Gaia hypothesis - Knowledge (XXG)

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of vision, and recognize that his audacious concept has helped to stimulate many new ideas about the Earth, and to champion a holistic approach to studying it". Elsewhere he presents his conclusion "The Gaia hypothesis is not an accurate picture of how our world works". This statement needs to be understood as referring to the "strong" and "moderate" forms of Gaia—that the biota obeys a principle that works to make Earth optimal (strength 5) or favourable for life (strength 4) or that it works as a homeostatic mechanism (strength 3). The latter is the "weakest" form of Gaia that Lovelock has advocated. Tyrrell rejects it. However, he finds that the two weaker forms of Gaia—Coeveolutionary Gaia and Influential Gaia, which assert that there are close links between the evolution of life and the environment and that biology affects the physical and chemical environment—are both credible, but that it is not useful to use the term "Gaia" in this sense and that those two forms were already accepted and explained by the processes of natural selection and adaptation.

1581:, and Axel Kleidon (2004) agreed stating: "...homeostatic behavior can emerge from a state of MEP associated with the planetary albedo"; "...the resulting behavior of a symbiotic Earth at a state of MEP may well lead to near-homeostatic behavior of the Earth system on long time scales, as stated by the Gaia hypothesis". M. Staley (2002) has similarly proposed "...an alternative form of Gaia theory based on more traditional Darwinian principles... In new approach, environmental regulation is a consequence of population dynamics. The role of selection is to favor organisms that are best adapted to prevailing environmental conditions. However, the environment is not a static backdrop for evolution, but is heavily influenced by the presence of living organisms. The resulting co-evolving dynamical process eventually leads to the convergence of equilibrium and optimal conditions". 1861:

that natural selection can operate at multiple levels of the biological hierarchy — not just at the level of individual organisms. Traditional Darwinian natural selection requires reproducing entities that display inheritable properties or abilities that result in their having more offspring than their competitors. Successful biospheres clearly cannot reproduce to spawn copies of themselves, and so traditional Darwinian natural selection cannot operate. A mechanism for biosphere-level selection was proposed by Ford Doolittle: Although he had been a strong and early critic of the Gaia hypothesis, he had by 2015 started to think of ways whereby Gaia might be "Darwinised", seeking means whereby the planet could have evolved biosphere-level adaptations. Doolittle has suggested that

869:), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and potassium (K). The elements that comprise salinity do not readily change and are a conservative property of seawater. There are many mechanisms that change salinity from a particulate form to a dissolved form and back. Considering the metallic composition of iron sources across a multifaceted grid of thermomagnetic design, not only would the movement of elements hypothetically help restructure the movement of ions, electrons, and the like, but would also potentially and inexplicably assist in balancing the magnetic bodies of the Earth's geomagnetic field. The known sources of sodium i.e. salts are when weathering, erosion, and dissolution of rocks are transported into rivers and deposited into the oceans. 5196: 1907: 1857:, our observation of such stabilizing feedback loops is an observer selection effect. In all the universe, it is only planets with Gaian properties that could have evolved intelligent, self-aware organisms capable of asking such questions. One can imagine innumerable worlds where life evolved with different biochemistries or where the worlds had different geophysical properties such that the worlds are presently dead due to runaway greenhouse effect, or else are in perpetual Snowball, or else due to one factor or another, life has been inhibited from evolving beyond the microbial level. 1562:"What is the structure of Gaia? Are the feedbacks sufficiently strong to influence the evolution of climate? Are there parts of the system determined pragmatically by whatever disciplinary study is being undertaken at any given time or are there a set of parts that should be taken as most true for understanding Gaia as containing evolving organisms over time? What are the feedbacks among these different parts of the Gaian system, and what does the near closure of matter mean for the structure of Gaia as a global ecosystem and for the productivity of life?" 826:

the temperature rises closer to the value the white daisies like, the white daisies outreproduce the black daisies, leading to a larger percentage of white surface, and more sunlight is reflected, reducing the heat input and eventually cooling the planet. Conversely, as the temperature falls, the black daisies outreproduce the white daisies, absorbing more sunlight and warming the planet. The temperature will thus converge to the value at which the reproductive rates of the plants are equal.

