322:
504:
757:
62:
252:
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public education village-by-village, surveil for cases, and deliver water filters. This continued and evolved as needed until the national burden of disease was very low. Then, in a third phase, programs intensified surveillance efforts with the goal of identifying each case within 24 hours of the worm emerging and preventing the person from contaminating drinking water supplies. Most national programs offered voluntary in-patient centers, where those affected could stay and receive food and care until their worms were removed.
436:
452:
away from a source of drinking water. As the first part of the worm emerges, it is typically wrapped around a piece of gauze or a stick to maintain steady tension on the worm, encouraging its exit. Each day, several centimeters of the worm emerge from the blister, and the stick is wound to maintain tension. This is repeated daily until the full worm emerges, typically within a month. If too much pressure is applied, the worm can break and die, leading to severe swelling and pain at the site of the ulcer.
825:, likely a fish or amphibian. As with humans, control efforts have focused on preventing infection by encouraging people in affected areas to bury fish entrails, as well as to identify and tie up dogs and cats with emerging worms so that they cannot access drinking water sources until after the worms have emerged. Animal infections are rapidly falling, with 2,000 recorded infections in 2019, 1,601 in 2020, and 863 in 2021. Domestic ferrets can be infected with
298:(behind the organs near the back of the abdomen). Over the next two to three months the larvae develop into adult male and female worms. The male remains small at 4 cm (1.6 in) long and 0.4 mm (0.016 in) wide; the female is comparatively large, often over 100 cm (39 in) long and 1.5 mm (0.059 in) wide. Once the worms reach their adult size they mate, and the male dies. Over the ensuing months, the female migrates to
789:
reports zero cases of dracunculiasis for a calendar year, the ICCDE considers that country to have interrupted Guinea worm transmission, and is then in the "precertification phase". If the country reports zero cases in each of the next three calendar years, the ICCDE sends a team to the country to assess the country's disease surveillance systems and to verify the country's reports. The ICCDE can then formally recommend the
769:
International
Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (a program to improve global drinking water from 1981 to 1990) adopted the goal of eradicating dracunculiasis as part of their efforts. The following June, an international meeting termed "Workshop on Opportunities for Control of Dracunculiasis" concluded that dracunculiasis could be eradicated through public education, drinking water improvement, and
528:, which kills copepods, and contaminated water can be treated via boiling. Where possible, open sources of drinking water are replaced by deep wells that can serve as new sources of clean water. Public education campaigns inform people in affected areas how dracunculiasis spreads and encourage those with the disease to avoid soaking their wounds in bodies of water that are used for drinking.
313:, and emerges. When the wound touches fresh water, the female spews a milky-white substance containing hundreds of thousands of larvae into the water. Over the next several days as the female emerges from the wound, she can continue to discharge larvae into surrounding water. The larvae are eaten by copepods, and after two to three weeks of development, they are infectious to humans again.
560:, occurring in places where there is poor access to clean drinking water. Cases tend to be split roughly equally between males and females, and can occur in all age groups. Within a given place, dracunculiasis risk is linked to occupation; people who farm or fetch drinking water are most likely to be infected.
194:, occurring in places with poor access to clean drinking water. Prevention efforts center on filtering drinking water to remove copepods, as well as public education campaigns to discourage people from soaking affected limbs in sources of drinking water, as this allows the worms to spread their larvae.
487:
Dracunculiasis is a debilitating disease, causing substantial disability in around half of those infected. People with worms emerging can be disabled for the three to ten weeks it takes the worms to fully emerge. When worms emerge near joints, inflammation or infection of the affected area can result
451:
or prevent it from causing disease once within the body. Instead, treatment focuses on slowly and carefully removing the worm from the wound over days to weeks. Once the blister bursts and the worm begins to emerge, the wound is soaked in a bucket of water, allowing the worm to empty itself of larvae
189:
There is no medication to treat or prevent dracunculiasis. Instead, the mainstay of treatment is the careful wrapping of the emerging worm around a small stick or gauze to encourage and speed up its exit. Each day, a few more centimeters of the worm emerge, and the stick is turned to maintain gentle
491:
When dracunculiasis was widespread, it often affected entire villages at once. Outbreaks occurring during planting and harvesting seasons severely impaired a community's agricultural operations – earning dracunculiasis the descriptor "empty granary disease" in some places. Communities affected
796:
Since the initiation of the global eradication program, the ICCDE has certified 15 of the original endemic countries as having eradicated dracunculiasis: Pakistan in 1997; India in 2000; Senegal and Yemen in 2004; the
Central African Republic and Cameroon in 2007; Benin, Mauritania, and Uganda in
741:
used rough estimates of populations in endemic areas to suggest that there could have been as many as 48 million cases of dracunculiasis per year. In 1976, the WHO estimated the global burden at 10 million cases per year. Ten years later, as the eradication effort was beginning, the WHO
784:
Each national eradication program had three phases. The first phase consisted of a nationwide search to identify the extent of dracunculiasis transmission and develop national and regional plans of action. The second phase involved the training and distribution of staff and volunteers to provide
788:
In May 1991, the 44th World Health
Assembly called for an international certification system to verify dracunculiasis eradication country-by-country. To this end, in 1995 the WHO established the International Commission for the Certification of Dracunculiasis Eradication (ICCDE). Once a country
780:
began collaborating with the government of
Pakistan to initiate its national program, which then launched in 1988. By 1996, national eradication programs had been launched in every country with endemic dracunculiasis: Ghana and Nigeria in 1989; Cameroon in 1991; Togo, Burkina Faso, Senegal, and
768:
eradication (last case in 1977; eradication certified in 1981), dracunculiasis was considered an achievable eradication target since it was preventable with only behavioral changes and less common than many similar diseases of poverty. In 1981, the steering committee for the United
Nations
210:
dracunculiasis had established a national eradication program. In the ensuing years, dracunculiasis cases have dropped precipitously, with 14 cases reported worldwide in 2023. Since 1986, 14 previously endemic countries have eradicated dracunculiasis, leaving the disease endemic in six:
197:
Accounts consistent with dracunculiasis appear in surviving documents from physicians of Greco-Roman antiquity. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, dracunculiasis was widespread across much of Africa and South Asia, affecting as many as 48 million people per year. The
523:
from person to person. A mainstay of eradication efforts is the improvement of drinking water. Nylon filters, finely woven cloth, or specialized filter straws can all remove copepods from drinking water, eliminating transmission risk. Water sources can also be treated with
185:
on the skin. Eventually, the blister bursts, creating a painful wound from which the worm gradually emerges over several weeks. The wound remains painful throughout the worm's emergence, disabling the affected person for the three to ten weeks it takes the worm to emerge.
402:
Infected people commonly harbor multiple worms – on average 1.8 worms per person, but as many as 40 – which will emerge from separate blisters at the same time. 90% of worms emerge from the legs or feet. However, worms can emerge from anywhere on the body.
