General Assembly to have all free Negroes removed from the state.
322:. Other colonies followed suit. This meant that children of slave mothers in colonial America were also slaves, regardless of their fathers' ethnicity. In some cases, this could result in a person's being legally white under Virginia law of the time, although born into slavery.
632:
in an attempt to maintain control over black labor. The Mississippi Black Code (the first to pass and the best known) distinguished between "free negroes" (referring to those who had been free before the war, in some places called "Old Issues"), (newly free) "freedmen", and
1876:(1965), pp. 13β14. "In fact, discriminatory laws were remarkably uniform, in spite of the very great difference in the numbers of free Negroes. But this difference in the numbers of free Negroes was certainly not reflected in the laws of these two groups of states."
433:
especially, inspired by the war's ideals, manumitted their slaves. From 1790 to 1810, the proportion of free blacks in the Upper South rose from less than 1% to overall, and nationally, the proportion of free blacks among blacks rose to 13%. The spread of
794:
There are multiple examples of free black women exerting agency within society, and many of these examples include exerting legal power. Slavery and freedom coexisted with an uncertainty that was dangerous for free blacks. From 1832 to 1837, the story of
813:
were often based on technicalities, such as the lack of legal slave documents or mixed-race ancestry that exempted some from slave service. In New England in 1716, Joan Jackson became the first slave woman to win her freedom in a New England court.
2761:
103:
Slavery was legal and practiced in every European colony in North America, at various points in history. Not all Africans who came to America were slaves; a few came even in the 17th century as free men, as sailors working on ships. In the early
487:
abolished slavery in 1777, while it was still independent, and when it joined the United States as the 14th state in 1791 it was the first state to have done so. All the other Northern states abolished slavery between 1780 and 1804, leaving the
808:
In New England, slave women went to court to gain their freedom while free black women went to court to hold on to theirs; the New England legal system was unique in its accessibility to free blacks and the availability of attorneys. Women's
338:
children were born to free women, they were free. Through use of court documents, deeds, wills, and other records, Heinegg traced such families as the ancestors of nearly 80 percent of the free Black people recorded in the censuses of the
4182:
4177:
425:). A total of more than 29,000 Loyalist refugees eventually departed from New York City alone. The British evacuated thousands of other slaves when they left Southern ports, resettling many in the Caribbean and others in England.
512:
was ratified. The free black population increased from 8% to 13.5% from 1790 to 1810; most of whom lived in the Mid-Atlantic States, New England, and the Upper South, where most of the slave population lived at the time.
4189:
553:
not subject to the compromise and counted as one full citizen for representation. Due to this compromise Southern states could count three-fifths of their slave populations toward the state populations for purposes of
3930:
329:
of the late 18th century descended from unions between white women (whether indentured servants or free) and African men (whether indentured servant, free, or enslaved). These relationships took place mostly among the
354:
and/or their children. Slaves were sometimes allowed to buy their freedom; they might be permitted to save money from fees paid when they were "hired out" to work for other parties. In the mid-to-late 18th century,
428:
In the first two decades after the war, the number and proportion of free Negroes in the United States rose dramatically: northern states abolished slavery, almost all gradually. But also many slave owners, in the
371:
1730β1755) encouraged slave owners to free their slaves, in their belief that all men were equal before God. They converted many slaves to Christianity and approved black leaders as preachers; blacks developed
4194:
708:, establishing businesses and being elected to political office. This difference in the distribution of free blacks persisted until the Civil War, at which time about 250,000 free blacks lived in the South.
3865:
778:
Free Black people drew up petitions and joined the army during the American Revolution, motivated by the common hope of freedom. This hope was bolstered by the 1775 proclamation by British official
602:
allowed fugitive slaves who escaped to behind Union lines to remain free, as the military declared them part of "contraband" from the war and refused to return them to slaveholders; the
722:
demanded; I have always thought and while on the circuit ruled that words of impertinence and insolence addressed by a free negro to a white man, would justify an assault and battery.
4715:
4710:
4259:
2991:
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and her family presents a prime example of the danger to free blacks from the ambiguous legal definitions of their status. The Morgan family's legal entanglement led to the case of
642:
625:
68:
4522:
2979:
684:(free) a slave, a master had to pay a tax of $ 200 each and had to post a bond guaranteeing that the free Negro would leave the state within 30 days. Eventually, some citizens of
4394:
755:. Most southern states had no public education systems until these were established during Reconstruction by the new biracial legislatures. Educated free Black people created
577:
and Sojourner Truth gained the support of white abolitionists to purchase their freedom, to avoid being captured and returned to the South and slavery. In 1857, the ruling of
166:
202:, or 5 percent of the more than six million slaves brought from Africa. The great majority of transported enslaved Africans were shipped to sugar-producing colonies in the
4840:
3089:
3678:
2813:
2691:
Burton, Orville Vernon. "Anatomy of an Antebellum Rural Free Black Community: Social Structure and Social Interaction in Edgefield District, South Carolina, 1850β1860,"
318:, according to which children were born into the status of their mother, rather than taking the status of their father, as was then customary for English subjects under
4172:
532:
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2012:
4789:
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in the North, making libraries available to blacks in a time when books were costly but dues or subscription fees were required for membership.
4784:
4779:
4747:
4517:
4421:
4384:
4165:
1379:
435:
2926:
2921:
2007:
516:
The rights of free blacks fluctuated and waned with the gradual rise in power among poor white men during the late 1820s and early 1830s. The
4742:
4700:
4512:
3060:
2806:
2317:
1262:
573:, requiring even the governments and residents of free states to enforce the capture and return of fugitive slaves. Famous fugitives such as
162:
105:
60:
2754:
Polgar, Paul J. "'Whenever They Judge it Expedient': The Politics of Partisanship and Free Black Voting Rights in Early National New York,"
210:, where life expectancy was short and slave numbers had to be continually replenished; this could be done at relatively low costs until the
4690:
4675:
4539:
4448:
4443:
4377:
2838:
497:
958:. There are no known portraits of Jean Baptiste Point du Sable made during his lifetime. This depiction is taken from A.T. Andreas' book
520:
movement began in 1830, with black men holding regular meetings to discuss the future of the black "race" in America; some women such as
4665:
4502:
4472:
4254:
3833:
3045:
500:. In 1804, New Jersey became the last original Northern state to embark on gradual emancipation. Slavery was proscribed in the federal
4655:
4549:
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4309:
4090:
3890:
3041:
3019:
976:
705:
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limited the ability of some free black women to file lawsuits on their own, but a few women still filed jointly with their husbands.
