837:
and Kriol source words also diverge in their use of stop-final consonant clusters. Gurindji words allows syllable-final consonant clusters, though the cluster combination is rather restricted. The first consonant must be a liquid and the final consonant, a non-coronal stop or velar nasal. Even in the more acrolectal forms of Kriol words, final consonant clusters are never present at the surface level. Finally different phonological processes apply to the different component languages of
Gurindji Kriol. For example, in Kriol words, the plosive series is occasionally hypercorrected to fricatives of a similar place of articulation. This process never occurs in words of Gurindji origin.
464:
the introduction of the cattle station pidgin and later Kriol into the linguistic repertoire of the
Gurindji. In the 1970s Patrick McConvell observed that code-switching between Kriol and Gurindji was the dominant language practice of Gurindji people. It is likely that this code-switching and a certain amount of levelling between Gurindji and closely related neighbouring languages such as Ngarinyman and Bilinarra provided fertile ground for the formation of the mixed language. At this time, similar changes to local linguistic ecologies occurred in other places in northern Australia with Kriol becoming the dominant language in many areas such as
511:, 36.6% of vocabulary is derived from Kriol and 35% finds its origins in Gurindji. The remaining 28.4% are synonymous forms from both languages, where the choice of word depends on a number of factors including the interlocutors. For example, more Gurindji vocabulary is used when addressing older Gurindji people or in the presence of outsiders. Some lexical specialisation can be noted, for example
846:
distinguished by their ability to take case marking. Heads are case-marked, and modifiers are not. The order of noun phrase constituents is relatively fixed: DET - MOD - HEAD. Finally
Gurindji Kriol is an optional ergative language where the transitive subject is optionally marked ergative and objects are unmarked.
1290:
origins in both languages. A general reflexive/reciprocal pronoun is derived from the Kriol reflexive pronoun. Emphatic pronouns are derived from
Gurindji and are classified as nominals because they can be case-marked. Possessive pronouns are drawn from Gurindji and are also used as dative objects, e.g.
3227:
Subordination is mostly performed by marking the verb in the subordinate clause with a case-marker. This style of subordination is derived from
Gurindji. For example, the locative marker can be used in a switch reference construction to indicate that the agent of the subordinate clause is the same as
1289:
Regular pronouns distinguish person (1st, 2nd and 3rd) and number (singular, dual and plural), and further make a distinction between inclusive and exclusive 1st person pronouns, though syncretism exists between subject forms. All subject pronouns are derived from Kriol and object pronouns find their
472:
argues that maintenance of
Gurindji elements in the mixed language relates closely to the land rights movement and can be considered an expression of the persistence of their ancestral identity. Additionally McConvell suggests that the homogeneity of the linguistic situation (one traditional language
463:
The linguistic practices of the
Gurindji are closely tied to these social circumstances. Before colonisation the Gurindji were multilingual, speaking the languages of neighbouring groups with whom they had familiar and ceremonial connections. The establishment of the cattle stations by colonisers saw
454:
people. From 1855 onwards, the traditional lands of the
Gurindji and neighbouring groups were seized by colonists who were searching for good cattle pastures. After initial attempts to cull the original inhabitants, cattle stations were set up and the remaining Gurindji people were brought to work on
836:
Stress is word initial for words of both
Gurindji and Kriol origin. The maintenance of the two phonological systems is more obvious in syllable structure. A range of structures are permissible in words of both origins, e.g. CV and CVC, however VC syllables are only allowed in Kriol words. Gurindji
534:
In terms of vowels, Gurindji Kriol has a 5 vowel system. All
Gurindji words contain only 3 vowel phonemes /ɪ/, /ɐ/ and /ʊ/ with diphthongs the result of combinations of vowels with glides in fast speech, for example /ɐw/ > . Kriol words make use of five vowel phonemes /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ in addition to
493:
is the language of government services and the school, though its use is generally restricted to these domains. Kriol and Aboriginal English are spoken with Aboriginal visitors from other communities. In this respect, Gurindji Kriol continues to be spoken alongside Gurindji and Kriol, and is a
845:
The Gurindji Kriol noun phrase consists of a head plus a number of potential modifiers. Potential heads are: nouns, nominalised adjectives, emphatic pronouns and demonstratives (this/that); and modifiers are determiners (in/definite, plural/singular) and adjectives. Heads and modifiers can be
613:
The consonant inventory is a complex fusion of Gurindji and Kriol consonants. Words of Gurindji origin contain a three-way coronal contrast for stops, nasals and laterals, and a distinction between a post-alveolar rhotic and an apical trill (sometimes pronounced as a tap). Kriol-derived words
209:
Gurindji Kriol exhibits a structural split between the noun phrase and verb phrase, with Gurindji contributing the noun structure including case-marking, and the verb structure including tense-aspect-mood (TAM) auxiliaries coming from Kriol. In this respect, Gurindji Kriol is classified as a
978:
Gurindji Kriol contains many nominal suffixes, most of which are derived from Gurindji. These include case suffixes, number marking and derivational morphology. A number of these suffixes have Kriol-derived periphasic counterparts. For example, the privative suffix
455:
the stations in slave-like conditions with other Aboriginal groups. In 1966, the Gurindji initiated a workers' strike to protest against their poor conditions of employment and ultimately regain control of their traditional lands. Their campaign was called the
614:
contrast with those from Gurindji in containing fricatives. No voicing distinction is made for stops or fricatives in either Gurindji- or Kriol-derived words; voicing depends on position within word or utterance, and place of articulation.
506:
Lexically there is a mix between Kriol and Gurindji. Despite the verb-noun structural split, some verbs are derived from Kriol and others from Gurindji. Similarly nouns from both languages are present. In general, based on a 200 word
2675:
Transitive clauses consist of an optionally-ergative marked subject (66.5%) and an absolutive object. Word order is predominately SVO (87.6%) and the ergative marker is more likely to appear when the agent nominal is postverbal.
2491:
Possessive constructions consist of a nominal acting as a predicates, taking another nominal argument. In these clauses the head is marked dative. Inalienable nominals (body parts and kinship) are only optionally marked dative.
459:
and went on for nine years, resulting in the first successful land claim by an Aboriginal group in Australia. Today the Gurindji continue to live on their traditional lands in two main communities - Kalkaringi and Daguragu.
2956:
Passive clauses consist of an auxiliary verb git (< get) and the loss of the transitive marker from the main verb. The agent also loses ergative case marking as an adjunct and acquires ablative case instead.
498:. In addition, code-switching continues to be an everyday practice at Kalkaringi, and it is common to find code-switching between Gurindji and Kriol, and between Gurindji Kriol and its source languages.
1764:
for pronouns) and marks future time using a potential marker (garra) which is also used to express obligation. Many of the auxiliaries also have reduced forms which attach to subject pronouns, such as
531:
The phonological system of Gurindji Kriol is relatively stratified, i.e. it has maintained separate Gurindji and Kriol phoneme inventories, syllable structures and many phonological processes.
4073:
Meakins, Felicity; O'Shannessy, Carmel (2005). "Possessing variation: Age and inalienability related variables in the possessive constructions of two Australian mixed languages".
3914:
Meakins, Felicity (2009). "The case of the shifty ergative marker: A pragmatic shift in the ergative marker in one Australian mixed language". In J. Barddal; S. Chelliah (eds.).