951: 38: 1144: 5220: 1893: 1296: 5641: 1865:— mere survival — could be considered a legitimate mechanism for natural selection. As the Earth passes through various challenges, the phenomenon of differential persistence enables selected entities to achieve fixation by surviving the death of their competitors. Although Earth's biosphere is not competing against other biospheres on other planets, there are many competitors for survival on 1398:, to Gaia. However, she objected to the widespread personification of Gaia and stressed that Gaia is "not an organism", but "an emergent property of interaction among organisms". She defined Gaia as "the series of interacting ecosystems that compose a single huge ecosystem at the Earth's surface. Period". The book's most memorable "slogan" was actually quipped by a student of Margulis'. 1565:"How do models of Gaian processes and phenomena relate to reality and how do they help address and understand Gaia? How do results from Daisyworld transfer to the real world? What are the main candidates for "daisies"? Does it matter for Gaia theory whether we find daisies or not? How should we be searching for daisies, and should we intensify the search? How can Gaian mechanisms be 5208: 644: 1362: 862:. However, the composition of seawater is far from equilibrium, and it is difficult to explain this fact without the influence of organic processes. One suggested explanation lies in the formation of salt plains throughout Earth's history. It is hypothesized that these are created by bacterial colonies that fix ions and heavy metals during their life processes. 1800:

also have played a part. Lesser contributions to warming would come from the fact that coverage of the Earth by ice sheets largely inhibited photosynthesis and lessened the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by the weathering of siliceous rocks. However, in the absence of tectonic activity, the snowball condition could have persisted indefinitely.

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hypothesis lacks unambiguous observational support and has significant theoretical difficulties" to "Suspended uncomfortably between tainted metaphor, fact, and false science, I prefer to leave Gaia firmly in the background" to "The Gaia hypothesis is supported neither by evolutionary theory nor by the empirical evidence of the geological record". The

1726:. More recently Ford Doolittle building on his and Inkpen's ITSNTS (It's The Song Not The Singer) proposal proposed that differential persistence can play a similar role to differential reproduction in evolution by natural selections, thereby providing a possible reconciliation between the theory of natural selection and the Gaia hypothesis. 76: 1921: 1657:

Gaia, Lovelock argues that no single mechanism is responsible, that the connections between the various known mechanisms may never be known, that this is accepted in other fields of biology and ecology as a matter of course, and that specific hostility is reserved for his own hypothesis for other reasons.

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If no means exists for natural selection to operate at the biosphere level, then it would appear that the anthropic principle provides the only explanation for the survival of Earth's biosphere over geologic time. But in recent years, this strictly reductionistic view has been modified by recognition

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which elevated world temperatures and acidified the oceans. Estimates of the rise in carbon dioxide levels range widely, from as little as a two-fold increase, to as much as a twenty-fold increase. Amplifying feedbacks increased the warming to considerably greater than that to be expected merely from

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considering modern evidence from across the various relevant disciplines, Toby Tyrrell concluded that: "I believe Gaia is a dead end. Its study has, however, generated many new and thought provoking questions. While rejecting Gaia, we can at the same time appreciate Lovelock's originality and breadth

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or self-organizing phenomena). Mechanical metaphors, according to Abram, lead us to overlook the active or agentic quality of living entities, while the organismic metaphors of the Gaia hypothesis accentuate the active agency of both the biota and the biosphere as a whole. With regard to causality in

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By the time of the 2nd Chapman Conference on the Gaia Hypothesis, held at Valencia, Spain, on 23 June 2000, the situation had changed significantly. Rather than a discussion of the Gaian teleological views, or "types" of Gaia hypotheses, the focus was upon the specific mechanisms by which basic short

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Lovelock was careful to present a version of the Gaia hypothesis that had no claim that Gaia intentionally or consciously maintained the complex balance in her environment that life needed to survive. It would appear that the claim that Gaia acts "intentionally" was a statement in his popular initial

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has increased by 25–30%; however, the surface temperature of the planet has remained within the levels of habitability, reaching quite regular low and high margins. Lovelock has also hypothesised that methanogens produced elevated levels of methane in the early atmosphere, giving a situation similar

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Martin Ogle, Chief Naturalist, for NVRPA, and long-time Gaia hypothesis proponent, organized the event. Lynn Margulis, Distinguished University Professor in the Department of Geosciences, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, and long-time advocate of the Gaia hypothesis, was a keynote speaker. Among