4802:
3192:
2843:
2451:
2415:
2278:
1927:
1764:
1537:
930:
455:
4730:
4695:
4680:
4438:
4040:
3284:
3254:
3070:
2799:
2268:
4737:
4660:
4455:
4331:
4299:
4030:
3895:
3600:
3239:
558:
4507:
4401:
4316:
3920:
864:
617:
freed the enslaved in Confederate-held territory only. Black men were officially admitted to serve in the Union Army and the
466:
Most organized political and social movements to end slavery did not begin until the mid-18th century. The sentiments of the
410:
124:
region, where indentured servants were more common. As early as 1678, a class of free black people existed in North America.
628:, outlawing slavery (except as punishment for a crime) throughout the entire country. The Southern states initially enacted
389:
350:
slaves for various reasons: to reward long years of service, because heirs did not want to take on slaves, or to free slave
4544:
4477:
4460:
4406:
4355:
4294:
4199:
4160:
4100:
3900:
3289:
3269:
3076:
3055:
1465:
Tadman, Michael (2000). "The Demographic Cost of Sugar: Debates on Slave Societies and Natural Increase in the Americas".
1093:
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noted abolitionist for his leadership in the free black community in Boston, and as the founder of Prince Hall Freemasonry
911:
4367:
4343:
4338:
4321:
4289:
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3294:
3127:
1705:
1339:
1120:
1112:
1049:
947:
618:
84:
883:
743:
blacks were effectively excluded from public access to universal education. Paradoxically, the free black community of
43:
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3970:
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3274:
3244:
2969:
2889:
2868:
1630:
1452:
1140:
1077:
860:
727:
investments that most free Black people could not afford. Exceptions to these limitations existed, as with physicians
629:
554:
2721:"From "No Country" to "Our Country!" Living Out Manumission and the Boundaries of Rights and Citizenship, 1773β1855."
849:
4650:
4587:
4577:
4127:
3885:
3845:
3202:
2896:
2720:
2665:"Frederick Douglass, 1818β1895. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Written by Himself"
1025:
685:
566:
562:
545:
377:
195:
1427:
890:
868:
853:
4559:
4372:
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3102:
2909:
1258:
1212:
614:
402:
382:
274:
943:
4249:
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3370:
3159:
2974:
2914:
2904:
2830:
1329:
1324:
638:
603:
599:
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The abolitionist cause attracted interracial support in the North during the antebellum years. Under President
517:
2611:
2482:
Lebsock, Suzanne (1982). "Free Black Women and the Question of Matriarchy: Petersburg, Virginia, 1784β1820".
2248:
Burckin, Alexander (1996). "A Spirit Of Perseverance: Free African-Americans in Late Antebellum Louisville".
2203:
Lebsock, Suzanne (1982). "Free Black Women and the Question of Matriarchy: Petersburg, Virginia, 1784β1820".
2158:
Lebsock, Suzanne (1982). "Free Black Women and the Question of Matriarchy: Petersburg, Virginia, 1784β1820".
2139:
Burckin, Alexander (1996). "A Spirit Of Perseverance: Free African-Americans in Late Antebellum Louisville".
2075:
Burckin, Alexander (1996). "A Spirit Of Perseverance: Free African-Americans in Late Antebellum Louisville".
637:" β though placing similar restrictions on freedom for all. US-born blacks gained legal citizenship with the
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3755:
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1311:
897:
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549:
541:
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drove up the demand for slaves after 1810, and the number of manumissions dropped after this period. In the
314:
141:
4497:
325:
According to Paul Heinegg, most of the free Black families established in the Thirteen Colonies before the
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2936:
1170:
972:
752:
579:
4835:
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4085:
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3905:
3721:
3440:
3405:
3224:
3207:
3014:
2931:
2723:
Paths to Freedom: Manumission in the Atlantic World (University of South Carolina Press, 2009), 265β289.
1176:
801:
695:
Free Blacks were ordered to leave Arkansas as of January 1, 1860, or they would be enslaved. Most left.
364:
879:
747:
in the antebellum years made more significant strides in increasing black access to education than did
2527:
Patricia, Reid (2012). "Margaret Morgan's Story: A Threshold between Slavery and Freedom, 1820β1842".
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1334:
1235:
1223:
980:
756:
736:
493:
451:
393:
293:
285:
211:
191:
136:
116:. Such servants became free when they completed their term of indenture; they were also eligible for
109:
92:
35:
2747:
Lebsock, Susan. "Free black women and the question of matriarchy: Petersburg, Virginia, 1784β1820,"
1383:
4602:
4597:
3955:
3870:
3350:
3139:
3029:
2959:
2707:
The Politics of Black Citizenship: Free African Americans in the Mid-Atlantic Borderland, 1817β1863
1692:(1965), p. 15. "By 1775, inspired by those 'self-evident' truths which were to be expressed by the
1299:
1229:
1206:
1128:
728:
607:
505:
501:
467:
458:. Census enumeration found a total of 488,070 "free colored" persons in the United States in 1860.
326:
300:. Like them, the mainland colonies rapidly increased restrictions that defined slavery as a racial
4670:
4607:
4350:
3808:
3575:
3555:
3460:
3385:
3212:
3117:
3107:
3095:
2986:
2883:
2858:
2544:
2509:
2230:
2185:
1990:
1982:
1943:
1668:
1482:
1289:
1158:
1134:
1089:
1037:
1019:
645:
595:
574:
570:
309:
289:
187:
2309:
1617:
1501:
Free African Americans in Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina, and Maryland and Delaware
1712:, "Under the Constitution free blacks counted as whole persons for purposes of representation."