3088:
A number of Kriol-derived conjunctions can be used to join verbal or nominal clauses such as an (and) and o (or). Others are only used to relate verbal clauses such as
4186:
3906:
4844:
3056:
Conjoined clauses are often zero-marked such as the following sentence which was uttered within one prosodic contour. The link between the clauses is implied.
3350:
Gurindji Kriol also contains asymmetrical serial verb constructions. There are three potential parts to the asymmetrical serial verb construction: auxiliary
179:. These varieties are similar to Gurindji Kriol, but draw on Ngarinyman and Bilinarra which are closely related to Gurindji (Eastern Ngumpin languages).
4897:
4088:"Ordering arguments about: Word order and discourse motivations in the development and use of the ergative marker in two Australian mixed languages"
4017:
Meakins, Felicity (2011c). "Case marking in Contact: The Development and Function of Case Morphology in Gurindji Kriol". Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
517:
which means "branch", "stick" or "tree" in Gurindji is generally only used to mean "branch" or "stick" in Gurindji Kriol whereas the Kriol form
3891:
Meakins, Felicity (2008b). "Unravelling languages: Multilingualism and language contact in Kalkaringi". In J. Simpson; G. Wigglesworth (eds.).
198:
is an English-lexifier creole language spoken as a first language by most Aboriginal people across northern Australia (with the exception of
4837:
4179:
3882:
Meakins, Felicity (2008a). "Land, language and identity: The socio-political origins of Gurindji Kriol.". In M. Meyerhoff; N. Nagy (eds.).
762:
2885:
Ditransitive clauses consist of an accusative object and dative indirect object, and alternate with a clause with two accusative objects.
827:
182:
Gurindji Kriol emerged in the 1970s from pervasive code-switching practices. It combines the lexicon and structure of Gurindji and Kriol.
2591:
Intransitive clauses consist of a verb and a subject with no object. Adjuncts may be added to express the location or time of an action.
4122:
O'Shannessy, Carmel; Meakins, Felicity (2011). "Comprehension of competing argument marking systems in two Australian mixed languages".
755:
769:
163:
which are Aboriginal communities located on the traditional lands of the Gurindji. Related mixed varieties are spoken to the north by
3745:
Jones, Caroline; Meakins, Felicity; Buchan, Heather (2011). "Citation-speech vowels in Gurindji Kriol and local Australian English".
3822:
McConvell, Patrick (2008). "Mixed Languages as outcomes of code-switching: Recent examples from Australia and their implications".
3774:
Jones, Caroline; Meakins, Felicity; Muawiyath, Shujau (2012). "Learning vowel categories from maternal speech in Gurindji Kriol".
3476:
699:
465:
4613:
4253:
4172:
3959:
Meakins, Felicity (2011a). "Spaced out: Inter-generational changes in the expression of spatial relations by Gurindji people".
683:
579:
203:
176:
4853:
219:
3719:
Charola, Erika. (2002). "The verb phrase structure of Gurindji Kriol Unpublished Honours". Melbourne University, Melbourne.
4763:
4645:
4557:
4234:
4454:
798:
690:
160:
36:
4599:
4446:
791:
657:
588:
558:
490:
4476:
4220:
820:
650:
643:
602:
4606:
195:
78:
4902:
4798:
4784:
4682:
4668:
4227:
567:
3853:
McConvell, Patrick; Meakins, Felicity (2005). "Gurindji Kriol: A Mixed Language Emerges from Code-switching".
3290:
4410:
4331:
4087:
671:
4875:
4868:
4352:
4296:
4195:
727:
664:
187:
4064:
Meakins, Felicity (2012b). "Gurindji Kriol". In S. Michaelis; P. Maurer; M. Haspelmath; M. Huber (eds.).
3815:
Language ecology as determinant of language shift or language hybridity: Some Australian Aboriginal cases
4268:
4241:
4022:
3724:
785:
720:
713:
1606:. The auxiliary verbs are derived from Kriol and the main verb can come from either Gurindji or Kriol:
3795:
McConvell, Patrick (1985). "Domains and codeswitching among bilingual Aborigines". In M. Clyne (ed.).
485:. Gurindji continues to be spoken by older people and a neighbouring traditional Australian language,
4620:
4550:
4469:
734:
3549:
4791:
4738:
4505:
4490:
4310:
2782:
Semi-transitive clauses are composed of an optionally-ergative marked subject and a dative object.
3804:
McConvell, Patrick (1988). "Mix-im-up: Aboriginal codeswitching old and new". In M. Heller (ed.).
4439:
4432:
4324:
4213:
4139:
4110:
4005:
3976:
3947:
3924:
3870:
3762:
741:
456:
152:
40:
4361:
3988:
Meakins, Felicity (2011b). "Borrowing contextual inflection: Evidence from northern Australia".
2704:
4043:
Meakins, Felicity (2012a). "Which Mix? - Code-switching or a mixed language - Gurindji Kriol".
4907:
4805:
4512:
4483:
4425:
4418:
4395:
4317:
4275:
3900:
486:
183:
74:
4812:
4724:
4717:
4710:
4659:
4578:
4516:
4462:
4282:
4203:
4131:
4102:
4052:
3997:
3968:
3939:
3862:
3839:
3831:
3783:
3754:
469:
3925:"The development of asymmetrical serial verb constructions in an Australian mixed language"
2738:
218:. The maintenance of Gurindji within the mixed language can be seen as the perpetuation of
4777:
4770:
4756:
4703:
4689:
4592:
4536:
4375:
4368:
4345:
4338:
4035:
3737:
2324:
1760:
Gurindji Kriol distinguishes between past (bin) and present tense (zero-marked for nouns,
451:
148:
63:
3519:
4585:
4541:
4402:
4289:
495:
482:
215:
144:
88:
71:
131:
4891:
4731:
4498:
4303:
4143:
4009:
3787:
4114:
3980:
3874:
3766:
481:
Gurindji Kriol is situated within a complex picture of multilingualism, contact and
3893:
Children's Language and Multilingualism: Indigenous Language Use at Home and School
508:
191:
95:
3951:
4106:
3972:
3758:
4564:
3506:
468:
and Katherine. Yet in Kalkaringi, a mixed language emerged from this situation.
450:
Gurindji Kriol originated from contact between non-Indigenous colonists and the
199:
3835:
4696:
4135:
4001:
3866:
210:
verb-noun (V-N) mixed language. Other examples of V-N mixed languages include
164:
156:
32:
3605:
Meakins 2009; Meakins and O'Shannessy 2010; O'Shannessy and Meakins to appear
4652:
4056:
3596:
see Jones, Meakins, and Buchan 2011; Jones, Meakins, and Muawiyath to appear
2791:
2381:
168:
124:
108:
44:
3943:
115:
4164:
3084:"The dog might be crying (because) he tied him up by the neck like that."
2510:
172:
3370:
3286:
3257:
3176:
2973:
2841:
2700:
2609:
2446:
2367:
2331:
Ascriptive clauses consist of a subject noun and nominalised adjective.
1684:
1668:
1614:
885:
473:
spoken at Kalkaringi) may have also aided the maintenance of Gurindji.