563:
When dracunculiasis was widespread, it had a seasonal cycle, though the timing varied by location. Along the Sahara desert's southern edge, cases peaked during the mid-year rainy season (May–October) when stagnant water sources were more abundant. Along the
488:
in permanent stiffness, pain, or destruction of the joint. Some people with dracunculiasis have continuing pain for 12 to 18 months after the worm has emerged. Around 1% of dracunculiasis cases result in death from secondary infections of the wound.
366:
If an affected person submerges the wound in water, the worm spews a white substance releasing its larvae into the water. As the worm emerges, the open blister often becomes infected with bacteria, resulting in redness and swelling; the formation of
2773:
2758:
2743:
912:
If you examine a swelling ... on any body-part of man, you must apply thereon a bandage; and if you find it coming and going and clinging to the flesh which is under it ... You must perform a knife treatment, cutting it out with a
329:
The first signs of dracunculiasis occur around a year after infection, as the full-grown female worm prepares to leave the infected person's body. As the worm migrates to its exit site – typically the lower leg – some people have
362:
under the skin. Over 1–3 days, the blister grows larger, begins to cause severe burning pain, and eventually bursts, leaving a small open wound. The wound remains intensely painful as the worm slowly emerges over several weeks to months.
601:, also wrote of diseases consistent with dracunculiasis; though there was some disagreement as to the nature of the disease, with some attributing it to a worm, while others considered it to be a corrupted part of the body emerging.
536:
Dracunculiasis is now rare, with 14 cases reported worldwide in 2023 and 13 in 2022. This is down from 27 cases in 2020 and dramatically less than the estimated 3.5 million annual cases in 20 countries in 1986 – the year the
282:. Humans typically get infected when they unintentionally ingest copepods while drinking water. In some cases, infected copepods are consumed by fish or frogs, which are then consumed by humans or other animals, passing along the
588:
concerning a "hitherto unheard-of disease" in which "small worms issue from arms and legs ... insinuating themselves between the muscles give rise to horrible sufferings". Greco-Roman and
Persian physicians, including
492:
by dracunculiasis also see reduced school attendance as children of affected parents must take over farm or household duties, and affected children may be physically prevented from walking to school for weeks.
321:
731:
In the 19th and 20th centuries, dracunculiasis was widespread across nearly all of Africa and South Asia, though no exact case counts exist from the pre-eradication era. In a 1947 article in the
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1928:
1416:
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Eberhard ML, Ruiz-Tiben E, Hopkins DR, Farrell C, Toe F, Weiss A, Withers PC, Jenks MH, Thiele EA, Cotton JA, Hance Z, Holroyd N, Cama VA, Tahir MA, Mounda T (January 2014).
701:
2721:
Nicholas D. Kristof from the New York Times follows a young
Sudanese boy with a Guinea Worm parasite infection who is quarantined for treatment as part of the Carter program
797:
2009; Burkina Faso and Togo in 2011; Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, and
Nigeria in 2013; and Ghana in 2015. In 2020, the 76th World Health Assembly endorsed a new guidance plan, the
776:
In 1986, the 39th World Health
Assembly issued a statement endorsing dracunculiasis eradication and calling on member states to craft eradication plans. The same year, the
4423:
2720:
990:
519:
there is no way to prevent the disease from running its full course. Consequently, efforts to reduce the burden of dracunculiasis focus on preventing the transmission of
4392:
1701:
628:– a medical text written around 1500 BCE – referred to the removal of a Guinea worm, an identification endorsed ten years later by the physician and Egyptologist
781:
Uganda in 1992; Benin, Mauritania, Niger, Mali, and Côte d'Ivoire in 1993; Sudan, Kenya, Chad, and
Ethiopia in 1994; Yemen and the Central African Republic in 1995.
459:(CDC) recommends cleaning the wound before the worm emerges. Once the worm begins to exit the body, the CDC recommends daily wound care: cleaning the wound, applying
1687:
Fedchenko A (1870). "О строении и размножении ришты (Filaria medinensis L.)" [On the structure and reproduction of the Guinea worm (Filaria medinensis L.)].
4141:
1300:
844:
described in snakes in the United States, Brazil, India, Vietnam, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Benin, Madagascar, and Italy. The only other reptiles affected are
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1619:
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and escapes into the body. Around a year later, the adult female migrates to an exit site – usually the lower leg – and induces an intensely painful
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2884:
1920:
1412:
83:
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worms have also been reported in American skunks, coyotes, foxes, opossums, domestic dogs, domestic cats, and (rarely) muskrats and beavers.
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4433:
1025:
4397:
2262:
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species can infect snakes, turtles, and other mammals. Animal infections are most widespread in snakes, with nine different species of
4157:
1339:
604:
Some have proposed links between dracunculiasis and other prominent ancient texts and symbols. In a 1674 treatise on dracunculiasis,
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tension. Too much tension can break and kill the worm in the wound, causing severe pain and swelling. Dracunculiasis is a
940:
Fedchenko suggested that this discovery was serendipitous based on his observations of many waterborne animals. However,
4574:
3972:
3343:
1292:
2534:
Forgotten People, Forgotten Diseases: The Neglected Tropical Diseases and Their Impact on Global Health and Development
235:. If the eradication program succeeds, dracunculiasis will become the second human disease eradicated, after smallpox.
4051:
3680:
3329:
3236:
2877:
2167:"Contributions of the Guinea Worm Disease eradication campaign toward achievement of the Millennium Development Goals"
605:
821:, where they helped reignite dracunculiasis transmission in 2010. Animals are thought to become infected by eating a
896:
s book review pointing out differences in the disease's incubation time and fatality making it a poor match for the
4569:
2532:
Hotez PJ (2013). "The filarial infections: lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) and dracunculiasis (Guinea worm)".
709:
617:
177:(a type of small crustacean). Stomach acid digests the copepod and releases the Guinea worm, which penetrates the
4491:
4341:
3934:
3857:
3828:
2685:
1924:
1791:
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239:
can also infect dogs, cats, and baboons, though animal cases are also falling due to eradication efforts. Other
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4443:
4298:
3940:
3021:
2965:
2788:
1636:
688:
authored the first detailed description of the worm itself, published in 1863. The following year, in his book
495:
Infection does not create immunity, so people can repeatedly experience dracunculiasis throughout their lives.
216:
1780:
1699:
Fedchenko AP (1971). "Concerning the structure and reproduction of the Guinea-worm (Filaria medinensis L.)".
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889:
733:
667:
203:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1763:
1761:
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Treatment for dracunculiasis also includes regular wound care to avoid infection of the open ulcer. The US
290:
larvae. The larvae exit the digestive tract by penetrating the stomach and intestine, taking refuge in the
4559:
4227:
4089:
3775:
3556:
3409:
3099:
3094:
3085:
3061:
2870:
862:
849:
693:
411:
Dracunculiasis is diagnosed by visual examination – the thin white worm emerging from the blister is
267:
165:
801:, which sets a 2027 target for eradication of dracunculiasis, allowing certification by the end of 2030.
624:
represented dracunculiasis. In 1959, parasitologist Reinhard Hoeppli proposed that a prescription in the
3642:
3185:
3066:
2947:
2850:
717:
662:
538:
295:
61:
576:
Diseases consistent with the effects of dracunculiasis are referenced by writers throughout antiquity.