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and plant roots in soils, where they improve gaseous circulation, or in coral reefs, where calcium carbonate is deposited as a solid on the sea floor. Calcium carbonate is used by living organisms to manufacture carbonaceous tests and shells. Once dead, the living organisms' shells fall. Some arrive

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Despite the evidence from multiple mass extinction events that the biosphere is not fully capable of self-regulation, the fact remains that negative feedback loops do exist. As mentioned above, despite the energy provided by the Sun having increased by 25% to 30% over the last four billion years of

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criticized Gaia as being "a metaphor, not a mechanism." He wanted to know the actual mechanisms by which self-regulating homeostasis was achieved. In his defense of Gaia, David Abram argues that Gould overlooked the fact that "mechanism", itself, is a metaphor—albeit an exceedingly common and often

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joined Lovelock in the effort of fleshing out the initial hypothesis into scientifically proven concepts, contributing her knowledge about how microbes affect the atmosphere and the different layers in the surface of the planet. The American biologist had also awakened criticism from the scientific

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with coordinated functions, but possibly also that process of consumption as replacement which in biology we call metabolism, or growth. In such case we would have all the visible attributes of a living thing, which we do not realize to be such because it is too big, and its life processes too slow.

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It is at least not impossible to regard the earth's parts—soil, mountains, rivers, atmosphere etc,—as organs or parts of organs of a coordinated whole, each part with its definite function. And if we could see this whole, as a whole, through a great period of time, we might perceive not only organs

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due to competition can stabilize the planet's temperature at a value which supports life, if the energy output of the Sun changes, while a planet without life would show wide temperature changes. The percentage of white and black daisies will continually change to keep the temperature at the value

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of the system; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, for example, their combined actions may have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Opponents of this view sometimes reference examples of events that resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such

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has been constant at about 3.5% for a very long time. Salinity stability in oceanic environments is important as most cells require a rather constant salinity and do not generally tolerate values above 5%. The constant ocean salinity was a long-standing mystery, because no process counterbalancing

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of the planet such that black daisies absorb more light and warm the planet, while white daisies reflect more light and cool the planet. The black daisies are assumed to grow and reproduce best at a lower temperature, while the white daisies are assumed to thrive best at a higher temperature. As

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and atmosphere. This is not the work of an individual but a collective of Russian scientific research that was combined into this peer-reviewed publication. It states the coevolution of life and the environment through "micro-forces" and biogeochemical processes. An example is how the activity of

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An alternative hypothesis is that the immediate trigger for Snowball Earth may have been a sequence of massive volcanic eruptions that occurred from 717 to 719 million years ago in what is currently the Canadian high arctic. These eruptions presumably lofted massive quantities of sulfur aerosols

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ultimately resulting in glaciation over nearly the entire surface of the Earth. Breaking out of the Earth from the frozen condition appears to have primarily been due to the release of carbon dioxide and methane by volcanos, although release of methane by microbes trapped underneath the ice could

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deposits buried under the permafrost and beneath continental shelf sediments, and increased wildfires. The rising carbon dioxide acidified the oceans, leading to widespread die-off of creatures with calcium carbonate shells, killing mollusks and crustaceans like crabs and lobsters and destroying

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of individual organisms could provide the feedback mechanisms proposed by Lovelock, and therefore the Gaia hypothesis proposed no plausible mechanism and was unscientific. Dawkins meanwhile stated that for organisms to act in concert would require foresight and planning, which is contrary to the

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Since barriers existed throughout the twentieth century between Russia and the rest of the world, it is only relatively recently that the early Russian scientists who introduced concepts overlapping the Gaia paradigm have become better known to the Western scientific community. These scientists

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and was one of the first scientists to recognize that the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere result from biological processes. During the 1920s he published works arguing that living organisms could reshape the planet as surely as any physical force. Vernadsky was a

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in 2002 and 2003. A significant argument raised against it are the many examples where life has had a detrimental or destabilising effect on the environment rather than acting to regulate it. Several recent books have criticised the Gaia hypothesis, expressing views ranging from "... the Gaia

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In accentuating the direct competition between individuals for resources as the primary selection mechanism, Darwin (and especially his followers) created the impression that the environment was simply a static arena". She wrote that the composition of the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and

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in which all events have to be immediately ascribed to specific causes before the fact. He also states that most of his critics are biologists but that his hypothesis includes experiments in fields outside biology, and that some self-regulating phenomena may not be mathematically explainable.