4159:
3844:
4830:
4638:
4532:
211:
2819:
2815:
922:
4066:
Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Structures, vol II: The language surveys
4675:
3509:'s 'The Unlucky Australians' and Deborah Roses' 'Hidden Histories'
3550:
http://www.slccs.uq.edu.au//index.html?page=127733&pid=124851
3136:
3063:
1644:
3387:
3081:
dog 3SG.S-PRS cry-PROG DUB 3SG.S-PRS tie-TR-up 3SG thus neck-LOC
4168:
3916:
The Role of Semantics and Pragmatics in the Development of Case
3806:
Codeswitching: Anthropological and Sociolinguistic Perspectives
3428:
3324:
3247:
3158:
3073:
3029:
3016:
2878:
another-NMLZ old.woman call.out-PROG-out-PROG DAT 3SG.DAT child
2759:
2649:
2617:
2468:
1702:
875:
3539:
see McConvell and Meakins 2005; McConvell, 2008; Meakins 2011c
3282:
3311:
2845:
2829:
2551:
2082:
Bound verbal morphology is also predominantly Kriol-derived.
1688:
1672:
3817:. International Symposium on Bilingualism. Hamburg, Germany.
3401:
3343:
a child-ERG 3SG.SBJ give-TR OBL-3SG.O cake woman-DAT lie-LOC
3272:
3190:
3126:
3095:
3089:
2987:
2912:
2725:
2714:
2520:
2420:
Existential clauses contain a subject with locative phrase.
1658:
1631:
980:
918:
899:
1294:'your, to you'. (Note that this paradigm needs some work).
2778:"And the kangaroo he hit with a boomerang, the child did."
3374:
3261:
3180:
2977:
2775:
and kangaroo 3SG.S PST hit-TR boomerang-COM the child-ERG
2613:
1618:
889:
959:
the small child-ERG 3SG.SBJ PST go get-TR-PROG the child
3220:
the old.man PST MOD sit chair-LOC but 3SG.SBJ PST break
1712:
3520:
https://researchers.anu.edu.au/researchers/mcconvell-p
3346:"A child gives a cake to the woman who is lying down."
3223:"The old man tried to sit on the chair but it broke."
1741:
3SG.SBJ PST MOD get-TR 3SG.OBJ 3SG.DAT mother-ERG FOC
518:
512:
4822:
4748:
4630:
4531:
4387:
4251:
4202:
535:/ɪ/, /ɐ/ and /ʊ/, plus diphthongs and long vowels.
122:
106:
101:
85:
60:
50:
28:
23:
3799:. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 95–125.
3617:
3615:
3613:
3611:
222:under massive and continuing cultural incursion.
3655:
3653:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3645:
4086:Meakins, Felicity; O'Shannessy, Carmel (2010).
4180:
3808:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 97–124.
2582:"Hey you broke the frog's home (the bottle)."
1594:The verb phrase consists of a tense auxiliary
489:is also used by people of Warlpiri heritage.
151:people in the Victoria River District of the
8:
3918:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 59–91.
3886:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 69–94.
962:"The small kid goes to get the (other) kid."
3100:(because), bat (but), ib (if), den (then).
312:siblings, grandparents, in-laws (Gurindji)
4260:
4187:
4173:
4165:
3905:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3668:Meakins 2009; Meakins and O'Shannessy 2010
3047:"The man got bitten by a dog on the hand."
616:
537:
20:
16:Mixed Gurindji–Kriol language of Australia
3843:
3044:man 3SG.SBJ PST get bite dog-ABL hand-LOC
3895:. New York: Continuum. pp. 247–264.
3475:Australian Bureau of Statistics (2021).
2404:"Poor thing, that child is only a baby."
2084:
1774:
1296:
991:
224:
3467:
2881:"Another woman calls out to her child."
186:is a highly endangered language of the
4045:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
4031:
4020:
3898:
3733:
3722:
2668:dog 3SG.SBJ=PRS sleep outside shop-LOC
3797:Australia, Meeting Place of Languages
7:
4124:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition
4075:Monash University Linguistics Papers
3454:3SG.SBJ POT put-TR lie.down yard-LOC
2952:"The boy gives the man a cigarette."
2579:hey 2SG PST break the frog-DAT house
310:parents and their siblings (Kriol),
155:(Australia). It is mostly spoken at
3496:This page is based on Meakins 2012b
2401:poor.thing the child 3SG small-NMLZ
4068:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3587:Meakins & O’Shannessy, 2005:45
2487:"The dog is underneath the chair."
14:
3961:Australian Journal of Linguistics
3855:Australian Journal of Linguistics
3747:Australian Journal of Linguistics
3457:He will lay him down in the yard.
2949:the boy give-TR the man cigarette
826:
819:
797:
790:
784:
768:
761:
754:
740:
733:
726:
719:
712:
698:
689:
682:
670:
663:
656:
649:
642:
601:
587:
578:
566:
557:
4898:Pidgins and creoles of Australia
3788:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00725.x
2671:"A dog sleeps outside the shop."
2484:the dog 3SG underneath chair-LOC
4614:South Australian Pidgin English
3228:the object of the main clause.
4854:Australian Irish Sign Language
1:
4558:Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin
1598:followed by a modal auxiliary
4107:10.1016/j.lingua.2009.05.013
3973:10.1080/07268602.2011.532857
3759:10.1080/07268602.2011.598629
3630:Meakins and O'Shannessy 2005
3477:"Cultural diversity: Census"
3096:
3090:
1744:"His mother had to get him."
981:
477:Current linguistic situation
4600:Port Jackson Pidgin English
3824:Journal of Language Contact
3813:McConvell, Patrick (2007).
3505:Meakins 2008a and see also
491:Standard Australian English
4924:
3923:Meakins, Felicity (2010).
3836:10.1163/000000008792525327
2411:are Gurindji-derived, and
1751:are Gurindji-derived, and
969:are Gurindji-derived, and
4863:
4631:Major immigrant languages
4607:Queensland Kanaka English
4449:? (5-6 families/isolates)
4263:
4136:10.1017/S1366728911000307
4002:10.1007/s11525-010-9163-4
3867:10.1080/07268600500110456
2765:an kengkaru i bin kil-im
1571:
1546:
1527:
1502:
1497:
1472:
1453:
1428:
1423:
1370:
1320:
1315:
1299:
985:can also be expressed by
953:i bin gon ged-im-bat dat
4845:Indigenous Sign Language
3884:Social Lives in Language
3530:see McConvell 1985, 1988
523:is used to mean "tree".
279:traditional (Gurindji),
4749:Major foreign languages
4413:? (3 families/isolates)
4057:10.1075/jpcl.27.1.03mea
3518:McConvell's home page:
519:
513:
4876:Indigenous Australians
4869:Aboriginal Australians
4196:Languages of Australia
4030:Cite journal requires
3732:Cite journal requires
374:interrogative pronouns
4838:Australian Aboriginal
4235:Australian Aboriginal
3944:10.1515/lity.2010.001
3548:Meakins's home page:
1572:reflexive/reciprocal
56:25 (2021 census)
4621:Torres Strait Creole
3334:i gib-it la-im keik
3210:bin trai jidan jiya-
2946:gib-it dat man jumok
3932:Linguistic Typology
3560:Meakins 2008b:86-87
3035:man i bin get bait
2137:spatial, inceptive
2037:ability/permission
360:possessive pronouns
301:other noun suffixes
237:Language of origin
220:Aboriginal identity
147:which is spoken by
4221:Western Australian
3677:Meakins 2011c: 140
3639:Meakins 2011c: 157
2312:Kriol trans verbs
2268:Kriol trans verbs
457:Wave Hill Walk-off
394:V-bodily functions
231:Language of origin
228:Structural feature
153:Northern Territory
41:Northern Territory
4885:
4884:
4527:
4526:
4447:Macro-Gunwinyguan
4388:Language families
3776:Language Learning
3686:Meakins 2011c: 44
3578:see Meakins 2008b
3052:Complex sentences
2767:kurrupartu-yawung
2733:kurrupartu-yawung
2478:im andanith jiya-
2415:are Kriol-derived
2316:
2315:
2080:
2079:
1841:present habitual
1755:are Kriol-derived
1602:and the main verb
1587:
1586:
1282:
1281:
973:are Kriol-derived
834:
833:
611:
610:
443:
442:
346:emphatic pronouns
138:
137:
4915:
4878:
4871:
4856:
4847:
4840:
4833:
4815:
4808:
4801:
4794:
4787:
4780:
4773:
4766:
4759:
4741:
4734:
4727:
4720:
4713:
4706:
4699:
4692:
4685:
4678:
4671:
4662:
4655:
4648:
4641:
4623:
4616:
4609:
4602:
4595:
4588:
4581:
4574:
4567:
4560:
4553:
4520:
4508:
4501:
4494:
4486:
4479:
4472:
4465:
4458:
4450:
4442:
4435:
4428:
4421:
4414:
4406:
4398:
4378:
4371:
4364:
4355:
4348:
4341:
4334:
4327:
4320:
4313:
4306:
4299:
4292:
4285:
4278:
4271:
4261:
4244:
4237:
4230:
4228:South Australian
4223:
4216:
4189:
4182:
4175:
4166:
4158:ELAR archive of
4147:
4118:
4101:(7): 1693–1713.