756:
4303:
4261:
3908:
3735:
3561:
3535:
3517:
3287:
830:
790:
738:
3177:
568:, cases were more common during the dry season (October–March) when flowing water sources dried up.
4237:
4003:
3995:
3947:
3922:
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3502:
3451:
3026:
3007:
2953:
2942:
2839:
2777:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
685:
557:
420:
384:
191:
160:
704:
in 1915. Despite longstanding knowledge that the worm was associated with water, the lifecycle of
4256:
3808:
3794:
3714:
3686:
3666:
3636:
3496:
3471:
3371:
3321:
3212:
3143:
3046:
2681:
2562:
1739:
956:
90:
251:
119:
Preventing those infected from putting the wound in drinking water, treating contaminated water
4455:
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3041:
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2893:
2799:
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2636:
2607:
2520:
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2198:
2153:
1795:
1747:
1583:
1017:
653:
331:
299:
78:
2401:
Hopkins DR, Ruiz-Tiben E, Eberhard ML, Weiss A, Withers PC, Roy SL, Sienko DG (August 2018).
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4358:
4041:
3841:
3834:
3700:
3314:
3282:
2862:
2713:
2628:
2597:
2587:
2554:
2510:
2500:
2465:
2457:
2422:
2414:
2346:
2311:
2303:
2235:
2227:
2188:
2178:
2143:
2135:
1710:
1628:
629:
613:
541:
called for dracunculiasis's eradication. Dracunculiasis remains endemic in three countries:
764:
The campaign to eradicate dracunculiasis began at the urging of the CDC in 1980. Following
4271:
4115:
4074:
3708:
3654:
3568:
3306:
3256:
3251:
3149:
3134:
3073:
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1331:
946:
941:
897:
845:
640:
178:
128:
1921:"International commission for the certification of dracunculiasis eradication – about us"
2210:
Cleveland CA, Garrett KB, Cozad RA, Williams BM, Murray MH, Yabsley MJ (December 2018).
1172:
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3800:
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3457:
3294:
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3191:
3163:
3106:
3033:
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2515:
2488:
2470:
2445:
2427:
2402:
2316:
2291:
2240:
2211:
2193:
2166:
2148:
2123:
1632:
1264:
822:
680:
666:(published in 1025) "The disease is commonest at Medina, whence it takes its name". In
565:
435:
2782:
2632:
2351:
2334:
4548:
4126:
3787:
3768:
3528:
3523:
3274:
3262:
3013:
2897:
2619:
Ruiz-Tiben E, Hopkins DR (2006). "Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm disease) eradication".
2165:
Callahan K, Bolton B, Hopkins DR, Ruiz-Tiben E, Withers PC, Meagley K (30 May 2013).
1689:Известия Императорского Общества Любителей Естествознания, Антропологии и Этнографии
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635:
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309:
About a year after the initial infection, the female migrates to the skin, forms an
4110:
4021:
3927:
3883:
3779:
3672:
3547:
3118:
814:
243:
species cause dracunculiasis in reptiles worldwide and in mammals in the Americas.
17:
2828:
2369:
856:
described in Costa Rica. Infections of other mammals are limited to the Americas.
2793:
2592:
2231:
2183:
929:-part of any colocynch. A swelling that is like a head is to be treated likewise.
632:; this would make the Ebers papyrus the oldest known description of the disease.
4528:
4448:
3914:
3899:
3755:
3622:
3603:
3594:
3582:
3436:
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3382:
3349:
3335:
3127:
3053:
2998:
2933:
2576:"Guinea worm eradication: Progress and challenges— should we beware of the dog?"
2545:
Miller RL (1989). "Dqr, spinning and treatment of Guinea worm in P. Ebers 875".
773:
treatments. In response, India began its national eradication program in 1983.
550:
396:
232:
2124:"Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm disease): eradication without a drug or a vaccine"
4337:
3819:
3741:
3726:
3482:
3441:
2834:
2804:
2446:"Progress toward global eradication of dracunculiasis, January 2020–June 2021"
1714:
468:
460:
2752:
1799:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
724:–infected copepods developed mature Guinea worms, while monkeys directly fed
612:, including Greek sculptures, signs of the zodiac, Arabic lettering, and the
387:
is near a joint (typically the ankle), the damage to the joint can result in
4031:
3427:
3270:
2923:
2918:
2823:
2767:
1587:
1089:
1087:
1085:
770:
476:
392:
388:
343:
169:. A person becomes infected by drinking water contaminated with Guinea-worm
2650:
2611:
2524:
2479:
2461:
2436:
2360:
2325:
2249:
2202:
2157:
2139:
1751:
2505:
2418:
2307:
1580:
The Ebers Papyrus: a new English translation, commentaries, and glossaries
716:
larvae can infect and develop inside copepods. The next step was shown by
620:
proposed in 1855 that the "fiery serpents" that plague the Hebrews in the
4533:
4501:
4288:
4180:
4094:
4036:
4011:
3868:
3749:
3627:
3576:
3391:
2905:
2845:
1984:
1982:
765:
598:
577:
525:
372:
355:
351:
263:
224:
4308:
4283:
4266:
4223:
4059:
4026:
4016:
3465:
3207:
2566:
2257:
Despommier DD, Griffin DO, Gwadz RW, Hotez PJ, Knirsch CA (2019). "25.
1743:
857:
616:, a common symbol of the medical profession. Similarly, parasitologist
472:
416:
380:
368:
359:
291:
279:
207:
182:
174:
3964:
2735:
2487:
Hopkins DR, Weiss AJ, Torres-Velez FJ, Sapp SG, Ijaz K (August 2022).
1582:. Cairo: Academy of Scienctific Research and Technology. p. 253.
2762:
2747:
657:
594:
376:
347:
212:
2558:
1614:
111:
Ingesting Guinea worm–infected copepods, drinking contaminated water
4213:
755:
590:
502:
464:
434:
424:
339:
335:
320:
310:
275:
250:
170:
2444:
Hopkins DR, Weiss AJ, Roy SL, Yerian S, Cama VA (November 2021).
4233:
2660:
Atlas of Pediatrics in the Tropics and Resource-Limited Settings
1973:
1615:"On the structure and nature of the Dracunculus, or Guinea worm"
818:
546:
542:
303:
228:
220:
4130:
3968:
2866:
1395:
1393:
1372:
1126:
1124:
1122:
860:
in the US and Canada are most widely impacted, particularly by
817:. Infections of domestic dogs have been particularly common in
515:
There is no vaccine for dracunculiasis, and once infected with
358:. Upon reaching its destination, the worm forms a fluid-filled
2220:
International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife
1827:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
2682:
Dracunculiasis eradication: global surveillance summary, 2021
2100:
2084:
2068:
2052:
2040:
2024:
760:
Logarithmic scale of reported dracunculiasis cases 1989–2022
712:
filled a major gap with his 1870 publication describing that
584:
refers to a (lost) description by the 2nd century BCE writer
2012:
1961:
1949:
1046:
917:-knife and that which is in its interior is seized with the
2270:(7 ed.). Parasites Without Borders. pp. 285–290.