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locked in the ocean floor. Coccolithophorids, if the CLAW Hypothesis turns out to be supported (see "Regulation of Global Surface Temperature" above), could help increase the cloud cover, hence control the surface temperature, help cool the whole planet and favor precipitation necessary for

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Lovelock and other Gaia-supporting scientists, however, did attempt to disprove the claim that the hypothesis is not scientific because it is impossible to test it by controlled experiment. For example, against the charge that Gaia was teleological, Lovelock and Andrew Watson offered the

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Model (and its modifications, above) as evidence against most of these criticisms. Lovelock said that the Daisyworld model "demonstrates that self-regulation of the global environment can emerge from competition amongst types of life altering their local environment in different ways".

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of rocks in the surface, while the decomposition of rocks also happens faster in the soil, thanks to the activity of roots, fungi, bacteria and subterranean animals. The flow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the soil is therefore regulated with the help of living organisms. When

775: 1559:"How has the global biogeochemical/climate system called Gaia changed in time? What is its history? Can Gaia maintain stability of the system at one time scale but still undergo vectorial change at longer time scales? How can the geologic record be used to examine these questions?" 1017:. Lovelock originally speculated that concentrations of oxygen above about 25% would increase the frequency of wildfires and conflagration of forests. This mechanism, however, would not raise oxygen levels if they became too low. If plants can be shown to robustly over-produce O 481: 1074:

at the bottom of shallow seas where the heat and pressure of burial, and/or the forces of plate tectonics, eventually convert them to deposits of chalk and limestone. Much of the falling dead shells, however, redissolve into the ocean below the carbon compensation depth.

496: 1881:-like system. Ultimately speaking, differential persistence and sequential selection are variants of the anthropic principle, while entropic hierarchy and holobiont arguments may possibly allow understanding the emergence of Gaia without anthropic arguments. 1521:

Of Homeostatic Gaia, Kirchner recognised two alternatives. "Weak Gaia" asserted that life tends to make the environment stable for the flourishing of all life. "Strong Gaia" according to Kirchner, asserted that life tends to make the environment stable,

1641:—a belief that things are purposeful and aimed towards a goal. Responding to this critique in 1990, Lovelock stated, "Nowhere in our writings do we express the idea that planetary self-regulation is purposeful, or involves foresight or planning by the 1228:

pioneer of the scientific bases for the environmental sciences. His visionary pronouncements were not widely accepted in the West, and some decades later the Gaia hypothesis received the same type of initial resistance from the scientific community.

1409:. Lovelock states that the initial formulation was based on observation, but still lacked a scientific explanation. The Gaia hypothesis has since been supported by a number of scientific experiments and provided a number of useful predictions. 888:" of the Mediterranean is evidence of a functioning Gaia "kidney". In this and earlier suggested cases, it is plate movements and physics, not biology, which performs the regulation. Earlier "kidney functions" were performed during the " 1755: 1767:

As emphasized by multiple critics, no plausible mechanism exists that would drive the evolution of negative feedback loops leading to planetary self-regulation of the climate. Indeed, multiple incidents in Earth's history (see the

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is a reactive compound, and should eventually combine with gases and minerals of the Earth's atmosphere and crust. Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the

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life on Earth, the surface temperature of the planet has remained within habitable limits. The participation of living organisms in the oxygen and carbon cycles is well-established. Yet given the lack of plausible explanation by

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Aside from clarifying his language and understanding of what is meant by a life form, Lovelock himself ascribes most of the criticism to a lack of understanding of non-linear mathematics by his critics, and a linearizing form of

629:. The originality of the Gaia hypothesis relies on the assessment that such homeostatic balance is actively pursued with the goal of keeping the optimal conditions for life, even when terrestrial or external events menace them. 599:, leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability in a full homeostasis. Many processes in the Earth's surface, essential for the conditions of life, depend on the interaction of living forms, especially 1589:

A fourth international conference on the Gaia hypothesis, sponsored by the Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority and others, was held in October 2006 at the Arlington, Virginia campus of George Mason University.