4092:
4082:
4069:
4060:
4039:
4033:
4028:
4026:
4018:
4013:
3984:
3955:
3929:
3919:
3910:
3904:
3896:
3887:
3878:
3849:
3847:
3818:
3809:
3800:
3791:
3782:(4): 1052–1078.
3770:
3741:
3735:
3730:
3728:
3720:
3705:
3702:
3696:
3693:
3687:
3684:
3678:
3675:
3669:
3666:
3660:
3657:
3640:
3637:
3631:
3628:
3622:
3619:
3606:
3603:
3597:
3594:
3588:
3585:
3579:
3576:
3570:
3569:(McConvell 2007)
3567:
3561:
3558:
3552:
3546:
3540:
3537:
3531:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3503:
3497:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3483:
3472:
3451:
3447:
3430:
3424:
3413:
3403:
3389:
3376:
3372:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3326:
3320:
3313:
3307:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3274:
3263:
3259:
3249:
3243:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3199:
3192:
3182:
3178:
3160:
3154:
3138:
3128:
3115:
3099:
3093:
3075:
3065:
3041:
3038:
3031:
3025:
3018:
3012:
2989:
2979:
2975:
2945:
2914:
2900:
2875:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2854:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2831:
2821:
2817:
2811:
2800:
2793:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2755:
2740:
2734:
2727:
2716:
2706:
2702:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2651:
2645:
2626:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2598:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2553:
2547:
2529:
2522:
2512:
2499:
2481:
2477:
2470:
2464:
2448:
2435:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2376:
2369:
2356:
2338:
2325:Verbless clauses
2319:Simple sentences
2085:
1775:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1737:
1733:
1714:
1704:
1698:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1674:
1670:
1660:
1646:
1633:
1620:
1616:
1579:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1538:
1533:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1464:
1459:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1297:
1275:
1264:
1251:
1240:
1236:
1223:
1212:
1199:
1188:
1175:
1164:
1151:
1140:
1139:-jawung, -yawung
1127:
1116:
1103:
1092:
1091:-ngkirri, -jirri
1079:
1068:
1055:
1044:
1031:
1020:
992:
984:
974:
972:
968:
956:
952:
949:
939:
924:
920:
901:
891:
887:
877:
871:
861:
830:
823:
801:
794:
788:
772:
765:
758:
744:
737:
730:
723:
716:
702:
693:
686:
674:
667:
660:
653:
646:
617:
605:
591:
582:
570:
561:
538:
522:
516:
470:Felicity Meakins
332:regular pronouns
225:
134:
118:
111:
91:
66:
21:
4923:
4922:
4918:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4913:
4912:
4903:Mixed languages
4888:
4887:
4886:
4881:
4874:
4867:
4859:
4852:
4843:
4836:
4829:
4818:
4811:
4804:
4797:
4790:
4783:
4776:
4769:
4762:
4755:
4744:
4737:
4730:
4723:
4716:
4709:
4702:
4695:
4688:
4681:
4674:
4667:
4658:
4651:
4644:
4637:
4626:
4619:
4612:
4605:
4598:
4591:
4584:
4577:
4570:
4563:
4556:
4549:
4542:mixed languages
4540:
4523:
4511:
4504:
4497:
4489:
4482:
4475:
4468:
4461:
4453:
4445:
4438:
4431:
4424:
4417:
4409:
4401:
4394:
4383:
4374:
4367:
4360:
4351:
4344:
4337:
4330:
4323:
4316:
4309:
4302:
4295:
4288:
4281:
4274:
4267:
4255:
4247:
4240:
4233:
4226:
4219:
4212:
4198:
4193:
4155:
4150:
4121:
4090:
4085:
4072:
4063:
4042:
4029:
4019:
4016:
3987:
3958:
3927:
3922:
3913:
3897:
3890:
3881:
3852:
3821:
3812:
3803:
3794:
3773:
3744:
3731:
3721:
3718:
3714:
3709:
3708:
3704:Meakins 2010: 2
3703:
3699:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3667:
3663:
3658:
3643:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3625:
3620:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3591:
3586:
3582:
3577:
3573:
3568:
3564:
3559:
3555:
3547:
3543:
3538:
3534:
3529:
3525:
3517:
3513:
3504:
3500:
3495:
3491:
3481:
3479:
3474:
3473:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3449:
3446:
3442:
3441:
3437:
3432:
3422:
3418:
3412:
3408:
3405:
3397:
3391:
3384:
3378:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3348:
3338:
3335:
3331:
3328:
3318:
3315:
3305:
3302:
3294:
3276:
3265:
3251:
3241:
3238:
3225:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3204:
3197:
3194:
3184:
3170:
3162:
3152:
3148:
3140:
3130:
3120:
3113:
3110:
3086:
3077:
3067:
3054:
3049:
3039:
3036:
3033:
3023:
3020:
3010:
3007:
2999:
2991:
2981:
2967:
2954:
2943:
2940:
2932:
2924:
2916:
2905:
2898:
2895:
2883:
2873:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2852:
2849:
2836:
2833:
2823:
2809:
2805:
2798:
2795:
2780:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2753:
2750:
2742:
2732:
2729:
2718:
2708:
2694:
2686:
2673:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2653:
2643:
2639:
2631:
2624:
2621:
2603:
2596:
2587:Verbal clauses:
2584:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2563:
2555:
2545:
2542:
2534:
2527:
2524:
2514:
2504:
2497:
2489:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2462:
2458:
2450:
2440:
2433:
2430:
2418:
2412:
2408:
2407:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2385:
2374:
2371:
2361:
2354:
2351:
2343:
2336:
2321:
2283:in/trans verbs
2228:spatial, telic
2202:spatial, telic
1758:
1752:
1748:
1747:
1735:
1731:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1706:
1696:
1692:
1679:
1676:
1662:
1654:
1648:
1641:
1635:
1628:
1622:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1577:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1536:
1531:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1499:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1462:
1457:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1425:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1317:
1287:
1273:
1262:
1249:
1238:
1234:
1221:
1210:
1197:
1186:
1173:
1162:
1149:
1138:
1125:
1114:
1101:
1090:
1077:
1066:
1053:
1042:
1029:
1018:
976:
970:
966:
965:
954:
950:
947:
944:
937:
934:
926:
911:
903:
893:
879:
869:
866:
859:
856:
843:
529:
504:
479:
448:
256:TAM auxiliaries
234:Lexical feature
130:
114:
107:
92:
87:
81:
67:
64:Language family
62:
53:
52:Native speakers
17:
12:
11:
5:
4921:
4919:
4911:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4890:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4880:
4879:
4872:
4864:
4861:
4860:
4858:
4857:
4850:
4849:
4848:
4834:
4826:
4824:
4823:Sign languages
4820:
4819:
4817:
4816:
4809:
4802:
4795:
4788:
4781:
4774:
4767:
4760:
4752:
4750:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4742:
4735:
4728:
4721:
4714:
4707:
4700:
4693:
4686:
4679:
4672:
4665:
4664:
4663:
4656:
4642:
4634:
4632:
4628:
4627:
4625:
4624:
4617:
4610:
4603:
4596:
4589:
4586:Light Warlpiri
4582:
4575:
4572:Gurindji Kriol
4568:
4561:
4554:
4546:
4544:
4529:
4528:
4525:
4524:
4522:
4521:
4509:
4502:
4495:
4487:
4480:
4473:
4466:
4459:
4455:Marrku–Wurrugu
4451:
4443:
4436:
4429:
4422:
4415:
4407:
4399:
4391:
4389:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4376:Djambarrpuyngu
4372:
4358:
4357:
4356:
4353:Pitjantjatjara
4349:
4342:
4332:Western Desert
4328:
4321:
4314:
4307:
4300:
4293:
4290:Kalaw Lagaw Ya
4286:
4279:
4272:
4264:
4258:
4249:
4248:
4246:
4245:
4238:
4231:
4224:
4217:
4209:
4207:
4200:
4199:
4194:
4192:
4191:
4184:
4177:
4169:
4163:
4162:
4160:Gurindji Kriol
4154:
4153:External links
4151:
4149:
4148:
4130:(2): 378–396.