1562:
1514:
950:, the first permanent settler in 1780s Chicago and the "Father of Chicago" who traveled up the
4117:
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3500:
3470:
3065:
2822:
2636:
2447:
2411:
2407:
2380:
2357:
2313:
2274:
1923:
1760:
1754:
1533:
1344:
1123:
and sold into Southern slavery in 1841, and was later rescued and regained his freedom in 1853
997:
985:
951:
817:
509:
443:
281:
203:
199:
186:
Black people's labor was of economic importance in the export-oriented tobacco plantations of
80:
4273:
4244:
4239:
4137:
4105:
4078:
3803:
3420:
3390:
3380:
3375:
2942:
2536:
2499:
2491:
2220:
2212:
2175:
2167:
1974:
1474:
1285:
1116:
1083:
1009:
536:"Learning is wealth". Wilson, Charley, Rebecca, and Rosa. Mixed-race slaves from New Orleans
521:
397:
177:
1380:"Slavery and Native Americans in British North America and the United States: 1600 to 1865"
4268:
4095:
4005:
4000:
3781:
3736:
3590:
3580:
3560:
3545:
3445:
3320:
3310:
2949:
1218:
1173:: One of the largest slave owners in North Carolina and the wealthiest free black resident
1164:
1108:
1065:
591:
525:
392:, governor of Virginia, the British recruited slaves of American revolutionaries to their
207:
2664:
1673:
Creating Black Americans: African-American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present
904:
4705:
4110:
4073:
4063:
3823:
3818:
3760:
3595:
3525:
3455:
3450:
2954:
2878:
2640:
2302:
1709:
1610:
1555:
1305:
1295:
1267:
1188:
1182:
594:, Congress passed several laws to aid blacks to gain a semblance of freedom during the
406:
121:
2762:
Rohrs, Richard C., "The Free Black Experience in Antebellum Wilmington, North Carolina
496:". Massachusetts abolished slavery in 1780, and several other Northern states adopted
17:
4829:
3663:
3645:
3635:
3605:
3550:
3505:
3490:
3435:
3425:
3410:
3360:
3355:
3325:
3122:
3050:
2873:
2548:
2504:
2441:
2400:
2373:
2350:
2225:
2180:
2126:
Schooling Citizens: The Struggle for African-American Education in Antebellum America
2111:
Schooling Citizens: The Struggle for African-American Education in Antebellum America
2096:
Schooling Citizens: The Struggle for African-American Education in Antebellum America
1994:
1965:
Rivers, Larry E. (1981), "Slavery in Microcosm: Leon County, Florida, 1824 to 1860",
1916:
1591:
1279:
1273:
1252:
1246:
1203:: Underground railroad conductor and President of Colored Ladies Soldiers Aid Society
1152:
1146:
1071:
1031:
732:
331:
64:
3975:
3743:
3668:
3640:
3625:
3610:
3565:
3540:
3520:
3430:
3400:
3395:
3365:
3315:
3167:
2853:
1918:
Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley: African Princess, Florida Slave, Plantation Slaveowner
1240:
1200:
1104:
991:
810:
779:
621:
were organized. Black participation in fighting proved essential to Union victory.
418:
373:
158:
152:
3931:
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)
2786:
2540:
296:) imported more slaves, initially from long-established European colonies in the
3995:
3980:
3828:
3791:
3630:
3585:
3570:
3335:
3330:
3177:
2395:
1739:
1194:
1003:
955:
838:
606:
guaranteed both fugitive slaves and their families everlasting freedom, and the
489:
479:
430:
414:
347:
340:
297:
52:
2061:(1965), p. 27. Quoting John B. O'Neall, Court of Appeals of South Carolina, in
112:
who were freed after a set period of years, as did many of the immigrants from
3530:
3515:
3485:
3480:
3229:
3197:
3036:
1419:
1059:
1043:
439:
351:
335:
319:
117:
2735:
Black Bostonian's: Family Life and Community Struggle in the Antebellum North
4144:
3990:
3495:
3279:
3217:
3112:
1013:
822:
768:
744:
356:
305:
182:
As described above, descendants of free Black people who were never enslaved
2787:
Digital Library on American Slavery: Browse Subjects β Free People of Color
994:: first African American to formally practice medicine in the United States
2642:
History of Chicago. From the earliest period to the present time, volume 1
1143:: pre-eminent antebellum cabinetmaker and abolitionist from North Carolina
4617:
4612:
4122:
172:
88:
48:
31:
3234:
2513:
2234:
2189:
1986:
1486:
1053:
772:
681:
634:
484:
422:
360:
148:
3866:
Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
1499:
4068:
1149:: abolitionist, writer, physician, and proponent of black nationalism
748:
447:
113:
2791:
2495:
2216:
2171:
1978:
1478:
979:, first independent black denomination in the US, co-founder of the
198:. Between 1620 and 1780 about 287,000 slaves were imported into the
2700:
The Free Black in Urban America, 1800β1850: The Shadow of the Dream
388:
The war greatly disrupted slave societies. Beginning with the 1775
3881:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
3880:
1103:
942:
531:
301:
128:
42:
3925:
767:
example, a freedman named Cyprian Ricard purchased an estate in
2795:
2686:
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
2402:
Slavery and Public History: The Tough Stuff of American Memory
2032:
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
1860:
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
1827:
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
1812:
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
1782:
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
988:: almanac author, astronomer, surveyor, naturalist and farmer.
832:
624:
In 1865, the Union won the Civil War, and states ratified the
583:
effectively denied citizenship to black people of any status.
2742:
The Essence of Liberty: Free Black Women during the Slave Era
1901:
Slavery and Plantation Growth in Antebellum Florida 1821β1860
1593:
The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North
1000:: healer, midwife and nurse who sued for her freedom in 1781
2728:
Free People of Color: Inside the African American Community
2693:
Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South
2375:
Free People of Color: Inside the African-American Community
2352:
Free People of Color: Inside the African-American Community
334:, reflecting the fluid societies of the time. Because such
51:
daughter (also free); late 18th-century collage painting,
2335:
Slavery and Freedom in the Age of the American Revolution
2016:. Vol. 8, no. 3. March 1, 1860. pp. 50β51.
821:
of the most famous black women of the revolutionary era.
87:. The term was applied both to formerly enslaved people (
381:
free African Americans were so small and could possibly
2304:
From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans
1706:
The Founders and Slavery:Little Ventured, Little Gained
1532:. Wheeling, Illinois: Harland Davidson. p. 126.
127:
Various groups contributed to the growth of the free
475:
and abandoned their slave work to join the British.
4643:
4558:
4282:
4215:
4153:
4053:
4014:
3939:
3854:
3774:
3712:
3654:
3303:
3158:
2829:
446:many slaves escaped to freedom in the North and in
405:in November 1783, they transported more than 3,000
2764:: Refining Generalizations about Race Relations,"
2469:In Her Place: A Guide to St. Louis Women's History
2399:
2372:
2349:
2301:
1915:
1612:Hard Road to Freedom: The Story of African America
1609:
1590:
1557:Hard Road to Freedom: The Story of African-America
1554:
2709:(University of Georgia Press, 2016). xvi, 253 pp.
2443:Being Good: Women's Moral Values in Early America
1946:. Exploring Florida (University of South Florida)
1631:1860 Census totals of the free colored population
1161:: fugitive slave, reformer, writer, and statesman
610:allowed black men to enroll in military service.
3916:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
3961:Black players in professional American football
3911:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
2785:The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
1197:: nurse, midwife, entrepreneur, philanthropist
1137:: civil rights activist in 1860s San Francisco
1131:: fugitive slave, author, playwright, activist
1086:: first published African-American female poet
1034:: first ordained black Episcopal priest; saint
2807:
2300:Franklin, John Hope; Moss, Alfred A. (1994).
1243:: educator, college administrator, and author
8:
3674:Historically black colleges and universities
2013:Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines' Friend
194:, and in the rice and indigo plantations of
2595:Pleck, Elizabeth; Adams, Catherine (2010).
