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colours reproduced brilliantly, but the ill-defined broad bands of wavelengths reflected by real-world objects could be problematic. The process did not produce colour prints on paper and it proved impossible to make a good duplicate of a
Lippmann colour photograph by rephotographing it, so each image was unique. A very shallow-angled prism was usually cemented to the front of the finished plate to deflect unwanted surface reflections, and this made plates of any substantial size impractical. The size of his early photographs was 4 cm by 4 cm, increased later to 6.5 cm by 9 cm. The lighting and viewing arrangement required to see the colours to best effect precluded casual use. Although the special plates and a plate holder with a built-in mercury reservoir were commercially available for a few years
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are rectified and viewed through a similar array of lenses, a single integrated image, composed of small portions of all the images, is seen by each eye. The position of the eye determines which parts of the small images it sees. The effect is that the visual geometry of the original scene is reconstructed, so that the limits of the array seem to be the edges of a window through which the scene appears life-size and in three dimensions, realistically exhibiting parallax and perspective shift with any change in the position of the observer. This principle of using numerous lenses or imaging apertures to record what was later termed a
458:. On 2 February 1891, he announced to the Academy of Sciences: "I have succeeded in obtaining the image of the spectrum with its colours on a photographic plate whereby the image remains fixed and can remain in daylight without deterioration." By April 1892, he was able to report that he had succeeded in producing colour images of a stained glass window, a group of flags, a bowl of oranges topped by a red poppy and a multicoloured parrot. He presented his theory of colour photography using the interference method in two papers to the Academy, one in 1894, the other in 1906.
539:. At each point on the plate, light of approximately the same wavelength as the light which had generated the lamellae was strongly reflected back toward the viewer. Light of other wavelengths which was not absorbed or scattered by the silver grains simply passed through the emulsion, usually to be absorbed by a black anti-reflection coating applied to the back of the plate after it had been developed. The wavelengths, and therefore the colours, of the light which had formed the original image were thus reconstituted and a full-colour image was seen.
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process, except that the highly coherent laser light passing through the recording medium and reflected back from the subject generates the required distinct standing waves throughout a relatively large volume of space, eliminating the need for reflection to occur immediately adjacent to the recording medium. Unlike
Lippmann colour photography, however, the lasers, the subject and the recording medium must all be kept stable to within one quarter of a wavelength during the exposure in order for the standing waves to be recorded adequately or at all.
528:, a very fine fringe pattern in distinct parallel layers composed of submicroscopic metallic silver grains, which was a permanent record of the standing waves. Throughout the emulsion, the spacing of the lamellae corresponded to the half-wavelengths of the light photographed; λ/(2n), λ being the wavelength of light in air and n is the refractive index of the emulsion. Thus colour information was stored locally. The larger the separation between the fringes, the longer was the wavelength recorded from the image colour, red being the longest.
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filled with mercury, and the capillary point is immersed in dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 6 of water in volume), and in the bottom of the vessel containing the acid there is a little more mercury. A platinum wire is put into connection with the mercury in each tube, and, finally, arrangements are made by which the capillary point can be seen with a microscope magnifying 250 diameters. Such an instrument is very sensitive; and
Lippmann states that it is possible to determine a difference of potential so small as that of one 10,080th of a
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When
Lippmann presented the theoretical foundations of his "integral photography" in March 1908, it was impossible to accompany them with concrete results. At the time, the materials necessary for producing a lenticular screen with the proper optical qualities were lacking. In the 1920s, promising
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In 1908, Lippmann introduced what he called "integral photography", in which a plane array of closely spaced, small, spherical lenses is used to photograph a scene, recording images of the scene as it appears from many slightly different horizontal and vertical locations. When the resulting images
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Lippmann's electrometer consists of a tube of ordinary glass, 1 metre long and 7 millimetres in diameter, open at both ends, and kept in the vertical position by a stout support. The lower end is drawn into a capillary point, until the diameter of the capillary is .005 of a millimetre. The tube is
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reflection holograms, often referred to as
Lippmann-Bragg holograms, have similar lamellar structures that preferentially reflect certain wavelengths. In the case of actual multiple-wavelength colour holograms of this type, the colour information is recorded and reproduced just as in the Lippmann
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are inherently much less light-sensitive than ordinary emulsions, so long exposure times were required. With a lens of large aperture and a very brightly sunlit subject, a camera exposure of less than one minute was sometimes possible, but exposures measured in minutes were typical. Pure spectral
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339:, where he was able to specialize in electricity with the encouragement of Gustav Kirchhoff, receiving a doctorate with "summa cum laude" distinction in 1874. Lippmann then returned to Paris in 1875, where he continued to study until 1878, when he became professor of physics at the
902:(Luxembourg: Section des sciences naturelles, physiques et mathĂ©matiques de lâInstitut grand-ducal de Luxembourg en collaboration avec le SĂ©minaire de mathĂ©matique et le SĂ©minaire dâhistoire des sciences et de la mĂ©decine du centre universitaire de Luxembourg, 1997),
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Luxembourg, Section des sciences naturelles, physiques et mathĂ©matiques de lâInstitut grand-ducal de
Luxembourg en collaboration avec le SĂ©minaire de mathĂ©matique et le SĂ©minaire dâhistoire des sciences et de la mĂ©decine du centre universitaire de Luxembourg, 139
40:
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554:, even expert users found consistent good results elusive and the process never graduated from being a scientifically elegant laboratory curiosity. It did, however, stimulate interest in the further development of
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Gabriel
Lippmann: CommĂ©moration par la section des sciences naturelles, physiques et mathĂ©matiques de lâInstitut grand-ducal de Luxembourg du 150e anniversaire du savant nĂ© au Luxembourg, laurĂ©at du prix Nobel en
899:
Gabriel
Lippmann: CommĂ©moration par la section des sciences naturelles, physiques et mathĂ©matiques de lâInstitut grand-ducal de Luxembourg du 150e anniversaire du savant nĂ© au Luxembourg, laurĂ©at du prix Nobel en
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382:
One of
Lippmann's early discoveries was the relationship between electrical and capillary phenomena, which allowed him to develop a sensitive capillary electrometer, subsequently known as the
485:
are generated, much as the ripples resulting from a stone dropped into still water create standing waves when reflected back by a surface such as the wall of a pool. In the case of ordinary
311:(Luxembourgish: Hollerech), which is often given as his place of birth. (Both places, Bonnevoie and Hollerich, are now districts of Luxembourg City.) His father, IsaĂŻe, a French Jew born in
1478:
Lebon, Ernest, "Savants du jour : biographie, bibliographie analytique des Ă©crits", comprenant
Portrait de Gabriel Lippmann. â 1911. p. 70, Gauthier-Villars (Paris), 1909â1913.