1904:
1767:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1449:
1384:
1214:
1159:
1093:
2122:
Biswas G, Sankara DP, Agua-Agum J, Maiga A (August 2013).
960:, the life cycle of which Leuckart had described in 1865.
921:-instrument ... You must then extirpate it with the
286:
larvae. During digestion the copepods die, releasing the
987:"Update: 14 human cases of Guinea worm reported in 2023"
608:
ascribed serpentine figures in several ancient icons to
2212:"The wild world of Guinea Worms: A review of the genus
652:
refers to the worm's longstanding association with the
507:
Children in Chad holding filter straws used to prevent
2658:
Spector JM, Gibson TE, eds. (2016). "Dracunculiasis".
1840:
1838:
1836:
1227:
1225:
1223:
2292:"The peculiar epidemiology of dracunculiasis in Chad"
2000:
1143:
1141:
1139:
944:
claimed that he had advised Fedchenko to investigate
852:
described in several US states and a single infected
742:
estimated 3.5 million cases per year worldwide.
2725:
95:
Painful blister that a long white worm crawls out of
4484:
4416:
4385:
4376:
4351:
4330:
4321:
4247:
4194:
4173:
4164:
4103:
4050:
4002:
3898:
3867:
3818:
3725:
3621:
3593:
3546:
3435:
3426:
3399:
3390:
3381:
3368:
3305:
3221:
3206:
3117:
3084:
2997:
2932:
2917:
2904:
2814:
2729:
1559:"Reviews and notices – the diseases of the Bible".
702:
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature
325:
Blister on the foot of a person with dracunculiasis
142:
134:
123:
115:
107:
99:
89:
77:
42:
37:
2489:"Dracunculiasis eradication: end-stage challenges"
700:, which was enshrined as the official name by the
4393:London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases
2493:American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
2407:American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
2296:American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
2128:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
1889:
1877:
1865:
1781:"Dracunculiasis – global surveillance summary, 1"
1702:American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
1515:
1360:
829:in laboratory settings, and have been used as an
799:Roadmap for Neglected Tropical Diseases 2021–2030
720:, who described in a 1907 paper that monkeys fed
1018:"Guinea worm disease frequently asked questions"
638:included the Guinea worm in his 1758 edition of
2403:"Dracunculiasis eradication: are we there yet?"
1988:
910:
463:ointment, and replacing the bandage with fresh
278:reside within small aquatic crustaceans called
262:Dracunculiasis is caused by infection with the
1728:Stoll NR (February 1947). "This wormy world".
443:worm is wrapped around a stick as it emerges.
4142:
3980:
2878:
1620:Transactions of the Linnean Society of London
1494:
1399:
1130:
886:This theory was criticised at the time, with
793:certify a country as free of dracunculiasis.
8:
4555:Infectious diseases with eradication efforts
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
925:-knife ... It shall be seized with the
202:began in the 1980s following the successful
73:worm emerges from a wound on a person's foot
909:Ghalioungui translates Ebers No. 875 thus:
813:can infect domestic dogs and cats and wild
479:can help ease the pain of the worm's exit.
4382:
4327:
4170:
4149:
4135:
4127:
3987:
3973:
3965:
3432:
3396:
3387:
3378:
3218:
2929:
2914:
2885:
2871:
2863:
2726:
1460:
1458:
1336:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1177:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1064:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1022:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
981:
979:
977:
457:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
60:
34:
2714:"Guinea Worm Disease Eradication Program"
2601:
2591:
2514:
2504:
2469:
2426:
2350:
2315:
2239:
2192:
2182:
2147:
2027:, "Experimental infections of hosts with
1907:, Section "Certification of eradication".
1892:, Section 5.7 "Strategy for Eradication".
1243:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1915:
1913:
1413:"Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases"
1254:
1252:
4408:Malaria Eradication Scientific Alliance
973:
950:copepods due to the similarity between
879:
2335:"Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm disease)"
1600:
1363:, Section 4.2 "Socio-Economic Impact".
1293:"Dracunculiasis (Guinea-worm disease)"
1287:
1285:
2574:Molyneux D, Sankara DP (April 2017).
2450:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
2277:from the original on 24 November 2021
1931:from the original on 5 September 2021
1844:
1674:
1657:
1546:
1231:
1147:
7:
4434:National Malaria Eradication Program
2339:Canadian Medical Association Journal
1868:, Section 5. "Eradication Campaign".
1639:from the original on 25 January 2023
1476:from the original on 21 October 2021
1419:from the original on 7 December 2023
1342:from the original on 7 February 2023
1303:from the original on 17 October 2019
1259:Marie C, Petri WA (September 2022).
1070:from the original on 23 January 2023
708:was the topic of protracted debate.
4398:Global Polio Eradication Initiative
2547:The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
2015:, "Current status of the campaign".
1466:"Year in which countries certified"
1437:
1183:from the original on 22 August 2022
989:. The Carter Center. 6 March 2024.
4158:Eradication of infectious diseases
1633:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1863.tb00155.x
1270:from the original on 26 April 2021
993:from the original on 10 March 2024
200:effort to eradicate dracunculiasis
25:
4497:Mathematical modelling of disease
2692:from the original on 29 July 2022
2538:American Society for Microbiology
2388:from the original on 4 April 2015
1567:(1406): 1283–1284. December 1887.
4364:Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
2580:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
2371:A History of Human Helminthology
2171:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
1809:from the original on 3 June 2022
1028:from the original on 28 May 2023
4429:Boll Weevil Eradication Program
4403:Global Certification Commission
660:, with Avicenna writing in his
2664:American Academy of Pediatrics
854:South American snapping turtle
206:. By 1995, every country with
1:
4208:Eradication of dracunculiasis
2633:10.1016/S0065-308X(05)61007-X
2333:Greenaway C (February 2004).
1890:Ruiz-Tiben & Hopkins 2006
1878:Ruiz-Tiben & Hopkins 2006
1866:Ruiz-Tiben & Hopkins 2006
1788:Weekly Epidemiological Record
1516:Ruiz-Tiben & Hopkins 2006
1415:. World Health Organization.
1361:Ruiz-Tiben & Hopkins 2006
752:Eradication of dracunculiasis
447:There is no medicine to kill
3344:Diphyllobothrium mansonoides
2593:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005495
2540:(ASM) Press. pp. 57–75.
2232:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2018.07.002
2184:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002160
1613:Bastian HC (November 1863).
1518:, Section 4. "Epidemiology".
1332:"Management & Treatment"
1246:, "Clinical manifestations".
670:'s 1788 update of Linnaeus'
306:, and continues to develop.
27:Infection by the Guinea worm
3681:Angiostrongylus cantonensis
3330:Spirometra erinaceieuropaei
1989:Molyneux & Sankara 2017
1561:The British Medical Journal
606:Georg Hieronymous Velschius
4591:
1770:, "Decision to Eradicate".
833:for human dracunculiasis.