2580:Pleck, Elizabeth; Adams, Catherine (2010).
2565:Pleck, Elizabeth; Adams, Catherine (2010).
1840:
1838:
1836:
1684:
1682:
1663:
1661:
1659:
867:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3943:
2814:
2800:
2792:
1903:, Gainesville: University of Florida Press
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1155:abolitionist, soldier, minister, organizer
1068:: abolitionist and women's rights activist
4841:Pre-emancipation African-American history
3891:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
2503:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2427:
2224:
2179:
2025:
2023:
1453:1860 Census total of the slave population
1185:: former slave and New York businesswoman
1040:: Baptist minister, businessman, educator
931:Learn how and when to remove this message
396:and promised them freedom in return. The
2560:
2558:
1944:"Florida Population 1840β2000 by County"
1894:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1276:: journalist, abolitionist, and activist
1111:was born and raised a free negro in the
216:
95:), whether of African or mixed descent.
2333:Berlin, Ronald Hoffman and Ira (1986).
1530:African Americans in the Early Republic
1355:
1215:: civil rights activist in Pennsylvania
1028:: former slave who became a slave owner
1022:: first black man granted a U.S. patent
91:) and to those who had been born free (
4790:Topics related to the African diaspora
3896:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
2733:Horton, James O., and Lois E. Horton.
2730:(Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993).
1756:Encyclopedia of the Reconstruction Era
1424:Slavery in Colonial America, 1619β1776
1232:: lecturer and abolitionist, physician
312:adopted the principle in slave law of
218:Slaves imported into Colonial America
4770:Landmark African-American legislation
1515:"Freed In the 17th Century (reprint)"
363:evangelists during the period of the
7:
3901:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
2775:. University of Alabama Press, 1965.
2702:(University of Chicago Press, 1981).
2612:"Tribute to Chicago Icon and Enigma"
1504:, Generations Publishing, 1995β2005.
1382:. Slavery in America. Archived from
1282:: abolitionist, writer, and activist
865:adding citations to reliable sources
178:slaves who escaped from their owners
4846:Social history of the United States
4255:African-American Vernacular English
2756:American Nineteenth Century History
2737:(New York: Holmes and Meier, 1979).
483:segregation, or physical violence.
4173:U.S. cities with large populations
3876:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
1517:. Issues & Views. Spring 1998.
1263:John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
977:African Methodist Episcopal Church
492:of the South as defenders of the "
454:, staffed by former slaves and by
120:for land in the new colony in the
25:
3046:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
3042:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009
2849:African American founding fathers
2250:The Filson Club History Quarterly
2141:The Filson Club History Quarterly
2077:The Filson Club History Quarterly
1795:Frazier, Edward Franklin (1968).
1405:Frazier, Edward Franklin (1968).
1363:Frazier, Edward Franklin (1968).
450:by running away, assisted by the
61:British colonies in North America
4808:
3926:United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
3071:Nadir of American race relations
2008:"Monthly Summary. United States"
1738:(1965), p. 16β17. Wilson quotes
1298:: fugitive slave, abolitionist,
1167:: property owner and businessman
1012:one of the first to be freed in
837:
508:of 1787, passed just before the
478:In the 1770s, blacks throughout
374:their own strain of Christianity
2932:Civil rights movement 1954β1968
2922:Civil rights movement 1865β1896
2610:Davey, Monica (June 24, 2003).
1922:. University Press of Florida.
1439:Source: Miller and Smith, eds.
470:and the equality evoked by the
3921:Thurgood Marshall College Fund
2927:Civil right movement 1896β1954
2714:Free Negroes in North Carolina
1467:The American Historical Review
1441:Dictionary of American Slavery
79:described the legal status of
1:
4101:Cherokee freedmen controversy
3077:The Negro Motorist Green Book
2695:(1982) 21#3 pp. 294β325.
2645:. A. T. Andreas. Front matter
2371:Horton, James Oliver (1993).
2348:Horton, James Oliver (1993).
1753:Richard Zuczek., ed. (2006).
1608:Horton, James Oliver (2001).
1553:Horton, James Oliver (2001).
1094:American Anti-Slavery Society
712:Opportunities for advancement
699:Migration from South to North
368:
2773:The Black Codes of the South
2541:10.1080/0144039x.2011.606628
1577:American Slavery, 1619β1865,
1378:Seybert, Tony (4 Aug 2004).
1340:Slavery in the United States
1221:: writer of slave narrative
1050:Jean Baptiste Point du Sable
948:Jean Baptiste Point du Sable
619:United States Colored Troops
390:proclamation of Lord Dunmore
69:abolition of slavery in 1865
3971:Black players in ice hockey
3906:National Urban League (NUL)
3732:American Society of Muslims
2970:Selma to Montgomery marches
2890:Brown v. Board of Education
2771:Wilson, Theodore Brantner.
2766:Journal of Southern History
2758:(2011), 12#1 pp. 1β23.
2751:(1982) 8#2 pp. 271β92.
2467:Corbett, Katherine (1999).
1914:Schafer, Daniel L. (2003).
1899:Smith, Julia Floyd (1973),
1694:Declaration of Independence
1589:Zilversmit, Arthur (1967).
1179:: Abolitionist and educator
613:In January 1863, Lincoln's
555:congressional apportionment
472:Declaration of Independence
265:
257:
249:
241:
233:
27:Emancipated people of color
4862:
4128:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
3886:Nashville Student Movement
2897:Children of the plantation
2406:. New Press, The. p.
1759:. Greenwood. p. 154.
1528:Wright, Donald R. (1993).
1325:Antebellum Black community
1092:: minister, co-founder of
1074:led a slave revolt in 1822
1026:Anthony Johnson (colonist)
567:Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
563:Fugitive Slave Act of 1793
546:United States Constitution
403:British evacuated New York
378:American Revolutionary War
346:In addition, slave owners
29:
4798:
4765:Index of related articles
3946:
3766:Doctrine of Father Divine
3150:Women's suffrage movement
3103:Reconstruction Amendments
2910:Voting Rights Act of 1965
2768:78 (August 2012), 615β38.
2505:2027/spo.0499697.0008.204
2226:2027/spo.0499697.0008.204
2181:2027/spo.0499697.0008.204
1973:(3): 235β245, at p. 237,
1191:: writer and abolitionist
615:Emancipation Proclamation
518:National Negro Convention
456:abolitionist sympathizers
275:1860 United States census
167:emancipation in the 1860s
47:Free woman of color with
4815:United States portal
4250:African-American English
3679:Inventors and scientists
3371:George Washington Carver
2975:Chicago Freedom Movement
2637:Andreas, Alfred Theodore
2270:Slavery: A World History
2267:Meltzer, Milton (1993).