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in 1892 and its president from 1896 to 1899. Lippmann was one of the founders of the Institut d'optique théorique et appliquée in France. Lippmann was the President of the
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examination which would have enabled him to enter the teaching profession, preferring instead to study physics. In 1872, the French government sent him on a mission to
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grains. A temporary mirror of liquid mercury in intimate contact with the emulsion reflected the light back through it, creating standing waves whose
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on 29 December 1881, promoted to Officer on 2 April 1894, to Commander on 14 December 1900, and to the dignity of Grand Officer on 6 December 1919.
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638:, an astronomical tool that compensated for the Earth's rotation and allowed a region of the sky to be photographed without apparent movement.
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403:. It is thus a very delicate means of observing and (as it can be graduated by a compensation-method) of measuring minute electromotive forces.
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108:
327:). He was said to have been a rather inattentive but thoughtful pupil with a special interest in mathematics. In 1868, he was admitted to the
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927:), p. 668. (This Dover edition reproduces the Columbia University Press edition of 1945; the book was originally published in 1932 as
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Bjelkhagen, Hans I. (2008). "Lippmann, Gabriel Jonas (1845â1921) French scientist and physicist". In Hannavy, John (ed.).
776:
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light, the standing waves are distinct only within a microscopically thin volume of space next to the reflecting surface.
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Daniel Girardin, "La photographie interférentielle de Lippmann, méthode parfaite et oubliée de reproduction des couleurs"
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1328:, published in DU, die Zeitschrift der Kultur, no 708 : Fotografie, der lange Weg zur Farbe, Juillet-août 2000.
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Above all, Lippmann is remembered as the inventor of a method for reproducing colours by photography, based on the
323:, where Lippmann was initially tutored by his mother, Miriam Rose (Lévy), before attending the Lycée Napoléon (now
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1103:, American Photographic Publishing Co. (Boston, 1922):185â199 (Retrieved from archive.org on 5 September 2010)
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in measurements of time, using photographic registration, and he studied the eradication of irregularities of
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of visible light. The light passed through the supporting glass sheet into a very thin and nearly transparent
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1978:
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654:, purportedly showing that the kinetic theory of gas is incompatible with the second law of thermodynamics.
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319:, managed the family glove-making business at the former convent in Bonnevoie. In 1848, the family moved to
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1986:
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John G. M'Kendrick, "Note on a Simple Form of Lippmann's Capillary Electrometer useful to Physiologists".
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angle, using daylight or another source of white light containing the full range of wavelengths in the
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602:, using celluloid. Lippmann's integral photography was the foundation of research on 3D and animated
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626:, devising a method of comparing the times of oscillation of two pendulums of nearly equal period.
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977:(1st ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 132, 320, 647, 808, 862â3, 990â1, 1183, 1433â4.
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1022:, Verlag des Bibliographischen Instituts, Leipzig und Wien, 1885â1892. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
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307:(Luxembourgish: Bouneweg), on 16 August 1845. At the time, Bonnevoie was part of the commune of
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A colour photograph made by Lippmann in the 1890s. It contains no pigments or dyes of any kind.
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In Luxembourg City an Institute for fundamental scientific research was named after Lippmann (
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from 8 February 1886 until his death, serving as its president in 1912. In addition, he was a
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In practice, the Lippmann process was not easy to use. Extremely fine-grained high-resolution
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Lippmann made several important contributions to various branches of physics over the years.
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1090:, Marion & Co. (London, 1900):45â59 (Retrieved from archive.org on 11 February 2010)
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From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901â1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967
709:) which merged on 1 January 2015 with another major research centre to form the new
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3D and Animated Lenticular Photography : Between Utopia and Entertainment
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481:. When light of a given wavelength is reflected back upon itself by a mirror,
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In 1886, Lippmann's interest turned to a method of fixing the colours of the
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Klaus Biedermann, "Lippmann's and Gabor's Revolutionary Approach to Imaging"
568:, which is also based on recording standing waves in a photographic medium.