4119:
4083:
4070:
4061:
4051:(1): 105–140.
4040:
4032:|journal=
4014:
3985:
3956:
3920:
3911:
3888:
3879:
3850:
3819:
3810:
3801:
3792:
3771:
3753:(3): 305–327.
3742:
3734:|journal=
3715:
3713:
3710:
3707:
3706:
3697:
3688:
3679:
3670:
3661:
3641:
3632:
3623:
3621:Meakins, 2012b
3607:
3598:
3589:
3580:
3571:
3562:
3553:
3541:
3532:
3523:
3511:
3498:
3489:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3444:
3439:
3435:
3419:
3410:
3406:
3395:
3392:
3382:
3379:
3365:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3316:
3303:
3295:
3277:
3266:
3252:
3239:
3231:
3230:
3195:
3185:
3171:
3163:
3149:
3141:
3131:
3121:
3111:
3103:
3102:
3068:
3059:
3058:
3053:
3050:
3037:warlaku-nginyi
3021:
3011:warlaku-nginyi
3008:
3000:
2992:
2982:
2968:
2960:
2959:
2933:
2925:
2917:
2906:
2896:
2888:
2887:
2850:
2834:
2824:
2806:
2796:
2785:
2784:
2751:
2743:
2730:
2719:
2709:
2695:
2687:
2679:
2678:
2640:
2632:
2622:
2604:
2594:
2593:
2556:
2543:
2535:
2525:
2515:
2505:
2495:
2494:
2459:
2451:
2441:
2431:
2423:
2422:
2372:
2362:
2352:
2344:
2334:
2333:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2298:intrans verbs
2296:
2293:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2124:idiosyncratic
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2111:idiosyncratic
2109:
2106:
2103:
2099:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2078:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1985:
1982:
1981:wanna, want to
1979:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1909:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1854:past habitual
1852:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1707:
1693:
1677:
1663:
1652:
1649:
1639:
1636:
1626:
1623:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1232:
1228:
1227:
1224:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1203:
1200:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1184:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1131:
1128:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1104:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1064:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
935:
927:
912:
904:
894:
880:
867:
857:
849:
848:
842:
839:
832:
831:
824:
817:
815:
813:
811:
807:
806:
804:
802:
795:
782:
780:
776:
775:
773:
766:
759:
752:
750:
746:
745:
738:
731:
724:
717:
710:
706:
705:
703:
696:
694:
687:
680:
676:
675:
668:
661:
654:
647:
640:
636:
635:
632:
629:
628:Post-alveolar
626:
623:
620:
609:
608:
606:
599:
597:
593:
592:
585:
583:
576:
572:
571:
564:
562:
555:
551:
550:
547:
544:
541:
528:
525:
503:
500:
496:mixed language
483:code-switching
478:
475:
447:
444:
441:
440:
437:
434:
431:
427:
426:
423:
420:
417:
413:
412:
409:
406:
403:
399:
398:
395:
392:
389:
388:demonstratives
385:
384:
381:
378:
375:
371:
370:
367:
364:
361:
357:
356:
353:
350:
347:
343:
342:
339:
336:
333:
329:
328:
325:
322:
319:
315:
314:
308:
305:
302:
298:
297:
294:
291:
288:
284:
283:
277:
274:
271:
267:
266:
263:
260:
257:
253:
252:
249:
246:
243:
239:
238:
235:
232:
229:
216:Light Warlpiri
145:mixed language
141:Gurindji Kriol
136:
135:
128:
120:
119:
112:
104:
103:
102:Language codes
99:
98:
93:
89:Writing system
86:
83:
82:
70:
68:
61:
58:
57:
54:
51:
48:
47:
30:
26:
25:
24:Gurindji Kriol
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4920:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4877:
4873:
4870:
4866:
4865:
4862:
4855:
4851:
4846:
4842:
4841:
4839:
4835:
4832:
4828:
4827:
4825:
4821:
4814:
4810:
4807:
4803:
4800:
4796:
4793:
4789:
4786:
4782:
4779:
4775:
4772:
4768:
4765:
4761:
4758:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4747:
4740:
4736:
4733:
4729:
4726:
4722:
4719:
4715:
4712:
4708:
4705:
4701:
4698:
4694:
4691:
4687:
4684:
4680:
4677:
4673:
4670:
4666:
4661:
4657:
4654:
4650:
4649:
4647:
4643:
4640:
4636:
4635:
4633:
4629:
4622:
4618:
4615:
4611:
4608:
4604:
4601:
4597:
4594:
4590:
4587:
4583:
4580:
4576:
4573:
4569:
4566:
4562:
4559:
4555:
4552:
4548:
4547:
4545:
4543:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4507:
4503:
4500:
4496:
4493:(4 families?)