2124:Moss, Hilary J. (2009).
2109:Moss, Hilary J. (2009).
2094:Moss, Hilary J. (2009).
1967:Journal of Negro History
1330:Abyssinian Meeting House
1046:, healer and emancipator
639:Civil Rights Act of 1866
604:Confiscation Act of 1862
600:Confiscation Act of 1861
565:was strengthened by the
304:associated with African
155:indentured or free women
108:, some Africans came as
30:Not to be confused with
4738:African-American firsts
3787:Back-to-Africa movement
3756:Black Hebrew Israelites
3536:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
3084:Partus sequitur ventrem
2440:Saxton, Martha (2003).
2308:. McGraw-Hill. p.
1428:excerpt and text search
1302:organizer ("conductor")
1255:: anti-slavery activist
542:Philadelphia Convention
409:and thousands of other
315:partus sequitur ventrem
142:Partus sequitur ventrem
4706:Spingarn Medal winners
4195:States and territories
3966:Black NFL quarterbacks
3466:Martin Luther King Jr.
2998:Dred Scott v. Sandford
2937:Montgomery bus boycott
2394:Horton, James Oliver;
1171:John Carruthers Stanly
1124:
963:
724:
675:Free Negroes unwelcome
580:Dred Scott v. Sandford
537:
161:children born to free
56:
18:Free African Americans
4016:Athletic associations
3951:Negro league baseball
3722:African-American Jews
3441:Ketanji Brown Jackson
3406:Henry Highland Garnet
3265:Negro National Anthem
3015:George Floyd protests
2980:Postβcivil rights era
2712:Franklin, John Hope.
2529:Slavery and Abolition
1810:B erlin, Ira (1981).
1797:The Free Negro Family
1407:The Free Negro Family
1365:The Free Negro Family
1177:Henry Highland Garnet
1107:
946:
802:Prigg v. Pennsylvania
719:
535:
421:(part of present-day
365:First Great Awakening
46:
4223:Afro-Seminole Creole
3749:Azusa Street Revival
3621:Booker T. Washington
3145:Underground Railroad
3010:Free people of color
2864:Atlantic slave trade
2669:www.docsouth.unc.edu
2030:Berlin, Ira (1981).
1858:Berlin, Ira (1981).
1825:Berlin, Ira (1981).
1780:Berlin, Ira (1981).
1455:: 3,953,763, p. 595.
1335:Free people of color
1236:Charles Lenox Remond
1224:Twelve Years a Slave
981:Free African Society
861:improve this section
829:Notable free persons
737:Louisville, Kentucky
652:Regional differences
643:Fourteenth Amendment
626:Thirteenth Amendment
498:gradual emancipation
494:peculiar institution
452:Underground Railroad
212:Slave Trade Act 1807
93:free people of color
36:Free people of color
4618:Trinidad and Tobago
4233:Black American Sign
4060:By African descent
4054:Ethnic subdivisions
4041:Southwestern (SWAC)
3956:Baseball color line
3871:Black Panther Party
3775:Political movements
3692:in computer science
3351:Carol Moseley Braun
3140:Tulsa race massacre
3133:Treatment of slaves
2965:March on Washington
2960:Birmingham movement
2337:. pp. 292β293.
1669:Painter, Nell Irvin
1300:Underground Railway
1230:Sarah Parker Remond
1207:William Cooper Nell
1129:William Wells Brown
1014:St. Louis, Missouri
729:Sarah Parker Remond
657:Migration to cities
544:which produced the
506:Northwest Ordinance
502:Northwest Territory
468:American Revolution
417:and in what became
343:from 1790 to 1810.
327:American Revolution
219:
110:indentured servants
4716:US representatives
4711:US cabinet members
4603:Dominican Republic
4190:Metropolitan areas
4031:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
3856:Civic and economic
3834:Self-determination
3655:Education, science
3576:Fred Shuttlesworth
3556:A. Philip Randolph
3461:Coretta Scott King
3386:Frederick Douglass
3213:Harlem Renaissance
3118:Separate but equal
3108:Reconstruction era
3096:Plessy v. Ferguson
2987:Cornerstone Speech
2901:Civil Rights Acts
2884:Black Lives Matter
2859:American Civil War
2705:Diemer, Andrew K.
2698:Curry, Leonard P.
1290:Juliette Toussaint
1159:Frederick Douglass
1135:Charlotte L. Brown
1125:
1090:Theodore S. Wright
1038:John Berry Meachum
1020:Thomas L. Jennings
967:Born prior to 1800
964:
960:History of Chicago
771:that included 100
757:literary societies
706:Reconstruction Era
646:Citizenship Clause
641:, followed by the
596:American Civil War
575:Frederick Douglass
571:Compromise of 1850
538:
436:cotton cultivation
411:American Loyalists
217:
137:colored free women
57:
4823:
4822:
4651:African Americans
4523:DallasβFort Worth
4118:Black Southerners
4049:
4048:
3501:Thurgood Marshall
3471:Bernard Lafayette
3066:Million Man March
2823:African Americans
2726:Horton, James O.
2446:. Hill and Wang.
2319:978-0-679-43087-2
1345:Slavery in Canada
1292:: philanthropists
998:Elizabeth Freeman
986:Benjamin Banneker
952:Mississippi River
941:
940:
933:
915:
818:Elizabeth Freeman
559:electoral college
510:U.S. Constitution
444:antebellum period
282:Southern Colonies
270:
269:
200:Thirteen Colonies
151:children born to
135:children born to
81:African Americans
16:(Redirected from
4853:
4813:
4812:
4811:
4775:Lynching victims
4274:Louisiana Creole
4245:American English
4133:Louisiana Creole
4106:Choctaw freedmen
3944:
3481:Huddie Ledbetter
3421:Fannie Lou Hamer
3391:W. E. B. Du Bois
3381:Claudette Colvin
3376:Shirley Chisholm
3193:Family structure
3061:Military history
2943:Browder v. Gayle
2816:
2809:
2802:
2793:
2719:Hancock, Scott.
2673:
2672:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2607:
2601:
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2586:
2585:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2562:
2553:
2552:
2524:
2518:
2517:
2507:
2484:Feminist Studies
2479:
2473:
2472:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2437:
2422:
2421:
2405:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2378:
2368:
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2345:
2339:
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2330:
2324:
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2297:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2287:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2228:
2205:Feminist Studies
2200:
2194:
2193:
2183:
2160:Feminist Studies
2155:
2149:
2148:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2072:
2066:
2063:State vs. Harden
2055:
2049:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2027:
2018:
2017:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1921:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1896:
1877:
1870:
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1777:
1771:
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1462:
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1444:
1443:(1988), p . 678.