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67:
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Lippmann made use of this phenomenon by projecting an image onto a special
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on 17 January 1883, John G. M'Kendrick described the apparatus as follows:
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Lippmann's PhD thesis, presented to the Sorbonne on 24 July 1875, was on
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1301:"Les Membres de l'Académie des sciences depuis sa création (en 1666)"
1239:"How molecular motors extract order from chaos (a key issues review)"
351:
Professor Lippmann in the Sorbonne laboratory for research in physics
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Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917â1925)
1424:
Gabriel Lippmann's colour photography : science, media, museums
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Reprinted in Benton "Selected Papers on Three-Dimensional Displays".
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Gabriel Lippmann's colour photography : science, media, museums
165:(Knight, 1881; Officer, 1894; Commander, 1900; Grand Officer, 1919)
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Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
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The finished plate was illuminated from the front at a nearly
275:(16 August 1845 â 12 July 1921) was a Luxembourgish-French
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937:
343:. At the Sorbonne he was teaching acoustics and optics.
1190:"La théorie cinétique des gaz et le principe de Carnot"
618:
In 1895, Lippmann evolved a method of eliminating the
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in 1888. He died on 12 July 1921 aboard the steamer
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690:, the French astronomical society, from 1903â1904.
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1303:(in French). Académie des sciences. Archived from
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859:
857:
855:
853:
594:trials were made by EugĂšne Estanave, using glass
465:A standing wave. The red dots are the wave nodes.
1134:"Ăpreuves rĂ©versibles. Photographies intĂ©grales"
3861:Presidents of the Société Française de Physique
1389:Annuaire du Luxembourg 2015, publ. Editus, p264
711:Luxembourg Institute for Science and Technology
1506:including the Nobel Lecture, 14 December 1908
1064:"Principe de la conservation de l'électricité"
974:Encyclopedia of nineteenth-century photography
904:Jean-Paul Pier & Jos. A. Massard: Ă©diteurs
721:Lippmann married the daughter of the novelist
646:In 1900, he proposed what is later called the
3273:
3049:
1538:
1518:Centre de Recherche Public â Gabriel Lippmann
1349:Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France
1111:
1109:
1037:Centre de Recherche Public â Gabriel Lippmann
906:, Luxembourg 1997. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
496:capable of recording detail smaller than the
8:
1014:See also a similar description in German at
895:Jacques Bintz, "Gabriel Lippmann 1845â1921"
707:Centre de Recherche Public Gabriel Lippmann
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3258:
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3034:
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1531:
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1501:
1467:J.P. Pier & J.A. Massard (eds) (1997):
1455:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
838:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
789:"Gabriel Lippmann | French physicist"
38:
20:
16:Luxembourgish-French physicist (1845â1921)
3796:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
1205:
1138:Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences
682:of Luxembourg. He became a member of the
1400:Gabriel Lippmann, Scientist, Dies at Sea
1513:Gabriel Lippmann in Jewish Encyclopedia
890:
888:
765:
698:Lippmann was appointed a Knight of the
3856:Luxembourgian people of French descent
1448:
1168:. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 81â84.
831:
1194:Monatshefte fĂŒr Mathematik und Physik
586:underlies the evolving technology of
504:containing sub microscopically small
390:machine. In a paper delivered to the
7:
3801:Foreign members of the Royal Society
1487:, Editions Thierry Marchaisse, 2015.
1088:A Handbook of Photography in Colours
966:
964:
962:
952:See also the extensive biography on
800:
798:
688:Société Astronomique de France (SAF)
650:, as a purely mechanical version of
473:in optics occurs as a result of the
3389:Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey
1427:. Hanin Hannouch. Amsterdam. 2022.
1371:. Government of the French Republic
1363:"LIPPMANN, Jonas Ferdinand Gabriel"
810:. Hanin Hannouch. Amsterdam. 2022.
588:light-field cameras and microscopes
1237:Hoffmann, Peter M (1 March 2016).
919:, 4th ed. (New York: Dover, 1978;
14:
3288:19th-century French photographers
873:from the original on 5 April 2016
684:Société française de photographie
1069:Annales de chimie et de physique
561:Lippmann's process foreshadowed
524:, the result was a structure of
419:In 1881, Lippmann predicted the
392:Philosophical Society of Glasgow
268:Jonas Ferdinand Gabriel Lippmann
257:
54:Jonas Ferdinand Gabriel Lippmann
3776:Ăcole Normale SupĂ©rieure alumni
3602:Ătienne-Prosper Berne-Bellecour
954:The Nobel Prize in Physics 1908
3771:20th-century French physicists
3384:Jean Louis Marie EugĂšne Durieu
3379:Guillaume Duchenne de Boulogne
1243:Reports on Progress in Physics
754:List of Jewish Nobel laureates
512:had little effect while their
373:Lippmann's electrometer (1872)
331:in Paris, where he failed the
283:for his method of reproducing
1:
3836:Luxembourgian Nobel laureates
3374:Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard
1263:10.1088/0034-4885/79/3/032601
1132:Lippmann, G. (2 March 1908).
777:Mathematics Genealogy Project
662:Lippmann was a member of the
548:
299:Gabriel Lippmann was born in
3622:Louis Arthur Ducos du Hauron
3450:André-Adolphe-EugÚne Disdéri
1351:, 1911, vol. 25, pp. 581â586
1122:. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
929:Geschichte der Photographie.