749:
710:Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko
674:, Gmelin renamed the worm
558:disease of extreme poverty
192:disease of extreme poverty
4492:Globalization and disease
4342:Eradication of rinderpest
4070:African sleeping sickness
3935:Capillaria philippinensis
3858:Halicephalobus gingivalis
3829:Strongyloides stercoralis
2686:World Health Organization
2087:, "Natural infections of
1925:World Health Organization
1792:World Health Organization
1715:10.4269/ajtmh.1971.20.511
1495:Spector & Gibson 2016
1470:World Health Organization
1400:Spector & Gibson 2016
1297:World Health Organization
1131:Spector & Gibson 2016
848:, with cases of infected
138:14 cases worldwide (2023)
68:
59:
4565:Rare infectious diseases
4524:Tuberculosis elimination
4444:India National PolioPlus
3941:Intestinal capillariasis
3022:Dicrocoelium dendriticum
2621:Advances in Parasitology
217:Central African Republic
127:Slowly extracting worm,
4185:Eradication of smallpox
4116:Priority review voucher
3928:Trichuriasis / Whipworm
3878:Enterobius vermicularis
3659:Cutaneous larva migrans
3232:Echinococcus granulosus
3172:Heterophyes heterophyes
3158:Gastrodiscoides hominis
2981:Trichobilharzia regenti
2075:species in chelonians".
1731:Journal of Parasitology
1173:"Guinea worm – disease"
1060:"Dracunculiasis – DPDx"
890:British Medical Journal
850:common snapping turtles
809:In addition to humans,
734:Journal of Parasitology
684:for free-living worms.
668:Johann Friedrich Gmelin
618:Friedrich Küchenmeister
419:and can be seen in the
415:. Dead worms sometimes
371:; or, in severe cases,
204:eradication of smallpox
103:One year after exposure
4228:Eradication of malaria
3776:Visceral larva migrans
3557:Gnathostoma spinigerum
3410:Dracunculus medinensis
3316:Diphyllobothrium latum
3095:Paragonimus westermani
3062:Opisthorchis viverrini
2462:10.15585/mmwr.mm7044a1
2259:Dracunculus medinensis
2140:10.1098/rstb.2012.0146
2059:species of squamates".
1697:English translation:
1578:Ghalioungui P (1987).
1450:Despommier et al. 2019
1385:Despommier et al. 2019
1215:Despommier et al. 2019
1160:Despommier et al. 2019
1094:Despommier et al. 2019
954:and the fish parasite
931:
761:
698:Dracunculus medinensis
694:Thomas Spencer Cobbold
512:
444:
413:unique to this disease
326:
268:Dracunculus medinensis
259:
257:Dracunculus medinensis
166:Dracunculus medinensis
4324:agricultural diseases
3643:Ancylostoma duodenale
3186:Metagonimus yokogawai
2506:10.4269/ajtmh.22-0197
2419:10.4269/ajtmh.18-0204
2308:10.4269/ajtmh.13-0554
2101:Cleveland et al. 2018
2085:Cleveland et al. 2018
2069:Cleveland et al. 2018
2053:Cleveland et al. 2018
2041:Cleveland et al. 2018
2025:Cleveland et al. 2018
759:
718:Robert Thomson Leiper
663:The Canon of Medicine
539:World Health Assembly
506:
438:
324:
296:retroperitoneal space
254:
4262:Lymphatic filariasis
3909:Trichinella spiralis
3736:Ascaris lumbricoides
3536:Lymphatic filariasis
3518:Wuchereria bancrofti
2666:. pp. 109–115.
2107:species in mammals".
1974:Eberhard et al. 2014
1373:Callahan et al. 2013
831:animal disease model
791:WHO Director-General
556:Dracunculiasis is a
163:by the Guinea worm,
4575:Waterborne diseases
4238:Eradication of yaws
4004:Diseases of poverty
3996:Diseases of poverty
3923:Trichuris trichiura
3850:Trichostrongyliasis
3452:Onchocerca volvulus
3008:Clonorchis sinensis
2943:Schistosoma mansoni
2924:Trematode infection
2379:C.A.B International
2013:Hopkins et al. 2022
2001:Hopkins et al. 2021
1962:Hopkins et al. 2022
1950:Hopkins et al. 2022
1828:Hopkins et al. 2018
1677:, pp. 702–706.
1660:, pp. 698–702.
1549:, pp. 693–698.
1338:. 4 February 2022.
1299:. 10 January 2022.
1179:. 4 February 2022.
1162:, pp. 287–288.
1047:Hopkins et al. 2022
421:subcutaneous tissue
385:secondary infection
173:that reside inside
161:parasitic infection
157:Guinea-worm disease
49:Guinea-worm disease
18:Guinea worm disease
4052:Neglected diseases
4037:Diarrheal diseases
3809:Parascaris equorum
3795:Dioctophyme renale
3715:Oesophagostomiasis
3687:Angiostrongyliasis
3667:Necator americanus
3637:Hookworm infection
3497:Dirofilaria repens
3322:Diphyllobothriasis
3213:Tapeworm infection
3144:Fasciolopsis buski
2815:External resources
2264:Parasitic Diseases
2134:(1623): 20120146.
1905:Biswas et al. 2013
1768:Biswas et al. 2013
1024:. 11 August 2023.
957:Cucullanus elegans
827:D. medinensis
811:D. medinensis
762:
726:D. medinensis
722:D. medinensis
714:D. medinensis
706:D. medinensis
676:Filaria medinensis
646:Gordius medinensis
521:D. medinensis
517:D. medinensis
513:
509:D. medinensis
449:D. medinensis
445:
441:D. medinensis
332:allergic reactions
327:
317:Signs and symptoms
288:D. medinensis
284:D. medinensis
273:D. medinensis
260:
237:D. medinensis
84:Infectious disease
4570:Tropical diseases
4542:
4541:
4480:
4479:
4456:Polio in Pakistan
4372:
4371:
4317:
4316:
4218:Polio eradication
4124:
4123:
3962:
3961:
3958:
3957:
3894:
3893:
3617:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3364:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3238:E. multilocularis
3202:
3201:
3042:Fasciola hepatica
2894:Parasitic disease
2860:
2859:
2673:978-1-58110-960-3
2456:(44): 1527–1533.
2368:Grove DI (1990).
1952:, "Introduction".
654:Arabian Peninsula
300:connective tissue
150:
149:
32:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
4582:
4462:Every Last Child
4383:
4359:Ovine rinderpest
4328:
4171:
4151:
4144:
4137:
4128:
3989:
3982:
3975:
3966:
3843:Trichostrongylus
3835:Strongyloidiasis
3701:Metastrongylosis
3433:
3397:
3388:
3379:
3283:Hymenolepis nana
3219:
3119:Intestinal fluke
2930:
2915:
2887:
2880:
2873:
2864:
2727:
2717:
2716:. Carter Center.