1437:
1431:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1386:on 4 August 2004
1375:
1369:
1368:
1360:
1259:Heyward Shepherd
1084:Phillis Wheatley
1010:Jeanette Forchet
936:
929:
925:
922:
916:
914:
873:
841:
833:
540:During the 1787
398:Continental Army
370:
220:
21:
4861:
4860:
4856:
4855:
4854:
4852:
4851:
4850:
4826:
4825:
4824:
4819:
4809:
4807:
4794:
4760:Historic places
4753:US state firsts
4639:
4554:
4278:
4211:
4183:2010 majorities
4178:2000 majorities
4149:
4096:Black Seminoles
4045:
4036:Southern (SIAC)
4019:
4018:and conferences
4017:
4010:
4006:Serena Williams
4001:Jackie Robinson
3935:
3859:
3857:
3850:
3770:
3737:Nation of Islam
3708:
3656:
3650:
3591:Sojourner Truth
3581:Clarence Thomas
3546:Gabriel Prosser
3446:Michael Jackson
3321:Crispus Attucks
3311:Ralph Abernathy
3299:
3255:Musical theater
3154:
3020:Great Migration
2992:COVID-19 impact
2950:Sit-in movement
2825:
2820:
2782:
2681:
2679:Further reading
2676:
2663:
2662:
2658:
2648:
2646:
2635:
2634:
2630:
2620:
2618:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2597:Love of Freedom
2594:
2593:
2589:
2582:Love of Freedom
2579:
2578:
2574:
2567:Love of Freedom
2564:
2563:
2556:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2496:10.2307/3177563
2481:
2480:
2476:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2439:
2438:
2425:
2418:
2396:Horton, Lois E.
2393:
2392:
2388:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2347:
2346:
2342:
2332:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2217:10.2307/3177563
2202:
2201:
2197:
2172:10.2307/3177563
2157:
2156:
2152:
2138:
2137:
2133:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2098:. pp. 2β3.
2093:
2092:
2088:
2074:
2073:
2069:
2056:
2052:
2043:
2039:
2029:
2028:
2021:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1979:10.2307/2716918
1964:
1963:
1959:
1949:
1947:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1930:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1898:
1897:
1880:
1871:
1867:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1843:
1834:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1794:
1793:
1789:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1767:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1733:
1729:
1720:
1716:
1704:
1700:
1687:
1680:
1667:
1666:
1637:
1629:
1625:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1575:Peter Kolchin,
1574:
1570:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1540:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1494:
1479:10.2307/2652029
1464:
1463:
1459:
1451:
1447:
1438:
1434:
1418:
1414:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1389:
1387:
1377:
1376:
1372:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1321:
1219:Solomon Northup
1165:William Ellison
1109:Solomon Northup
1102:
1066:Sojourner Truth
969:
937:
926:
920:
917:
874:
872:
858:
842:
831:
797:Margaret Morgan
788:
714:
701:
677:
668:
659:
654:
592:Abraham Lincoln
526:Sojourner Truth
464:
413:to resettle in
407:Black Loyalists
163:Native American
101:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4859:
4857:
4849:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4828:
4827:
4821:
4820:
4818:
4817:
4805:
4799:
4796:
4795:
4793:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4756:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4735:
4734:
4733:
4728:
4726:Visual artists
4723:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4686:Mathematicians
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4647:
4645:
4641:
4640:
4638:
4637:
4636:
4635:
4627:
4622:
4621:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4592:
4591:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4564:
4562:
4556:
4555:
4553:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4536:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4510:
4505:
4503:South Carolina
4500:
4495:
4494:
4493:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4473:North Carolina
4470:
4469:
4468:
4458:
4453:
4452:
4451:
4441:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4426:
4425:
4424:
4418:Massachusetts
4416:
4415:
4414:
4404:
4399:
4398:
4397:
4387:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4370:
4365:
4364:
4363:
4353:
4348:
4347:
4346:
4336:
4335:
4334:
4329:
4319:
4314:
4313:
4312:
4307:
4297:
4292:
4286:
4284:
4280:
4279:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4265:
4264:
4263:
4262:
4260:social context
4257:
4247:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4225:
4219:
4217:
4213:
4212:
4210:
4209:
4208:
4207:
4202:
4192:
4187:
4186:
4185:
4180:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4157:
4155:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4147:
4142:
4141:
4140:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4114:
4113:
4111:Creek Freedmen
4108:
4103:
4098:
4088:
4086:Alabama Creole
4083:
4082:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4057:
4055:
4051:
4050:
4047:
4046:
4044:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4026:Central (CIAA)
4022:
4020:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3947:
3941:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3862:
3860:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3843:
3842:
3841:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3819:Pan-Africanism
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3789:
3784:
3778:
3776:
3772:
3771:
3769:
3768:
3763:
3761:Black theology
3758:
3753:
3752:
3751:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3724:
3718:
3716:
3710:
3709:
3707:
3706:
3705:
3704:
3702:in STEM fields
3699:
3694:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3660:
3658:
3657:and technology
3652:
3651:
3649:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3596:Harriet Tubman
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3526:Michelle Obama
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3456:Barbara Jordan
3453:
3451:Harriet Jacobs
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3341:Amelia Boynton
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3307:
3305:
3304:Notable people
3301:
3300:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3240:LGBT community
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3164:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3092:
3087:
3080:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3039:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2955:Freedom Riders
2952:
2947:
2939:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2899:
2894:
2886:
2881:
2879:Black genocide
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2811:
2804:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2781:
2780:External links
2778:
2777:
2776:
2769:
2759:
2752:
2745:
2738:
2731:
2724:
2717:
2710:
2703:
2696:
2689:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2656:
2628:
2616:New York Times
2602:
2599:. p. 129.
2587:
2584:. p. 142.
2572:
2569:. p. 127.
2554:
2535:(3): 360β362.
2519:
2474:
2459:
2452:
2423:
2416:
2386:
2363:
2340:
2325:
2318:
2292:
2279:
2259:
2240:
2195:
2166:(2): 276β277.
2150:
2131:
2116:
2101:
2086:
2067:
2050:
2037:
2034:. p. 171.
2019:
1999:
1957:
1935:
1928:
1906:
1878:
1865:
1862:. p. 181.
1850:
1832:
1829:. p. 174.
1817:
1802:
1787:
1784:. p. 173.
1772:
1765:
1745:
1727:
1714:
1710:Paul Finkelman
1698:
1678:
1635:
1623:
1600:
1581:
1568:
1545:
1538:
1520:
1506:
1492:
1473:(5): 1534β75.