729:while en route from Canada.
386:which was used in the first
224:Other academic advisors
3841:People from Luxembourg City
3673:Séraphin-Médéric Mieusement
3455:GeneviĂšve Ălisabeth DisdĂ©ri
3420:Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon
3348:Julien Vallou de Villeneuve
3085:(Great Britain/New Zealand)
1200:(1): A24. 1 December 1903.
1101:Practical Color Photography
1020:Meyers Konversationslexikon
634:Lippmann also invented the
355:BibliothĂšque de la Sorbonne
287:based on the phenomenon of
3877:
3761:Nobel laureates in Physics
1338:Retrieved 6 December 2010.
378:The capillary electrometer
70:, Luxembourg (now part of
3445:Auguste Hippolyte Collard
3185:
281:Nobel laureate in Physics
256:
247:
184:
37:
3816:19th-century French Jews
3343:Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gros
1033:"About Gabriel Lippmann"
329:Ăcole normale supĂ©rieure
295:Early life and education
285:colours photographically
109:Ăcole normale supĂ©rieure
3826:Luxembourgian inventors
3791:Experimental physicists
3490:Alphonse Louis Poitevin
3394:François Fauvel Gouraud
3107:Rudolf Christoph Eucken
672:Royal Society of London
471:interference phenomenon
443:, which earned him the
441:interference phenomenon
3846:People who died at sea
3766:French Nobel laureates
3521:Auguste-Rosalie Bisson
3425:Marie-Alexandre Alophe
3191:Nobel Prize recipients
3162:Physiology or Medicine
1558:Nobel Prize in Physics
917:History of Photography
678:, and a member of the
544:photographic emulsions
466:
445:Nobel Prize in Physics
436:
421:converse piezoelectric
374:
358:
175:Nobel Prize in Physics
3781:Lycée Henri-IV alumni
3495:Henri Victor Regnault
3126:Klas Pontus Arnoldson
1459:) CS1 maint: others (
1062:Lippmann, G. (1881).
1016:"KapillÄrelektromÄter
842:) CS1 maint: others (
680:Grand Ducal Institute
676:Bureau des Longitudes
658:Academic affiliations
502:photographic emulsion
464:
434:
384:Lippmann electrometer
372:
349:
337:Heidelberg University
228:Hermann von Helmholtz
131:Lippmann electrometer
113:Heidelberg University
3597:Ernest EugĂšne Appert
3465:Jean-Baptiste Frénet
3435:Louis-Auguste Bisson
3404:FĂ©lix-Jacques Moulin
869:. Nobel Foundation.
577:Integral photography
242:Constantin Miculescu
141:Integral photography
3627:Ătienne-Jules Marey
3617:John Beasley Greene
1484:Le Dagobert optique
1481:Isabelle Bergoend,
1255:2016RPPh...79c2601H
1164:Timby, Kim (2015).
1150:1908BSBA...13A.245D
664:Academy of Sciences
614:Measurement of time
206:Sorbonne University
3831:Luxembourgian Jews
1508:Colour Photography
1500:on Nobelprize.org
1405:The New York Times
1207:10.1007/BF01706937
915:Josef Maria Eder,
867:"Gabriel Lippmann"
749:Light field camera
674:, a member of the
606:and also on color
604:lenticular imagery
556:colour photography
494:photographic plate
467:
456:photographic plate
437:
427:Colour photography
409:electrocapillarity
375:
359:
3851:Jewish physicists
3821:French physicists
3738:
3737:
3536:Ădouard Delessert
3255:
3254:
3083:Ernest Rutherford
3031:
3030:
1434:978-94-6372-855-3
1331:MusĂ©e de l'ĂlysĂ©e
1175:978-3-11-041306-9
1086:Bolas, T. et al:
984:978-0-415-97235-2
817:978-94-6372-855-3
791:. 12 August 2023.