2701:
2699:
2697:
2677:
2654:
2615:
2605:
2595:
2570:
2541:
2528:
2518:
2508:
2483:
2473:
2440:
2430:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2387:
2376:
2364:
2354:
2329:
2319:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2276:
2269:
2253:
2243:
2206:
2196:
2186:
2161:
2151:
2108:
2098:
2092:
2082:
2076:
2066:
2060:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2022:
2016:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1986:
1977:
1971:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1917:
1908:
1902:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1848:
1842:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1808:
1785:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1756:
1755:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1696:
1684:
1678:
1672:
1661:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1610:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1519:
1513:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1462:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1388:
1382:
1376:
1370:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1328:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1289:
1280:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1261:"Dracunculiasis"
1256:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1218:
1212:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1169:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1134:
1128:
1097:
1091:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1056:
1050:
1044:
1038:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1014:
1003:
1002:
1000:
998:
983:
961:
938:
932:
907:
901:
895:
884:
863:D. insignis
846:snapping turtles
728:larvae did not.
630:Paul Ghalioungui
614:Rod of Asclepius
64:
35:
21:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4579:
4545:
4544:
4543:
4538:
4476:
4412:
4378:
4368:
4347:
4323:
4313:
4249:
4243:
4196:
4190:
4166:
4160:
4155:
4125:
4120:
4099:
4085:River blindness
4075:Schistosomiasis
4046:
3998:
3993:
3963:
3954:
3890:
3863:
3814:
3721:
3709:Oesophagostomum
3655:Ancylostomiasis
3625:
3609:
3589:
3569:Gnathostomiasis
3542:
3439:
3422:
3373:
3370:
3356:
3307:Pseudophyllidea
3301:
3252:Taenia saginata
3210:
3198:
3150:Fasciolopsiasis
3135:Echinostomiasis
3113:
3080:
3074:Opisthorchiasis
2993:
2973:Schistosomiasis
2967:S. intercalatum
2921:
2919:Fluke/trematode
2910:
2907:
2900:
2891:
2861:
2856:
2855:
2810:
2809:
2738:
2712:
2709:
2704:
2695:
2693:
2688:. 27 May 2022.
2680:
2674:
2657:
2643:
2618:
2586:(4): e0005495.
2573:
2559:10.2307/3821922
2544:
2531:
2486:
2443:
2400:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2374:
2367:
2332:
2289:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2256:
2209:
2164:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2111:
2099:
2095:
2083:
2079:
2067:
2063:
2051:
2047:
2039:
2035:
2023:
2019:
2011:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1987:
1980:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1956:
1948:
1944:
1934:
1932:
1919:
1918:
1911:
1903:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1876:
1872:
1864:
1851:
1843:
1834:
1830:, Introduction.
1826:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1794:. 10 May 1996.
1783:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1766:
1759:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1698:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1673:
1664:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1640:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1599:
1595:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1522:
1514:
1501:
1493:
1489:
1479:
1477:
1464:
1463:
1456:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1432:
1422:
1420:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1398:
1391:
1383:
1379:
1375:, Introduction.
1371:
1367:
1359:
1355:
1345:
1343:
1330:
1329:
1316:
1306:
1304:
1291:
1290:
1283:
1273:
1271:
1265:Merck & Co.
1258:
1257:
1250:
1242:
1238:
1230:
1221:
1213:
1196:
1186:
1184:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1137:
1129:
1100:
1092:
1083:
1073:
1071:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1045:
1041:
1031:
1029:
1016:
1015:
1006:
996:
994:
985:
984:
975:
970:
965:
964:
942:Rudolf Leuckart
939:
935:
908:
904:
898:Book of Numbers
893:
885:
881:
876:
807:
754:
748:
739:Norman R. Stoll
672:Systema Naturae
641:Systema Naturae
574:
534:
501:
485:
433:
409:
319:
249:
179:digestive tract
129:supportive care
55:
33:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4588:
4586:
4578:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4547:
4546:
4540:
4539:
4537:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4520:
4519:
4514:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4488:
4486:
4485:Related topics
4482:
4481:
4478:
4477:
4475:
4474:
4473:
4472:
4469:The Final Inch
4465:
4453:
4452:
4451:
4446:
4438:
4437:
4436:
4431:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4389:
4387:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4370:
4369:
4367:
4366:
4361:
4355:
4353:
4349:
4348:
4346:
4345:
4334:
4332:
4325:
4322:Eradication of
4319:
4318:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4294:Onchocerciasis
4291:
4286:
4281:
4280:
4279:
4274:
4264:
4259:
4253:
4251:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4241:
4231:
4221:
4211:
4204:Dracunculiasis
4200:
4198:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4188:
4177:
4175:
4168:
4167:human diseases
4165:Eradication of
4162:
4161:
4156:
4154:
4153:
4146:
4139:
4131:
4122:
4121:
4119:
4118:
4113:
4107:
4105:
4101:
4100:
4098:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4080:Dracunculiasis
4077:
4072:
4067:
4065:Chagas disease
4062:
4056:
4054:
4048:
4047:
4045:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4008:
4006:
4000:
3999:
3994:
3992:
3991:
3984:
3977:
3969:
3960:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3952:
3945:
3944:
3943:
3931:
3919:
3918:
3917:
3904:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3889:
3888:
3887:
3886:
3873:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3854:
3853:
3852:
3839:
3838:
3837:
3824:
3822:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3812:
3805:
3804:
3803:
3801:Dioctophymosis
3791:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3764:Toxocara canis
3760:
3759:
3758:
3746:
3745:
3744:
3731:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3719:
3718:
3717:
3705:
3704:
3703:
3695:Metastrongylus
3691:
3690:
3689:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3649:A. braziliense
3639:
3633:
3631:
3619:
3618:
3615:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3607:
3599:
3597:
3591:
3590:
3588:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3552:
3550:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3540:
3539:
3538:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3510:Dirofilariasis
3500:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3489:Mansonelliasis
3479:
3478:
3477:
3462:
3461:
3460:
3458:Onchocerciasis
3447:
3445:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3420:
3419:
3418:
3416:Dracunculiasis
3405:
3403:
3394:
3385:
3376:
3366:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3352:
3340:
3339:
3338:
3326:
3325:
3324:
3311:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3295:Hymenolepiasis
3279:
3278:
3277:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3244:Echinococcosis
3227:
3225:
3223:Cyclophyllidea
3216:
3204:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3192:Metagonimiasis
3182:
3181:
3180:
3178:Heterophyiasis
3168:
3167:
3166:
3164:Amphistomiasis
3154:
3153:
3152:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3123:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3107:Paragonimiasis
3090:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3076:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3034:Dicrocoeliasis
3018:
3017:
3016:
3003:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2987:Swimmer's itch
2977:
2976:
2975:
2961:S. haematobium
2938:
2936:
2927:
2912:
2902:
2901:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2882:
2875:
2867:
2858:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2842:
2840:Dracunculiasis
2831:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2796:
2785:
2770:
2755:
2739:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:Classification
2724:
2723:
2718:
2708:
2707:External links
2705:
2703:
2702:
2678:
2672:
2662:(2 ed.).
2655:
2641:
2616:
2571:
2542:
2529:
2499:(2): 373–382.
2484:
2441:
2413:(2): 388–395.
2398:
2365:
2345:(4): 495–500.