4492:
4488:
4485:
4481:
4478:
4474:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4441:
4437:
4434:
4430:
4427:
4423:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4411:Darwin Region
4408:
4404:
4400:
4397:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4386:
4377:
4373:
4370:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4359:
4354:
4350:
4347:
4343:
4340:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4329:
4326:
4322:
4319:
4315:
4312:
4308:
4305:
4301:
4298:
4297:Murrinh Patha
4294:
4291:
4287:
4284:
4280:
4277:
4273:
4270:
4266:
4265:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4250:
4243:
4242:Torres Strait
4239:
4236:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4222:
4218:
4215:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4190:
4185:
4183:
4178:
4176:
4171:
4170:
4167:
4161:
4157:
4156:
4152:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4071:
4067:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4037:
4024:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3926:
3921:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3902:
3894:
3889:
3885:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3807:
3802:
3798:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3743:
3739:
3726:
3717:
3716:
3711:
3701:
3698:
3692:
3689:
3683:
3680:
3674:
3671:
3665:
3662:
3659:Meakins 2012b
3656:
3654:
3652:
3650:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3636:
3633:
3627:
3624:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3612:
3608:
3602:
3599:
3593:
3590:
3584:
3581:
3575:
3572:
3566:
3563:
3557:
3554:
3551:
3545:
3542:
3536:
3533:
3527:
3524:
3521:
3515:
3512:
3508:
3502:
3499:
3493:
3490:
3478:
3471:
3468:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3431:
3425:
3417:
3414:
3404:
3398:
3390:
3385:
3377:
3368:
3363:
3358:and main verb
3347:
3344:
3341:
3327:
3321:
3314:
3308:
3301:
3298:
3293:
3280:
3275:
3269:
3264:
3255:
3250:
3244:
3237:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3221:
3218:
3203:
3200:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3174:
3169:
3166:
3161:
3155:
3147:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3116:
3109:
3106:
3101:
3098:
3092:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3070:
3066:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3042:
3032:
3026:
3019:
3013:
3006:
3003:
2998:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2971:
2966:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2939:
2936:
2931:
2928:
2923:
2920:
2915:
2909:
2904:
2901:
2894:
2891:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2858:
2855:
2848:
2839:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2812:
2804:
2801:
2794:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2776:
2773:
2762:
2756:
2749:
2746:
2741:
2735:
2728:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2698:
2693:
2690:
2685:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2669:
2666:
2652:
2646:
2638:
2635:
2630:
2627:
2620:
2607:
2602:
2599:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2562:
2559:
2554:
2548:
2541:
2538:
2533:
2530:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2500:
2493:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2471:
2465:
2457:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2436:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2417:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2384:
2378:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2357:
2350:
2347:
2342:
2339:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2318:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2150:space, telic
2149:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2127:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2083:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1757:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1699:
1691:
1682:
1675:
1666:
1661:
1655:
1647:
1642:
1634:
1629:
1621:
1612:
1607:
1589:
1583:
1581:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1496:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1422:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1323:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1284:
1277:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1209:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:-yu, -wu, -ku
1065:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1003:
1000:
997:
994:
993:
990:
988:
983:
975:
963:
960:
957:
943:
940:
933:
930:
925:
915:
910:
907:
902:
897:
892:
883:
878:
872:
865:
862:
855:
852:
847:
840:
838:
829:
825:
822:
818:
816:
814:
812:
809:
808:
805:
803:
800:
796:
793:
787:
783:
781:
778:
777:
774:
771:
767:
764:
760:
757:
753:
751:
748:
747:
743:
739:
736:
732:
729:
725:
722:
718:
715:
711:
708:
707:
704:
701:
697:
695:
692:
688:
685:
681:
678:
677:
673:
669:
666:
662:
659:
655:
652:
648:
645:
641:
638:
637:
633:
631:Alveopalatal
630:
627:
624:
621:
619:
618:
615:
607:
604:
600:
598:
595:
594:
590:
586:
584:
581:
577:
574:
573:
569:
565:
563:
560:
556:
553:
552:
548:
545:
542:
540:
539:
536:
532:
526:
524:
521:
515:
510:
501:
499:
497:
492:
488:
484:
476:
474:
471:
467:
461:
458:
453:
445:
438:
436:V-verbalising
435:
432:
429:
428:
424:
421:
418:
416:interjections
415:
414:
410:
407:
404:
401:
400:
396:
393:
390:
387:
386:
382:
379:
376:
373:
372:
368:
365:
362:
359:
358:
354:
351:
348:
345:
344:
340:
337:
334:
331:
330:
326:
323:
320:
317:
316:
313:
309:
306:
303:
300:
299:
295:
292:
289:
287:case suffixes
286:
285:
282:
278:
275:
272:
270:verb suffixes
269:
268:
264:
261:
258:
255:
254:
250:
247:
244:
241:
240:
236:
233:
230:
227:
226:
223:
221:
217:
213:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
133:
129:
127:
126:
121:
117:
113:
110:
105:
100:
97:
94:
90:
84:
80:
76:
73:
69:
65:
59:
55:
49:
46:
42:
38:
34:
31:
27:
22:
19:
4571:
4477:Pama–Nyungan
4405:(5 families)
4269:Anindilyakwa
4127:
4123:
4098:
4094:
4078:
4074:
4065:
4048:
4044:
4023:cite journal
3996:(1): 57–87.
3993:
3989:
3967:(1): 43–78.
3964:
3960:
3935:
3931:
3915:
3892:
3883:
3858:
3854:
3827:
3823:
3814:
3805:
3796:
3779:
3775:
3750:
3746:
3725:cite journal
3700:
3695:Meakins 2010
3691:
3682:
3673:
3664:
3635:
3626:
3601:
3592:
3583:
3574:
3565:
3556:
3544:
3535:
3526:
3514:
3501:
3492:
3480:. Retrieved
3470:
3456:
3453:
3433:
3426:
3420:
3415:
3407:
3399:
3393:
3386:
3380:
3369:
3366:
3354:, minor verb
3349:
3345:
3342:
3329:
3322:
3317:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3296:
3281:
3278:
3270:
3267:
3256:
3253:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3232:
3226:
3222:
3219:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3189:
3186:
3175:
3172:
3167:
3164:
3156:
3150:
3145:
3142:
3135:
3132:
3125:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3104:
3087:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3071:
3069:
3062:
3060:
3055:
3046:
3043:
3034:
3027:
3022:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3001:
2996:
2993:
2986:
2983:
2972:
2969:
2964:
2961:
2955:
2951:
2948:
2941:
2937:
2934:
2929:
2926:
2921:
2918:
2910:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2889:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2860:
2856:
2851:
2840:
2835:
2828:
2825:
2813:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2789:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2764:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2744:
2736:
2731:
2723:
2720:
2713:
2710:
2699:
2696:
2691:
2688:
2683:
2680:
2674:
2670:
2667:
2662:atsaid shop-
2654:
2647:
2641:
2636:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2608:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2519:
2516:
2509:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2490:
2486:
2483:
2473:
2466:
2460:
2455:
2452:
2445:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2413:purple words
2406:
2403:
2400:
2386:
2379:
2373:
2366:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2323:
2322:
2290:
2275:
2255:lexicalised
2081:
1958:possibility
1932:necessative
1926:habta, labta
1907:necessative
1867:progressive
1769:
1765:
1761:
1759:
1753:purple words
1746:
1743:
1740:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1700:
1694:
1683:
1678:
1667:
1664:
1656:
1650:
1643:
1637:
1630:
1624:
1613:
1610:
1593:
1291:
1288:
986:
977:
971:purple words
964:
961:
958:
945:
941:
936:
931:
928:
916:
913:
908:
905:
898:
895:
884:
881:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
850:
844:
835:
612:
533:
530:
509:Swadesh list
505:
494:'symbiotic'
480:
466:Timber Creek
462:
449:
402:conjunctions
311:
281:new (Kriol)
280:
248:N-body parts
208:
194:family) and
192:Pama-Nyungan
188:Ngumpin-Yapa
181:
140:
139:
123:
18:
4565:Cocos Malay
4551:Angloromani
4362:Yolŋu Matha
4081:(2): 43–63.