723:Victor Cherbuliez
620:personal equation
265:
264:
234:Doctoral students
186:Scientific career
166:
3868:
3786:Color scientists
3725:Hippolyte Arnoux
3663:Gabriel Lippmann
3581:Auguste Salzmann
3571:Georges Penabert
3526:Bruno Braquehais
3516:Edmond Becquerel
3475:Charles Marville
3364:Hippolyte Bayard
3301:Nicéphore Niépce
3282:
3275:
3268:
3259:
3193:
3170:Ălie Metchnikoff
3151:Gabriel Lippmann
3058:
3051:
3044:
3035:
3024:
3008:
2992:
2976:
2960:
2944:
2928:
2912:
2896:
2884:
2868:
2856:
2844:
2828:
2816:
2800:
2784:
2772:
2760:
2744:
2728:
2712:
2696:
2667:
2651:
2639:
2623:
2607:
2591:
2579:
2567:
2555:
2547:
2539:
2523:
2507:
2491:
2479:
2463:
2455:
2443:
2431:
2423:
2407:
2395:
2379:
2363:
2347:
2324:
2308:
2296:
2280:
2264:
2256:
2244:
2236:
2228:
2220:
2212:
2196:
2180:
2164:
2156:
2144:
2136:
2124:
2108:
2096:
2080:
2068:
2056:
2048:
2036:
2013:
2005:
1997:
1989:
1981:
1973:
1965:
1957:
1949:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1935:
1934:
1928:
1920:
1912:
1900:
1888:
1880:
1879:
1873:
1861:
1853:
1852:
1846:
1838:
1830:
1822:
1810:
1791:
1779:
1771:
1763:
1755:
1747:
1739:
1731:
1723:
1715:
1714:
1708:
1696:
1688:
1686:Kamerlingh Onnes
1680:
1672:
1664:
1656:
1644:
1636:
1628:
1620:
1612:
1604:
1588:
1576:
1547:
1540:
1533:
1524:
1505:
1498:Gabriel Lippmann
1464:
1454:
1446:
1409:
1396:
1390:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1359:
1353:
1345:
1339:
1337:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1209:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1129:
1123:
1113:
1104:
1097:
1091:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1039:. Archived from
1029:
1023:
1012:
1006:
1003:
997:
996:
968:
957:
950:
944:
941:
932:
913:
907:
892:
883:
882:
880:
878:
863:
848:
847:
837:
829:
802:
793:
792:
785:
779:
773:Gabriel Lippmann
770:
744:Brownian ratchet
700:Legion of Honour
648:Brownian ratchet
642:Brownian ratchet
553:
550:
537:visible spectrum
475:wave propagation
415:Piezoelectricity
274:
261:
218:Gustav Kirchhoff
213:Doctoral advisor
164:
162:Legion of Honour
146:Piezoelectricity
86:
63:
61:
44:Lippmann in 1908
42:
32:
25:Gabriel Lippmann
21:
3876:
3875:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3866:
3865:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3713:
3687:
3678:Louis Rousselet
3641:
3585:
3576:Dominique Roman
3556:Gustave Le Gray
3499:
3480:Auguste Mestral
3408:
3352:
3338:Antoine Claudet
3326:
3305:
3289:
3286:
3256:
3251:
3189:
3181:
3156:
3137:
3112:
3088:
3069:
3062:
3032:
3027:
3011:
2995:
2979:
2963:
2947:
2931:
2915:
2899:
2887:
2871:
2859:
2847:
2831:
2819:
2803:
2787:
2775:
2763:
2747:
2731:
2715:
2699:
2683:
2676:
2670:
2654:
2642:
2626:
2617:Cohen-Tannoudji
2610:
2594:
2582:
2570:
2558:
2550:
2542:
2526:
2510:
2494:
2482:
2466:
2458:
2446:
2434:
2426:
2410:
2398:
2382:
2366:
2350:
2338:
2327:
2311:
2299:
2283:
2267:
2259:
2247:
2239:
2231:
2223:
2215:
2199:
2183:
2167:
2159:
2147:
2139:
2127:
2111:
2099:
2083:
2071:
2059:
2051:
2039:
2027:
2016:
2008:
2000:
1992:
1984:
1976:
1968:
1960:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1923:
1915:
1903:
1891:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1864:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1841:
1833:
1825:
1813:
1805:
1794:
1782:
1774:
1766:
1758:
1750:
1742:
1734:
1726:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1699:
1691:
1683:
1675:
1667:
1659:
1647:
1639:
1631:
1623:
1615:
1607:
1591:
1579:
1571:
1560:
1551:
1494:
1447:
1435:
1421:
1418:
1416:Further reading
1413:
1412:
1408:, 14 July 1921.
1397:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1374:
1372:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1324:
1320:
1310:
1308:
1307:on 2 March 2008
1299:
1298:
1294:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1163:
1162:
1158:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1114:
1107:
1098:
1094:
1085:
1081:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1046:
1044:
1043:on 22 July 2011
1031:
1030:
1026:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1000:
985:
970:
969:
960:
951:
947:
942:
935:
914:
910:
893:
886:
876:
874:
865:
864:
851:
830:
818:
804:
803:
796:
787:
786:
782:
771:
767:
762:
739:Autostereoscopy
735:
719:
696:
660:
652:Maxwell's demon
644:
632:
624:pendulum clocks
616:
596:Stanhope lenses
579:
551:
429:
417:
380:
364:
297:
279:, inventor and
270:
240:
180:
170:ForMemRS (1896)
150:
111:
105:Alma mater
100:
88:
84:
75:
72:Luxembourg City
65:
59:
57:
56:
55:
45:
33:
28:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3874:
3872:
3864:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3743:
3742:
3736:
3735:
3733:
3732:
3727:
3721:
3719:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3711:
3706:
3704:Georges DemenĂż
3701:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3593:
3591:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3546:Esteban Gonnet
3543:
3541:Maxime Du Camp
3538:
3533:
3531:Ătienne Carjat
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3507:
3505:
3501:
3500:
3498:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3430:Ădouard Baldus
3427:
3422:
3416:
3414:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3369:Auguste Belloc
3366:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3334:
3332:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3319:
3317:Louis Daguerre
3313:
3311:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3303:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3284:
3277:
3270:
3262:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3173:
3166:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3154:
3147:
3145:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3129:
3122:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3110:
3103:
3101:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3086:
3079:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3053:
3046:
3038:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3025:
3009:
2993:
2977:
2961:
2945:
2929:
2913:
2897:
2885:
2869:
2857:
2845:
2829:
2817:
2801:
2785:
2773:
2761:
2745:
2729:
2713:
2697:
2680:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2652:
2640:
2624:
2608:
2592:
2580:
2568:
2556:
2548:
2540:
2524:
2508:
2492:
2480:
2464:
2456:
2444:
2432:
2424:
2408:
2396:
2380:
2364:
2353:P. W. Anderson
2348:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2309:
2297:
2281:
2265:
2257:
2245:
2237:
2229:
2221:
2213:
2197:
2181:
2174:Goeppert Mayer
2165:
2157:
2145:
2137:
2125:
2109:
2097:
2081:
2069:
2057:
2049:
2037:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2006:
1998:
1990:
1982:
1974:
1966:
1958:
1950:
1943:
1936:
1929:
1921:
1913:
1901:
1898:C. D. Anderson
1889:
1881:
1874:
1862:
1854:
1847:
1839:
1831:
1823:
1811:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1792:
1780:
1772:
1764:
1756:
1748:
1740:
1732:
1724:
1716:
1709:
1697:
1689:
1681:
1673:
1665:
1657:
1645:
1637:
1629:
1621:
1613:
1605:
1589:
1577:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1561:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1542:
1535:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1493:
1492:External links
1490:
1489:
1488:
1479:
1476:
1465:
1433:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1391:
1382:
1354:
1340:
1318:
1292:
1229:
1181:
1174:
1156:
1144:(9): 446â451.