2330:
2287:
2254:
2226:(3): 289–300.
2207:
2162:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2093:
2077:
2061:
2045:
2033:
2017:
2005:
1993:
1991:, Paragraph 7.
1978:
1966:
1954:
1942:
1909:
1894:
1882:
1870:
1849:
1832:
1820:
1772:
1757:
1720:
1709:(4): 511–523.
1691:(in Russian).
1679:
1662:
1650:
1627:(2): 101–134.
1605:
1603:, p. 251.
1593:
1570:
1551:
1520:
1499:
1497:, p. 109.
1487:
1454:
1452:, p. 285.
1442:
1430:
1404:
1402:, p. 111.
1389:
1387:, p. 289.
1377:
1365:
1353:
1314:
1281:
1248:
1244:Greenaway 2004
1236:
1219:
1217:, p. 288.
1194:
1164:
1152:
1135:
1133:, p. 110.
1098:
1096:, p. 287.
1081:
1066:. 9 May 2018.
1051:
1039:
1004:
972:
971:
969:
966:
963:
962:
933:
902:
878:
877:
875:
872:
823:transport host
806:
803:
750:Main article:
747:
744:
696:used the name
573:
570:
566:Gulf of Guinea
533:
530:
500:
497:
484:
481:
432:
429:
408:
405:
318:
315:
255:Life cycle of
248:
245:
155:, also called
153:Dracunculiasis
148:
147:
144:
140:
139:
136:
132:
131:
125:
121:
120:
117:
113:
112:
109:
105:
104:
101:
97:
96:
93:
87:
86:
81:
75:
74:
66:
65:
57:
56:
54:
53:
50:
46:
44:
40:
39:
38:Dracunculiasis
31:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4587:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4560:Helminthiases
4558:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4483:
4471:
4470:
4466:
4464:
4463:
4459:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4441:
4439:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4424:United States
4422:
4421:
4419:
4415:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4384:
4381:
4375:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4350:
4343:
4339:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4329:
4326:
4320:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4254:
4252:
4246:
4239:
4235:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4222:
4219:
4215:
4212:
4209:
4205:
4202:
4201:
4199:
4193:
4186:
4182:
4179:
4178:
4176:
4172:
4169:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4147:
4145:
4140:
4138:
4133:
4132:
4129:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4108:
4106:
4104:Miscellaneous
4102:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4090:Leishmaniasis
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3990:
3985:
3983:
3978:
3976:
3971:
3970:
3967:
3951:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3939:
3938:
3937:
3936:
3932:
3929:
3925:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3911:
3910:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3885:
3882:
3881:
3880:
3879:
3875:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3830:
3826:
3825:
3823:
3821:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3796:
3792:
3790:
3789:
3788:Baylisascaris
3785:
3781:
3777:
3774:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3766:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3728:
3724:
3716:
3713:
3712:
3711:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3697:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3624:
3620:
3606:
3605:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3592:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3579:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3549:
3545:
3537:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3526:
3525:
3524:Brugia malayi
3520:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3501:
3499:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3485:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3456:
3455:
3454:
3453:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3417:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3402:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3367:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3334:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3308:
3304:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3275:Cysticercosis
3272:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3260:
3259:
3254:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3233:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3209:
3205:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3176:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3103:
3102:
3101:P. kellicotti
3097:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3087:
3083:
3075:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3024:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3014:Clonorchiasis
3012:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3005:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2956:
2951:
2950:
2945:
2944:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2908:platyhelminth
2903:
2899:
2898:helminthiases
2895:
2888:
2883:
2881:
2876:
2874:
2869:
2868:
2865:
2852:
2848:
2847:
2843:
2841:
2837:
2836:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2806:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2740:
2737:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2642:9780120317615
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2399:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2372:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2273:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2215:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2094:
2091:in wildlife".
2090:
2086:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1976:, "Abstract".
1975:
1970:
1967:
1964:, "Ethiopia".
1963:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1943:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1916:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1847:, p. 69.
1846:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1821:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1782:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1732:
1724:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1654:
1651:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1621:
1616:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1488:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1461:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1431:
1418:
1414:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1357:
1354:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1237:
1234:, p. 68.
1233:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1153:
1150:, p. 67.
1149:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1040:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1005:
992:
988:
982:
980:
978:
974:
967:
959:
958:
953:
952:D. medinensis
949:
948:
943:
937:
934:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
906:
903:
899:
892:
891:
883:
880:
873:
871:
869:
865:
864:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
834:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
815:olive baboons
812:
805:Other animals
804:
802:
800:
794:
792:
786:
782:
779:
778:Carter Center
774:
772:
767:
758:
753:
745:
743:
740:
736:
735:
729:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
686:Henry Bastian
683:
682:
677:
673:
669:
665:
664:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
642:
637:
636:Carl Linnaeus
633:
631:
627:
626:Ebers papyrus
623:
622:Old Testament
619:
615:
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586:Agatharchides
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71:D. medinensis
67:
63:
58:
51:
48:
47:
45:
41:
36:
30:
19:
4507:Transmission
4467:
4460:
4277:epidemiology
4203:
4111:Malnutrition
4079:
4022:Tuberculosis
3948:
3933:
3921:
3907:
3884:Enterobiasis
3876:
3856:
3842:
3827:
3807:
3793:
3786:
3780:Toxocariasis
3769:
3762:
3748:
3734:
3707:
3693:
3679:
3673:Necatoriasis
3665:
3648:
3641:
3602:
3575:
3562:
3555:
3548:Thelazioidea
3529:
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3184:
3170:
3156:
3142:
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3126:
3100:
3093:
3067:
3060:
3048:F. gigantica
3047:
3040:
3027:
3020:
3006:
2979:
2966:
2960:
2954:
2949:S. japonicum
2948:
2941:
2844:
2833:
2822:
2798:
2787:
2772:
2757:
2742:
2694:. Retrieved
2659:
2624:
2620:
2583:
2579:
2550:
2546:
2533:
2496:
2492:
2453:
2449:
2410:
2406:
2390:. Retrieved
2370:
2342:
2338:
2302:(1): 61–70.
2299:
2295:
2279:. Retrieved
2263:
2258:
2223:
2219:
2216:in wildlife"
2213:
2177:(5): e2160.
2174:
2170:
2131:
2127:
2105:"Dracunculus
2104:
2096:
2088:
2080:
2072:
2064:
2056:
2048:
2043:, "Table 1".
2036:
2028:
2020:
2008:
2003:, "Table 1".
1996:
1969:
1957:
1945:
1933:. Retrieved
1885:
1873:
1823:
1811:. Retrieved
1787:
1775:
1735:
1729:
1723:
1706:
1700:
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1653:
1641:. Retrieved
1624:
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1573:
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1490:
1478:. Retrieved
1445:
1433:
1421:. Retrieved
1407:
1380:
1368:
1356:
1344:. Retrieved
1305:. Retrieved
1272:. Retrieved
1239:
1185:. Retrieved
1167:
1155:
1072:. Retrieved
1054:
1042:
1030:. Retrieved
995:. Retrieved
955:
951:
945:
936:
926:
922:
918:
914:
911:
905:
900:description.