3938:(1): 1–38.
3861:(1): 9–30.
3830:: 187–212.
3507:Frank Hardy
3094:(because),
2865:jing-in-at-
2808:jing-in-at-
2574:ngakparn-ku
2546:ngakparn-ku
2409:green words
2246:progressive
2063:imperative
2024:imperative
1888:garra, -rra
1749:green words
1590:Verb phrase
1311:Possessive
1270:Restrictive
1231:Associative
1170:Nominaliser
1115:-nginyi(ng)
1074:Comparative
1030:-purrupurru
967:green words
841:Noun phrase
430:determiners
276:N-artefacts
200:Arnhem Land
177:Pigeon Hole
4892:Categories
4792:Indonesian
4739:Vietnamese
4470:Nyulnyulan
4311:Walmajarri
4254:Indigenous
4214:Australian
3990:Morphology
3845:1885/50173
3712:References
3482:13 October
3336:kajirri-yu
3306:kajirri-yu
3214:bat i bin
2737:boomerang-
2456:underneath
2341:poor.thing
2303:transitive
1904:had better
1894:potential
1880:inceptive
1824:I'll, will
1772:'I will'.
1566:nyarruluny
1561:nyarru(lu)
1492:nyurruluny
1487:nyurru(lu)
1463:yutu(bala)
1458:yutu(bala)
1418:ngantipany
1399:inclusive
1374:exclusive
1349:inclusive
1324:exclusive
1259:Dual Assoc
1135:Comitative
1126:-wariny(j)
1043:-ngka, -ta
1019:-ngku, -tu
989:'has no'.
914:ged-im-bat
679:Fricative
446:Background
439:Kriol/Gur
369:Kriol/Gur
355:Kriol/Gur
327:Kriol/Gur
296:Kriol/Gur
242:word order
204:Daly River
190:subgroup (
171:people at
165:Ngarinyman
157:Kalkaringi
33:Kalkaringi
4653:Cantonese
4513:Yangmanic
4506:Worrorran
4491:Tasmanian
4325:Warumungu
4256:languages
4206:varieties
4144:143698464
4010:120670749
3332:karu-ngku
3242:karu-ngku
3040:wartan-ta
3024:wartan-ta
2938:cigarette
2861:naja-wan
2814:call.out-
2803:old.woman
2771:karu-ngku
2754:karu-ngku
2309:him, them
2102:adverbial
2097:Function
2094:Etymology
1978:wana, -na
1968:trying to
1787:Function
1784:Etymology
1503:singular
1429:singular
1393:ngaliwany
1321:singular
1308:Emphatic
1278:Gurindji
1254:Gurindji
1243:Gur/Kriol
1235:-nganyjuk
1194:Adjective
1154:Gurindji
1130:Gurindji
1106:Gurindji
1082:Gurindji
1058:Gurindji
1050:Privative
1034:Gurindji
951:karu-ngku
870:karu-ngku
625:Alveolar
622:Bilabial
527:Phonology
411:Gurindji
405:Kriol/Gur
397:Gurindji
391:Kriol/Gur
383:Gurindji
352:N-animals
341:Gurindji
335:Kriol/Gur
262:N-colours
251:Gurindji
169:Bilinarra
125:Glottolog
109:ISO 639-3
45:Australia
4908:Gurindji
4806:Japanese
4660:Mandarin
4440:Jarrakan
4433:Iwaidjan
4426:Giimbiyu
4318:Warlpiri
4276:Arrernte
4115:51838191
3981:61447438
3901:citation
3875:62281541
3767:62651692
3416:lie.down
3339:makin-ta
3319:makin-ta
2790:another-
2787:naja-wan
2692:kangaroo
2689:kengkaru
2566:wartarra
2498:wartarra
2453:andanith
2396:yapakayi
2375:yapakayi
2295:Gurindji
2280:Gurindji
2215:spatial
2176:spatial
2163:spatial
2088:Category
2015:negation
2010:passive
1971:attempt
1945:ability
1814:present
1778:Category
1770:ai garra
1537:tu(bala)
1532:tu(bala)
1413:ngantipa
1408:ngantipa
1302:Subject
1285:Pronouns
1267:Gurindji
1215:Gurindji
1191:Gurindji
1187:-kujarra
1167:Gurindji
1143:Gurindji
1119:Gurindji
1111:Ablative
1095:Gurindji
1087:Allative
1071:Gurindji
1054:-murlung
1047:Gurindji
1039:Locative
1023:Gurindji
1015:Ergative
982:-murlung
948:yapakayi
860:yapakayi
749:Lateral
546:Central
487:Warlpiri
452:Gurindji
419:Gurindji
408:V-impact
380:V-motion
363:Gurindji
349:Gurindji
338:N-plants
318:negation
304:Gurindji
293:N-people
290:Gurindji
184:Gurindji
173:Yarralin
161:Daguragu
149:Gurindji
132:guri1249
75:Gurindji
37:Daguragu
4813:Spanish
4799:Italian
4764:Chinese
4725:Tagalog
4718:Spanish
4711:Punjabi
4697:Maltese
4683:Italian
4646:Chinese
4537:creoles
4533:Pidgins
4517:Wagiman
4515:(incl.
4484:Tangkic
4419:Garrwan
4396:Bunuban
4346:Pintupi
4339:Luritja
4283:Burarra
4204:English
3434:i garra
3208:marluka
3118:old.man
3114:marluka
2871:nyanuny
2863:kajirri
2837:nyanuny
2799:kajirri
2656:warlaku
2637:outside
2597:warlaku
2568:yu bin
2476:warlaku
2434:warlaku
2170:-(a)wei
2157:-(a)ran
2076:simple
2050:simple
1997:active
1984:desire
1929:have to
1851:used to
1827:future
1811:I'm, am
1795:bin, in
1732:nyanuny
1701:mother-
1680:nyanuny
1547:plural
1522:nyanuny
1500:person
1473:plural
1448:nyununy
1426:person
1388:ngaliwa
1383:ngaliwa
1371:plural
1343:ngayiny
1318:person
1305:Object
1292:nyununy
1263:-kuwang
1211:-walija
1146:Another
1098:Factive
1078:-marraj
1010:Origin
779:Rhotic
502:Lexicon
422:V-basic
366:V-state
206:area).