1124:
1120:Nobelprize.org
1105:
1092:
1079:
1054:
1024:
1007:
998:
983:
958:
945:
933:
908:
884:
849:
816:
794:
780:
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763:
761:
758:
757:
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751:
746:
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734:
731:
718:
715:
695:
692:
668:Foreign Member
659:
656:
643:
640:
631:
628:
615:
612:
578:
575:
483:standing waves
452:solar spectrum
428:
425:
416:
413:
405:
404:
379:
376:
363:
360:
325:Lycée Henri-IV
296:
293:
263:
262:
254:
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248:
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244:
235:
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143:
138:
136:Electrowetting
133:
128:
126:Lippmann plate
122:
120:
119:Known for
116:
115:
106:
102:
101:
98:Atlantic Ocean
89:
87:(aged 75)
81:
77:
76:
66:
64:16 August 1845
53:
51:
47:
46:
43:
35:
34:
27:
24:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3873:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
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3787:
3784:
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3779:
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3752:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3710:
3709:Constant Puyo
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3690:
3684:
3683:EugĂšne Trutat
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3668:Auguste Maure
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3638:
3637:Camille Silvy
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3612:Léon CrémiÚre
3610:
3608:
3607:FĂ©lix Bonfils
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3588:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3566:Charles NĂšgre
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3511:Olympe Aguado
3509:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3470:Henri Le Secq
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3460:Jules Duboscq
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3440:Adolphe Braun
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
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3359:
3355:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3329:
3323:
3322:Horace Vernet
3320:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3283:
3278:
3276:
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3263:
3260:
3248:
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3243:
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3235:
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3208:
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3203:
3200:
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3192:
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3177:
3174:
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3168:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3144:
3140:
3133:
3132:Fredrik Bajer
3130:
3127:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3095:
3091:
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3081:
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3078:
3076:
3072:
3067:
3059:
3054:
3052:
3047:
3045:
3040:
3039:
3036:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2991:
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2983:
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2975:
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2019:
2012:
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2004:
1999:
1996:
1991:
1988:
1983:
1980:
1975:
1972:
1967:
1964:
1959:
1956:
1951:
1944:
1937:
1930:
1927:
1922:
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1914:
1911:
1910:G. P. Thomson
1907:
1902:
1899:
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1887:
1882:
1875:
1872:
1868:
1863:
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1828:O. Richardson
1824:
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1662:Van der Waals
1658:
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1626:J. J. Thomson
1622:
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1249:(3): 032601.
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1196:(in French).
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1099:Wall, E. J.:
1096:
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1072:(in French).
1071:
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925:0-486-23586-6
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724:
717:Personal life
716:
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691:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
657:
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649:
641:
639:
637:
630:The coelostat
629:
627:
625:
621:
613:
611:
609:
605:
601:
600:Louis LumiĂšre
597:
591:
589:
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574:
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567:
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559:
557:
545:
540:
538:
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533:perpendicular
529:
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511:
507:
506:silver halide
503:
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94:
82:
78:
73:
69:
52:
48:
41:
36:
31:
22:
19:
3718:1860s births
3699:EugĂšne Atget
3692:1850s births
3662:
3653:Arthur Batut
3646:1840s births
3632:Pierre Petit
3590:1830s births
3551:Charles Hugo
3504:1820s births
3413:1810s births
3357:1800s births
3331:1790s births
3310:1780s births
3294:1760s births
3221:
3176:Paul Ehrlich
3150:
2461:von Klitzing
2453:Van der Meer
1641:
1507:
1482:
1469:
1423:
1403:
1394:
1385:
1375:24 September
1373:. Retrieved
1368:Base LĂ©onore
1366:
1357:
1348:
1343:
1329:
1321:
1309:. Retrieved
1305:the original
1295:
1246:
1242:
1232:
1197:
1193:
1184:
1165:
1159:
1141:
1137:
1127:
1119:
1100:
1095:
1087:
1082:
1073:
1067:
1057:
1047:28 September
1045:. Retrieved
1041:the original
1036:
1027:
1019:
1010:
1001:
973:
948:
928:
916:
911:
903:
898:
875:. Retrieved
806:
783:
768:
726:
720:
706:
704:
697:
661:
645:
633:
617:
592:
580:
560:
541:
530:
518:latent image
491:
468:
449:
438:
418:
406:
381:
365:
350:
298:
289:interference
267:
266:
202:Institutions
185:
92:
85:(1921-07-12)
83:12 July 1921
18:
3756:1921 deaths
3751:1845 births
3658:Jules David
3485:EugĂšne Piot
3399:Jules Itier
3066:Nobel Prize
2505:Steinberger
2421:K. Siegbahn
2413:Bloembergen
2134:Chamberlain
1867:Schrödinger
1777:M. Siegbahn
1706:W. H. Bragg
1702:W. L. Bragg
1336:(in French)
610:processes.