1457:
1445:
1432:
1412:
1397:
1370:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1309:
1306:Harriet Wilson
1303:
1296:Harriet Tubman
1293:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1268:Michael Shiner
1265:
1256:
1250:
1249:: abolitionist
1244:
1238:
1233:
1227:
1216:
1213:William Nesbit
1210:
1204:
1198:
1192:
1189:Harriet Jacobs
1186:
1183:Cynthia Hesdra
1180:
1174:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1087:
1081:
1080:: abolitionist
1075:
1069:
1063:
1057:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1029:
1023:
1017:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
968:
965:
939:
938:
845:
843:
836:
830:
827:
787:
784:
713:
710:
700:
697:
676:
673:
667:
664:
658:
655:
653:
650:
569:, part of the
463:
460:
401:war, when the
268:
267:
264:
260:
259:
256:
252:
251:
248:
244:
243:
240:
236:
235:
232:
228:
227:
224:
196:South Carolina
184:
183:
180:
175:
170:
156:
146:
122:Chesapeake Bay
106:colonial years
100:
97:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4858:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4833:
4831:
4816:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4800:
4797:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4785:Neighborhoods
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4748:Sports firsts
4746:
4744:
4741:
4740:
4739:
4736:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4653:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4642:
4634:
4631:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4595:
4593:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4561:
4557:
4551:
4550:West Virginia
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4515:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4492:
4489:
4488:
4487:Pennsylvania
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4467:
4466:New York City
4464:
4463:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4433:
4430:
4429:
4427:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4410:
4409:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4379:
4376:
4375:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4362:
4359:
4358:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4340:
4337:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4324:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4311:
4310:San Francisco
4308:
4306:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4283:By state/city
4281:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4252:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4241:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4230:
4229:
4228:American Sign
4226:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4218:
4214:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4197:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4174:
4171:
4167:
4164:
4163:
4162:
4161:Neighborhoods
4159:
4158:
4156:
4152:
4146:
4143:
4139:
4136:
4135:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4092:
4091:Black Indians
4089:
4087:
4084:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4052:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4013:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3948:
3945:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3853:
3847:
3844:
3840:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3798:
3795:
3794:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3777:
3773:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3742:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3711:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3669:Black schools
3667:
3665:
3664:Black studies
3662:
3661:
3659:
3653:
3647:
3646:Whitney Young
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3636:Oprah Winfrey
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3606:Denmark Vesey
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3551:Joseph Rainey
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3506:Toni Morrison
3504:
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3491:Joseph Lowery
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3123:Silent Parade
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3051:Jim Crow laws
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2877:
2875:
2874:Black cowboys
2872:
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2750:
2749:Feminist n Mk
2746:
2743:
2740:King, Wilma.
2739:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2718:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2704:
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2697:
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2687:
2684:Berlin, Ira.
2683:
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2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2478:
2475:
2471:. p. 16.
2470:
2463:
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2455:
2453:9780374110116
2449:
2445:
2444:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2417:9781565849600
2413:
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2306:
2305:
2296:
2293:
2282:
2280:0-306-80536-7
2276:
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2263:
2260:
2255:
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2199:
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2054:
2051:
2047:
2041:
2038:
2033:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1958:
1945:
1939:
1936:
1931:
1929:0-8130-2616-4
1925:
1920:
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1821:
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1813:
1806:
1803:
1799:. p. 14.
1798:
1791:
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1783:
1776:
1773:
1768:
1766:9780313013997
1762:
1758:
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1549:
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1539:0-88295-897-6
1535:
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1297:
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1287:
1284:
1281:
1280:William Still
1278:
1275:
1274:Maria Stewart
1272:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1253:David Ruggles
1251:
1248:
1247:Robert Purvis
1245:
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1234:
1231:
1228:
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1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1153:Moses Dickson
1151:
1148:
1147:Martin Delany
1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
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1091:
1088:
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1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1072:Denmark Vesey
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1052:: founder of
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1032:Absalom Jones
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
990:
987:
984:
982:
978:
975:: founder of
974:
973:Richard Allen
971:
970:
966:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
935:
932:
924:
921:February 2022
913:
910:
906:
903:
899:
896:
892:
889:
885:
882: β
881:
877:
876:Find sources:
870:
866:
862:
856:
855:
851:
846:This section
844:
840:
835:
834:
828:
826:
824:
819:
815:
812:
811:freedom suits
806:
804:
803:
798:
792:
785:
783:
781:
776:
774:
770:
764:
760:
758:
754:
750:
746:
740:
738:
734:
733:Martin Delany
730:
723:
718:
711:
709:
707:
698:
696:
693:
689:
687:
683:
674:
672:
665:
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611:
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593:
588:
584:
582:
581:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
551:
547:
543:
534:
530:
527:
523:
522:Maria Stewart
519:
514:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
486:
481:
476:
473:
469:
461:
459:
457:
453:
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445:
441:
437:
432:
426:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
399:
395:
391:
386:
384:
383:pass as white
379:
376:. Before the
375:
366:
362:
358:
353:
349:
344:
342:
337:
333:
332:working class
328:
323:
321:
317:
316:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
278:
276:
262:
261:
254:
253:
246:
245:
238:
237:
230:
229:
225:
222:
221:
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213:
209:
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197:
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150:
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138:
134:
133:
132:
130:
125:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
98:
96:
94:
90:
86:
83:who were not
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
65:United States
62:
54:
50:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
4836:Free Negroes
4701:Sportspeople
4671:Billionaires
4588:Sierra Leone
4491:Philadelphia
4327:Jacksonville
4154:Demographics
3986:Jack Johnson
3976:Muhammad Ali
3809:Conservatism
3744:Black church
3641:Andrew Young
3626:Ida B. Wells
3616:David Walker
3611:C. T. Vivian
3566:Paul Robeson
3561:Hiram Revels
3541:Colin Powell
3521:Barack Obama
3476:James Lawson
3431:Jimi Hendrix
3401:James Farmer
3396:Medgar Evers
3366:Ralph Bunche
3316:Maya Angelou
3290:Middle class
3168:Afrofuturism
3094:
3082:
3075:
3004:
2996:
2941:
2888:
2854:Afrocentrism
2844:Abolitionism
2772:
2765:
2755:
2748:
2741:
2734:
2727:
2713:
2706:
2699:
2692:
2685:
2668:
2659:
2647:. Retrieved
2641:
2631:
2619:. Retrieved
2615:
2605:
2596:
2590:
2581:
2575:
2566:
2532:
2528:
2522:
2487:
2483:
2477:
2468:
2462:
2442:
2401:
2389:
2374:
2366:
2351:
2343:
2334:
2328:
2303:
2295:
2284:. Retrieved
2269:
2262:
2253:
2249:
2243:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2128:. p. 5.
2125:
2119:
2113:. p. 4.