887:
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661:
649:
645:
644:, naming it
639:
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581:
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535:
532:Epidemiology
520:
516:
514:
508:
494:
490:
486:
454:
448:
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440:
410:
401:
397:contractures
365:
334:, including
328:
308:
287:
283:
272:
266:
261:
256:
240:
236:
196:
188:
164:
156:
152:
151:
146:~1% of cases
70:
52:dracontiasis
29:
4529:Vaccination
4449:Pulse Polio
4377:Eradication
3949:C. hepatica
3915:Trichinosis
3900:Adenophorea
3756:Anisakiasis
3623:Strongylida
3604:Gongylonema
3595:Spiruroidea
3583:Thelaziasis
3563:G. hispidum
3437:Filarioidea
3401:Camallanida
3383:Secernentea
3350:Sparganosis
3336:Sparganosis
3289:H. diminuta
3258:T. asiatica
3128:Echinostoma
3068:O. felineus
3054:Fasciolosis
2999:Liver fluke
2934:Blood fluke
2627:: 275–309.
2553:: 249–254.
2214:Dracunculus
2115:Works cited
2089:D. insignis
2073:Dracunculus
2057:Dracunculus
2029:D. insignis
1935:5 September
1738:(1): 1–18.
1695:(1): 71–82.
1601:Miller 1989
1440:, Figure 1.
868:Dracunculus
866:; however,
842:Dracunculus
838:Dracunculus
746:Eradication
648:. The name
610:Dracunculus
582:Symposiacon
551:South Sudan
469:Painkillers
383:. When the
241:Dracunculus
233:South Sudan
100:Usual onset
43:Other names
4549:Categories
4512:horizontal
4338:Rinderpest
4331:Successful
4250:(regional)
4174:Successful
3820:Rhabditida
3742:Ascariasis
3727:Ascaridida
3504:D. immitis
3483:Mansonella
3475:filariasis
3442:Filariasis
3369:Roundworm/
3086:Lung fluke
2955:S. mekongi
2896:caused by
2835:Patient UK
2800:DiseasesDB
2684:(Report).
2281:26 January
1880:, Table 1.
1845:Hotez 2013
1675:Grove 1990
1658:Grove 1990
1547:Grove 1990
1480:20 October
1423:6 December
1232:Hotez 2013
1148:Hotez 2013
968:References
678:, leaving
650:medinensis
499:Prevention
461:antibiotic
116:Prevention
4032:Pneumonia
3530:B. timori
3428:Spirurida
3374:infection
3271:Taeniasis
3264:T. solium
3028:D. hospes
2911:infection
2906:Flatworm/
2824:eMedicine
1800:194592343
1049:, "Chad".
771:larvicide
511:infection
477:ibuprofen
431:Treatment
407:Diagnosis
393:arthritis
389:stiffness
369:abscesses
344:dizziness
302:or along
264:roundworm
135:Frequency
124:Treatment
79:Specialty
4534:Zoonosis
4517:vertical
4502:Pandemic
4417:Regional
4379:programs
4352:Underway
4299:Syphilis
4289:Trachoma
4257:Hookworm
4248:Underway
4197:(global)
4195:Underway
4181:Smallpox
4095:Trachoma
3869:Oxyurida
3750:Anisakis
3628:hookworm
3577:Thelazia
3392:Spiruria
3372:Nematode
2846:Orphanet
2690:Archived
2651:16735167
2612:28426663
2525:35895421
2480:34735420
2437:29869608
2392:13 March
2383:Archived
2361:14970098
2326:24277785
2272:Archived
2250:30094178
2203:23738022
2158:23798694
1929:Archived
1804:Archived
1752:20284977
1637:Archived
1588:25868848
1474:Archived
1438:WHO 2022
1417:Archived
1346:27 April
1340:Archived
1307:27 April
1301:Archived
1274:27 April
1268:Archived
1187:8 August
1181:Archived
1074:27 April
1068:Archived
1032:8 August
1026:Archived
997:19 April
991:Archived
858:Raccoons
766:smallpox
656:city of
599:Avicenna
578:Plutarch
526:temephos
483:Outcomes
373:gangrene
356:diarrhea
352:vomiting
280:copepods
225:Ethiopia
175:copepods
91:Symptoms
4309:Leprosy
4284:Rubella
4272:vaccine
4267:Measles
4224:Malaria
4060:Cholera
4027:Measles
4017:Malaria
3770:T. cati
3473:Loa loa
3466:Loa loa
3208:Cestoda
2829:ped/616
2794:D004320
2696:29 July
2603:5398503
2567:3821922
2516:9393450
2471:8568094
2428:6090361
2317:3886430
2241:6072916
2194:3667764
2149:3720044
1744:3273613
1643:13 June
947:Cyclops
690:Entozoa
681:Gordius
572:History
473:aspirin
417:calcify
381:tetanus
360:blister
292:abdomen
208:endemic
183:blister
159:, is a
4440:India
4386:Global
4304:Rabies
4042:Plague
3266:(pork)
2670:
2649:
2639:
2610:
2600:
2565:
2523:
2513:
2478:
2468:
2435:
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2359:
2352:332717
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2146:
1813:2 June
1798:
1790:(19).
1750:
1742:
1586:
836:Other
658:Medina
597:, and
595:Rhazes
549:, and
377:sepsis
354:, and
348:nausea
276:larvae
231:, and
213:Angola
171:larvae
143:Deaths
108:Causes
4214:Polio
2783:125.7
2563:JSTOR
2386:(PDF)
2375:(PDF)
2275:(PDF)
2268:(PDF)
1807:(PDF)
1784:(PDF)
1740:JSTOR
1334:. US
1175:. US
1062:. US
1020:. US
927:hnwjt
894:'
874:Notes
591:Galen
471:like
465:gauze
425:X-ray
395:, or
379:, or
340:fever
336:hives
311:ulcer
304:bones
247:Cause
4234:Yaws
4012:AIDS
3845:spp.
2805:3945
2789:MeSH
2778:9-CM
2753:1F64
2698:2022
2668:ISBN
2647:PMID
2637:ISBN
2608:PMID
2521:PMID
2476:PMID
2433:PMID
2394:2022
2357:PMID
2322:PMID
2283:2021
2246:PMID
2199:PMID
2154:PMID
1937:2021
1815:2022
1796:OCLC
1748:PMID
1645:2022
1584:OCLC
1482:2021
1425:2023
1348:2024
1309:2024
1276:2024
1189:2022
1076:2024
1034:2022
999:2024
888:The
819:Chad
547:Mali
543:Chad
229:Mali
221:Chad
2851:231
2774:ICD
2768:B72
2759:ICD
2744:ICD
2629:doi
2598:PMC
2588:doi
2555:doi
2511:PMC
2501:doi
2497:107
2466:PMC
2458:doi
2423:PMC
2415:doi
2347:PMC
2343:170
2312:PMC
2304:doi
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2236:PMC
2228:doi
2189:PMC
2179:doi
2144:PMC
2136:doi
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2071:, "
2055:, "
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