584:light field
552: 1900
522:development
498:wavelengths
238:Marie Curie
3745:Categories
3730:Paul Boyer
3094:Literature
3022:L'Huillier
2986:Hasselmann
2942:Strickland
2910:Kosterlitz
2834:Perlmutter
2573:Brockhouse
2278:Schrieffer
2150:Hofstadter
2102:C. N. Yang
1859:Heisenberg
1836:De Broglie
1443:1304814408
877:4 December
826:1304814408
760:References
608:lenticular
566:holography
516:created a
487:incoherent
447:for 1908.
333:agrégation
305:Luxembourg
60:1845-08-16
3178:(Germany)
3134:(Denmark)
3109:(Germany)
3075:Chemistry
3068:laureates
3006:Zeilinger
2826:Novoselov
2794:Kobayashi
2718:Abrikosov
2565:J. Taylor
2545:de Gennes
2537:R. Taylor
2429:K. Wilson
2377:R. Wilson
2361:Van Vleck
2332:1976â2000
2322:Rainwater
2318:Mottelson
2294:Josephson
2242:Gell-Mann
2206:Schwinger
2194:Prokhorov
2154:Mössbauer
2114:Cherenkov
2106:T. D. Lee
2030:Cockcroft
2021:1951â1975
1820:C. Wilson
1799:1926â1950
1745:Guillaume
1634:Michelson
1594:Becquerel
1565:1901â1925
1554:Laureates
1451:cite book
1271:0034-4885
1224:197661902
1216:1436-5081
993:123968757
834:cite book
636:coelostat
598:, and by
514:antinodes
309:Hollerich
301:Bonnevoie
277:physicist
252:Signature
68:Bonnevoie
3172:(Russia)
3153:(France)
3128:(Sweden)
3014:Agostini
2902:Thouless
2894:McDonald
2882:Nakamura
2850:Wineland
2782:GrĂŒnberg
2738:Politzer
2722:Ginzburg
2710:Giacconi
2690:Ketterle
2645:'t Hooft
2629:Laughlin
2621:Phillips
2601:Osheroff
2529:Friedman
2501:Schwartz
2497:Lederman
2417:Schawlow
2393:Weinberg
2202:Tomonaga
2094:Brattain
2086:Shockley
1995:Blackett
1987:Appleton
1979:Bridgman
1926:Lawrence
1906:Davisson
1886:Chadwick
1769:Millikan
1753:Einstein
1642:Lippmann
1610:Rayleigh
1602:M. Curie
1598:P. Curie
1287:28867470
1279:26863000
871:Archived
733:See also
713:(LIST).
570:Denisyuk
526:lamellae
520:. After
423:effect.
357:, NuBIS)
341:Sorbonne
272:ForMemRS
30:ForMemRS
3143:Physics
3002:Clauser
2966:Penrose
2950:Peebles
2906:Haldane
2874:Akasaki
2862:Englert
2854:Haroche
2838:Schmidt
2798:Maskawa
2750:Glauber
2742:Wilczek
2726:Leggett
2706:Koshiba
2686:Cornell
2677:present
2661:Kroemer
2657:Alferov
2649:Veltman
2633:Störmer
2553:Charpak
2533:Kendall
2517:Dehmelt
2485:Bednorz
2385:Glashow
2373:Penzias
2369:Kapitsa
2341:Richter
2314:A. Bohr
2290:Giaever
2270:Bardeen
2234:Alvarez
2218:Kastler
2210:Feynman
2090:Bardeen
2054:Zernike
2046:Purcell
1816:Compton
1761:N. Bohr
1650:Marconi
1582:Lorentz
1574:Röntgen
1556:of the
1311:1 March
1251:Bibcode
1146:Bibcode
775:at the
694:Honours
670:of the
401:Daniell
196:Physics
3018:Krausz
3012:2023:
2998:Aspect
2996:2022:
2990:Manabe
2982:Parisi
2980:2021:
2970:Genzel
2964:2020:
2958:Queloz
2948:2019:
2938:Mourou
2934:Ashkin
2932:2018:
2926:Thorne
2922:Barish
2916:2017:
2900:2016:
2890:Kajita
2888:2015:
2872:2014:
2860:2013:
2848:2012:
2832:2011:
2820:2010:
2804:2009:
2788:2008:
2776:2007:
2766:Mather
2764:2006:
2758:HĂ€nsch
2748:2005:
2732:2004:
2716:2003:
2700:2002:
2694:Wieman
2684:2001:
2655:2000:
2643:1999:
2627:1998:
2611:1997:
2597:D. Lee
2595:1996:
2589:Reines
2583:1995:
2571:1994:
2559:1993:
2551:1992:
2543:1991:
2527:1990:
2513:Ramsey
2511:1989:
2495:1988:
2489:MĂŒller
2483:1987:
2477:Rohrer
2473:Binnig
2467:1986:
2459:1985:
2449:Rubbia
2447:1984:
2441:Fowler
2435:1983:
2427:1982:
2411:1981:
2401:Cronin
2399:1980:
2383:1979:
2367:1978:
2351:1977:
2339:1976:
2312:1975:
2306:Hewish
2300:1974:
2284:1973:
2274:Cooper
2268:1972:
2260:1971:
2250:Alfvén
2248:1970:
2240:1969:
2232:1968:
2224:1967:
2216:1966:
2200:1965:
2186:Townes
2184:1964:
2178:Jensen
2170:Wigner
2168:1963:
2162:Landau
2160:1962:
2148:1961:
2142:Glaser
2140:1960:
2128:1959:
2112:1958:
2100:1957:
2084:1956:
2072:1955:
2060:1954:
2052:1953:
2040:1952:
2034:Walton
2028:1951:
2011:Powell
2009:1950:
2003:Yukawa
2001:1949:
1993:1948:
1985:1947:
1977:1946:
1969:1945:
1961:1944:
1953:1943:
1924:1939:
1916:1938:
1904:1937:
1892:1936:
1884:1935:
1865:1933:
1857:1932:
1842:1930:
1834:1929:
1826:1928:
1814:1927:
1808:Perrin
1806:1926:
1785:Franck
1783:1925:
1775:1924:
1767:1923:
1759:1922:
1751:1921:
1743:1920:
1735:1919:
1729:Planck
1727:1918:
1721:Barkla
1719:1917:
1700:1915:
1692:1914:
1684:1913:
1676:1912:
1668:1911:
1660:1910:
1648:1909:
1640:1908:
1632:1907:
1624:1906:
1618:Lenard
1616:1905:
1608:1904:
1592:1903:
1586:Zeeman
1580:1902:
1572:1901:
1441:
1431:
1285:
1277:
1269:
1222:
1214:
1172:
1076:: 145.
991:
981:
923:
824:
814:
727:France
362:Career
313:Ennery
192:Fields
177:(1908)
155:Awards
93:France
3561:Nadar
3222:1908
3118:Peace
3064:1908
2954:Mayor
2918:Weiss
2878:Amano
2866:Higgs
2842:Riess
2814:Smith
2810:Boyle
2790:Nambu
2770:Smoot
2734:Gross
2702:Davis
2675:2001â
2665:Kilby
2577:Shull
2561:Hulse
2469:Ruska
2405:Fitch
2389:Salam
2286:Esaki
2262:Gabor
2226:Bethe
2190:Basov
2130:SegrĂš
2118:Frank
2078:Kusch
2066:Bothe
2042:Bloch
1971:Pauli
1955:Stern
1918:Fermi
1871:Dirac
1844:Raman
1789:Hertz
1737:Stark
1678:Dalén
1654:Braun
1471:1908.
1283:S2CID
1220:S2CID
956:page.
897:, in
563:laser
510:nodes
479:light
454:on a
321:Paris
315:near
3247:1913
3242:1912
3237:1911
3232:1910
3227:1909
3217:1907
3212:1906
3207:1905
3202:1904
3197:1903
3098:1908
2974:Ghez
2822:Geim
2778:Fert
2754:Hall
2637:Tsui
2585:Perl
2521:Paul
2357:Mott
2345:Ting
2302:Ryle
2254:NĂ©el
2122:Tamm
2074:Lamb
2062:Born
1963:Rabi
1947:1942
1940:1941
1933:1940
1894:Hess
1878:1934
1851:1931
1713:1916
1694:Laue
1670:Wien
1461:link
1457:link
1439:OCLC
1429:ISBN
1377:2023
1313:2008
1275:PMID
1267:ISSN
1212:ISSN
1170:ISBN
1049:2017
989:OCLC
979:ISBN
921:ISBN
900:1908
879:2010
844:link
840:link
822:OCLC
812:ISBN
469:The
317:Metz
80:Died
50:Born
2806:Kao
2613:Chu
1402:",
1259:doi
1202:doi
1142:146
1018:",
477:of
388:ECG
91:SS
3747::
3020:/
3016:/
3004:/
3000:/
2988:/
2984:/
2972:/
2968:/
2956:/
2952:/
2940:/
2936:/
2924:/
2920:/
2908:/
2904:/
2892:/
2880:/
2876:/
2864:/
2852:/
2840:/
2836:/
2824:/
2812:/
2808:/
2796:/
2792:/
2780:/
2768:/
2756:/
2752:/
2740:/
2736:/
2724:/
2720:/
2708:/
2704:/
2692:/
2688:/
2663:/
2659:/
2647:/
2635:/
2631:/
2619:/
2615:/
2603:/
2599:/
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2575:/
2563:/
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2515:/
2503:/
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2487:/
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2204:/
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2188:/
2176:/
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2116:/
2104:/
2092:/
2088:/
2076:/
2064:/
2044:/
2032:/
1908:/
1896:/
1869:/
1818:/
1787:/
1704:/
1652:/
1600:/
1596:/
1584:/
1475:p.
1453:}}
1449:{{
1437:.
1365:.
1334:.
1281:.
1273:.
1265:.
1257:.
1247:79
1245:.
1241:.
1218:.
1210:.
1198:14
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