4831:Auslan
4778:German
4771:French
4757:Arabic
4704:Nepali
4690:Korean
4639:Arabic
4593:Norfuk
4463:Mirndi
4369:Dhuwal
4252:Major
4142:
4113:
4095:Lingua
4008:
3979:
3952:722398
3950:
3873:
3765:
3438:put-im
3394:put-im
3310:woman-
3268:gib-it
3246:child-
3157:chair-
3091:dumaji
2944:malyju
2908:gib-it
2899:malyju
2758:child-
2721:kil-im
2634:atsaid
2467:chair-
2380:small-
2276:-karra
2241:telic
2189:telic
2160:around
1965:traina
1955:should
1917:have a
1891:got to
1838:always
1835:olweis
1832:aspect
1766:ai-rra
1726:ged-im
1651:ged-im
1578:mijelp
1517:nyantu
1443:nyuntu
1226:Kriol
1207:Paucal
1202:Kriol
1178:Kriol
1159:Plural
1063:Dative
1001:Origin
987:gat no
874:child-
810:Glide
709:Nasal
634:Velar
554:Close
543:Front
514:karnti
425:Kriol
324:N-food
265:Kriol
212:Michif
29:Region
4785:Greek
4676:Hindi
4669:Greek
4579:Kriol
4140:S2CID
4111:S2CID
4091:(PDF)
4006:S2CID
3977:S2CID
3948:S2CID
3928:(PDF)
3871:S2CID
3763:S2CID
3462:Notes
3448:yard-
3443:makin
3427:yard-
3421:yard-
3409:makin
3381:garra
3279:la-im
3271:give-
3202:break
3151:jiya-
3143:jidan
3097:bikos
3072:neck-
3028:hand-
2935:jumok
2911:give-
2867:karra
2857:child
2818:-out-
2810:karra
2660:makin
2648:shop-
2642:shop-
2629:sleep
2625:makin
2576:hawuj
2561:house
2558:hawuj
2550:frog-
2532:break
2461:jiya-
2388:ankaj
2359:child
2337:ankaj
2265:about
2121:after
2118:-abta
2108:about
2105:-abat
2047:never
2034:can't
2021:don't
1989:voice
1885:modal
1877:start
1864:still
1848:yusta
1801:past
1792:tense
1768:>
1734:mami-
1722:labta
1718:i bin
1695:mami-
1638:labta
1528:dual
1482:yumob
1477:yumob
1454:dual
1363:ngali
1358:ngali
1338:ngayu
1333:ngayu
1246:Topic
1218:Focus
1198:-bala
1163:-rrat
1150:-kari
1122:Alone
942:child
864:small
639:Stop
596:Open
549:Back
433:Kriol
377:Kriol
321:Kriol
307:N-kin
273:Kriol
259:Kriol
245:Kriol
196:Kriol
143:is a
96:Latin
79:Kriol
72:mixed
4732:Urdu
4499:Tiwi
4403:Daly
4304:Tiwi
4036:help
3907:link
3738:help
3484:2022
3400:put-
3330:wan
3323:lie-
3300:cake
3297:keik
3216:kirt
3212:ngka
3206:dat
3198:kirt
3153:ngka
3133:trai
3015:dog-
3005:bite
3002:bait
2942:dat
2874:karu
2853:karu
2820:PROG
2816:PROG
2792:NMLZ
2769:dat
2724:hit-
2658:i=m
2572:dat
2570:kirt
2528:kirt
2480:ngka
2474:dat
2463:ngka
2398:-wan
2392:karu
2390:dat
2382:NMLZ
2377:-wan
2355:karu
2262:-bat
2252:-ing
2225:over
2222:-oba
2212:down
2209:-dan
2199:back
2196:-bek
2173:away
2091:Form
2060:stop
2044:neba
2031:kaan
1952:shud
1914:haba
1901:beta
1874:stat
1798:been
1781:Form
1736:ngku
1697:ngku
1657:get-
1274:=rni
1239:-mob
1183:Dual
1174:-wan
1007:Form
1004:Type
998:Form
995:Type
955:karu
946:dat
938:karu
923:PROG
917:get-
575:Mid
214:and
202:and
175:and
167:and
159:and
35:and
4539:and
4132:doi
4103:doi
4099:120
4053:doi
3998:doi
3969:doi
3940:doi
3863:doi
3840:hdl
3832:doi
3784:doi
3755:doi
3429:LOC
3388:POT
3375:SBJ
3371:3SG
3325:LOC
3312:DAT
3287:3SG
3283:OBL
3262:SBJ
3258:3SG
3248:ERG
3233:wan
3191:PST
3187:bin
3181:SBJ
3177:3SG
3168:but
3165:bat
3159:LOC
3146:sit
3137:MOD
3127:PST
3123:bin
3108:the
3105:dat
3074:LOC
3064:DUB
3030:LOC
3017:ABL
2997:get
2994:get
2988:PST
2984:bin
2978:SBJ
2974:3SG
2965:man
2962:man
2930:man
2927:man
2922:the
2919:dat
2903:boy
2893:the
2890:dat
2869:bo
2846:DAT
2842:3SG
2830:DAT
2760:ERG
2748:the
2745:dat
2739:COM
2715:PST
2711:bin
2701:3SG
2684:and
2650:LOC
2618:PRS
2614:SBJ
2610:3SG
2606:i=m
2601:dog
2552:DAT
2540:the
2537:dat
2521:PST
2517:bin
2511:2SG
2502:hey
2469:LOC
2447:3SG
2438:dog
2428:the
2425:dat
2394:im
2368:3SG
2349:the
2346:dat
2306:-im
2291:-ta
2249:-in
2238:off
2235:-op
2186:out
2183:-at
2144:-ap
2131:-an
2073:not
2070:not
2057:top
2018:don
2007:get
2004:git
1942:can
1939:kan
1861:til
1730:im
1713:FOC
1703:ERG
1689:DAT
1685:3SG
1673:OBJ
1669:3SG
1645:MOD
1632:PST
1625:bin
1619:SBJ
1615:3SG
1556:dem
1551:dei
1498:3rd
1424:2nd
1316:1st
1250:=ma
1222:=na
1026:And
932:the
929:dat
906:gon
900:PST
896:bin
890:SBJ
886:3SG
876:ERG
854:the
851:dat
520:tri
116:gjr
4894::
4535:,
4519:)?
4138:.
4128:15
4126:.
4109:.
4097:.
4093:.
4077:.
4049:27
4047:.
4027::
4025:}}
4021:{{
4004:.
3994:21
3992:.
3975:.
3965:31
3963:.
3946:.
3936:14
3934:.
3930:.
3903:}}
3899:{{
3869:.
3859:25
3857:.
3838:.
3826:.
3780:62
3778:.
3761:.
3751:31
3749:.
3729::
3727:}}
3723:{{
3644:^
3610:^
3450:ta
3423:ta
3402:TR
3362:.
3273:TR
2913:TR
2826:bo
2726:TR
2681:an
2664:ta
2644:ta
2507:yu
2443:im
2364:im
2147:up
2134:on
1821:-l
1808:-m
1762:-m
1738:na
1709:na
1665:im
1659:TR
1512:im
1438:yu
1433:yu
1403:wi
1378:wi
1353:wi
1328:ai
1237:,
1102:-k
919:TR
909:go
789:,
43:,
39:,
4457:?
4188:e
4181:t
4174:v
4146:.
4134::
4117:.
4105::
4079:4
4059:.
4055::
4038:)
4034:(
4012:.
4000::
3983:.
3971::
3954:.
3942::
3909:)
3877:.
3865::
3848:.
3842::
3834::
3828:2
3790:.
3786::
3769:.
3757::
3740:)
3736:(
3486:.
3445:3
3440:2
3436:1
3411:3
3396:2
3383:1
3373:.
3367:i
3360:3
3356:2
3352:1
3291:O
3289:.
3285:-
3260:.
3254:i
3236:a
3179:.
3173:i
2976:.
2970:i
2844:.
2705:S
2703:.
2697:i
2616:=
2612:.
2327::
1992:ø
1728:3
1724:2
1720:1
1687:.
1671:.
1653:3
1640:2
1627:1
1617:.
1611:i
1604:3
1600:2
1596:1
1507:i
921:-
888:.
882:i
828:w
821:j
799:ɻ
792:ɹ
786:r
770:ʎ
763:ɭ
756:l
742:ŋ
735:ɲ
728:ɳ
721:n
714:m
700:ʃ
691:s
684:f
672:k
665:ɟ
658:ʈ
651:t
644:p
603:a
589:ɔ
580:e
568:u
559:i
77:–
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.