2110:
2104:
2095:
2089:
2080:
2076:
2070:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2045:
2040:
2031:
2011:
2002:
1970:
1966:
1960:
1948:. Retrieved
1938:
1917:
1909:
1900:
1873:
1868:
1859:
1853:
1845:
1826:
1820:
1814:. p. 3.
1811:
1805:
1796:
1790:
1781:
1775:
1755:
1748:
1735:
1730:
1722:
1717:
1701:
1689:
1672:
1626:
1611:
1603:
1592:
1584:
1576:
1571:
1556:
1548:
1529:
1523:
1509:
1500:
1495:
1470:
1466:
1460:
1448:
1440:
1435:
1423:
1415:
1409:. p. 2.
1406:
1400:
1388:. Retrieved
1384:the original
1373:
1367:. p. 1.
1364:
1358:
1261:: killed in
1241:Daniel Payne
1222:
1209:: journalist
1201:Mary Meachum
1078:David Walker
1016:in the 1700s
992:James Derham
959:
927:
918:
908:
901:
894:
887:
880:"Free Negro"
875:
859:Please help
847:
816:
807:
800:
793:
789:
780:Lord Dunmore
777:
765:
761:
741:
725:
720:
715:
702:
694:
690:
678:
669:
666:In the South
660:
623:
612:
589:
585:
578:
539:
515:
490:slave states
477:
465:
462:Abolitionism
427:
419:Upper Canada
394:armed forces
387:
345:
324:
313:
279:
271:
185:
173:freed slaves
140:
131:population:
126:
102:
76:
72:
58:
40:
4721:US senators
4691:Republicans
4676:Journalists
4533:San Antonio
4498:Puerto Rico
4439:Mississippi
4332:Tallahassee
4305:Los Angeles
3996:Jesse Owens
3981:Arthur Ashe
3839:Nationalism
3829:Raised fist
3792:Black power
3697:in medicine
3631:Roy Wilkins
3586:Emmett Till
3571:Al Sharpton
3336:Julian Bond
3331:James Bevel
3295:Upper class
3285:Stereotypes
3178:Black mecca
3090:Plantations
2869:Black Codes
2649:January 25,
2059:Black Codes
2046:Black Codes
1950:October 27,
1874:Black Codes
1846:Black Codes
1740:John Catron
1736:Black Codes
1723:Black Codes
1690:Black Codes
1616:. pp.
1561:. pp.
1314:: architect
1312:Horace King
1195:Biddy Mason
1004:Prince Hall
956:New Orleans
686:Leon County
630:Black Codes
608:Militia Act
480:New England
431:Upper South
415:Nova Scotia
341:Upper South
298:West Indies
165:women (the
67:before the
63:and in the
53:New Orleans
4830:Categories
4666:Astronauts
4456:New Jersey
4300:California
3804:Capitalism
3601:Nat Turner
3531:Rosa Parks
3516:Diane Nash
3486:John Lewis
3275:Newspapers
3245:Literature
3230:Juneteenth
3183:Businesses
3037:Exodusters
3005:Free Negro
2621:August 25,
2490:(2): 283.
2379:. p.
2356:. p.
2286:2007-10-16
2273:. DaCapo.
2211:(2): 274.
1708:, p. 427,
1420:Betty Wood
1351:References
1308:: novelist
1141:Thomas Day
1113:free state
1060:Lucy Terry
1056:and trader
1044:Jane Minor
891:newspapers
550:compromise
504:under the
440:Deep South
352:concubines
348:manumitted
336:mixed-race
320:common law
308:. In 1663
255:1771β1780
247:1761β1770
239:1701β1760
231:1620β1700
159:mixed-race
118:headrights
99:Background
77:free Black
73:free Negro
4780:Monuments
4656:Activists
4508:Tennessee
4428:Michigan
4412:Baltimore
4402:Louisiana
4395:Lexington
4378:Davenport
4317:Cleveland
4216:Languages
4145:Melungeon
4123:Blaxicans
3991:Joe Louis
3846:Socialism
3782:Anarchism
3511:Bob Moses
3496:Malcolm X
3416:Fred Gray
3280:Soul food
3218:New Negro
3203:Folktales
3113:Redlining
2549:143137075
1995:149519589
1743:comfort."
1633:, p. 595.
1270:: diarist
1121:kidnapped
1100:1800β1865
848:does not
823:Coverture
769:Louisiana
753:New Haven
745:Baltimore
635:mulattoes
357:Methodist
306:ethnicity
204:Caribbean
4803:Category
4594:America
4560:Diaspora
4545:Virginia
4478:Oklahoma
4461:New York
4444:Nebraska
4407:Maryland
4390:Kentucky
4356:Illinois
4295:Arkansas
4200:Illinois
4138:of color
3824:Populism
3797:Movement
3714:Religion
3056:Lynching
2839:Timeline
2639:(1884).
2398:(2006).
2256:(1): 72.
2147:(1): 69.
2083:(1): 71.
2057:Wilson,
2044:Wilson,
1872:Wilson,
1844:Wilson,
1734:Wilson,
1721:Wilson,
1688:Wilson,
1671:(2007).
1422:(2013).
1319:See also
1119:and was
1117:New York
1062:: author
557:and the
310:Virginia
294:Carolina
290:Virginia
286:Maryland
266:287,000
242:189,000
192:Maryland
188:Virginia
89:freedmen
85:enslaved
49:quadroon
32:Freedman
4731:Writers
4696:Singers
4681:Jurists
4629:Europe
4583:Liberia
4528:Houston
4432:Detroit
4368:Indiana
4361:Chicago
4344:Atlanta
4339:Georgia
4322:Florida
4290:Alabama
4240:English
3814:Leftism
3684:Museums
3235:Kwanzaa
3160:Culture
3128:Slavery
2831:History
2744:(2006).
2688:(1974).
2514:3177563
2235:3177563
2190:3177563
2065:(1832).
1987:2716918
1618:143β146
1487:2652029
1426:(link:
1390:14 June
1054:Chicago
962:(1884).
905:scholar
869:removed
854:sources
682:manumit
485:Vermont
438:in the
423:Ontario
361:Baptist
273:of the
258:15,000
250:63,000
234:21,000
226:Number
206:and to
149:mulatto
59:In the
4743:Mayors
4661:Actors
4633:France
4625:Israel
4613:Mexico
4598:Canada
4573:Gambia
4568:Africa
4518:Austin
4483:Oregon
4422:Boston
4385:Kansas
4351:Hawaii
4269:Gullah
4079:Yoruba
4069:Gullah
3940:Sports
3858:groups
3688:Women
3225:Hoodoo
3099:(1896)
3025:Second
3001:(1857)
2946:(1956)
2893:(1954)
2547:
2512:
2450:
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