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the greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide: these include the ice albedo feedback, the increased evaporation of water vapor (another greenhouse gas) into the atmosphere, the release of methane from the warming of

1196:, UK). Golding's advice was based on Gea, an alternative spelling for the name of the Greek goddess, which is used as prefix in geology, geophysics and geochemistry. Golding later made reference to Gaia in his 1841:

bacteria) to the surface ocean and even into atmosphere, contributing to the (primarily methane-driven) collapse of the ozone layer, and helping to explain the die-off of terrestrial animal and plant life.

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A reduced version of the hypothesis has been called "influential Gaia" in the 2002 paper "Directed Evolution of the Biosphere: Biogeochemical Selection or Gaia?" by Andrei G. Lapenis, which states the

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persist in stable concentrations in the atmosphere of the Earth. Lovelock suggested detecting such combinations in other planets' atmospheres as a relatively reliable and cheap way to detect life.

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then perhaps only the high oxygen forest fires regulator is necessary. Recent work on the findings of fire-caused charcoal in Carboniferous and Cretaceous coal measures, in geologic periods when O

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Anbar, A.; Duan, Y.; Lyons, T.; Arnold, G.; Kendall, B.; Creaser, R.; Kaufman, A.; Gordon, G.; Scott, C.; Garvin, J.; Buick, R. (2007). "A whiff of oxygen before the great oxidation event?".

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is kept at a dynamically steady state by the presence of life. The atmospheric composition provides the conditions that contemporary life has adapted to. All the atmospheric gases other than

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In the biogeochemical processes of Earth, sources and sinks are the movement of elements. The composition of salt ions within our oceans and seas is: sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), sulfate (SO

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Optimising Gaia: that Gaia shaped the planet in a way that made it an optimal environment for life as a whole. Kirchner claimed that this was not testable and therefore was not scientific.

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After initially receiving little attention from scientists (from 1969 until 1977), thereafter for a period the initial Gaia hypothesis was criticized by a number of scientists, including

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Later, other relationships such as sea creatures producing sulfur and iodine in approximately the same quantities as required by land creatures emerged and helped bolster the hypothesis.

1318:, co-authored with C.E. Giffin. A main concept was that life could be detected in a planetary scale by the chemical composition of the atmosphere. According to the data gathered by the 5740: 585:, tightly coupled as an evolving system. The hypothesis contends that this system as a whole, called Gaia, seeks a physical and chemical environment optimal for contemporary life. 1594:

many other speakers: Tyler Volk, co-director of the Program in Earth and Environmental Science at New York University; Dr. Donald Aitken, Principal of Donald Aitken Associates;

3818: 404:. Even so, the Gaia hypothesis continues to attract criticism, and today many scientists consider it to be only weakly supported by, or at odds with, the available evidence. 4275:

Twitchett RJ, Looy CV, Morante R, Visscher H, Wignall PB (2001). "Rapid and synchronous collapse of marine and terrestrial ecosystems during the end-Permian biotic crisis".

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The Gaia hypothesis continues to be broadly skeptically received by the scientific community. For instance, arguments both for and against it were laid out in the journal

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Kump, Lee R.; Pavlov, Alexander; Arthur, Michael A. (2005). "Massive Release of Hydrogen Sulfide to the Surface Ocean and Atmosphere During Intervals of Oceanic Anoxia".

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between the Soviet Union and the United States of America. During the 1960s, the first humans in space could see how the Earth looked as a whole. The photograph

2625: 1626:. Lovelock has said that because his hypothesis is named after a Greek goddess, and championed by many non-scientists, the Gaia hypothesis was interpreted as a 3617: 1803:

Geologic events with amplifying positive feedbacks (along with some possible biologic participation) led to the greatest mass extinction event on record, the

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unrecognized metaphor—one which leads us to consider natural and living systems as though they were machines organized and built from outside (rather than as

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book and was not meant to be taken literally. This new statement of the Gaia hypothesis was more acceptable to the scientific community. Most accusations of

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coral reefs. Their demise led to disruption of the entire oceanic food chain. It has been argued that rising temperatures may have led to disruption of the

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Gaia: that the Gaia hypothesis generated interest in geophysical cycles and therefore led to interesting new research in terrestrial geophysical dynamics.

232: 4826: 660:. This, he suggests, helped to screen out ultraviolet light until the formation of the ozone layer, maintaining a degree of homeostasis. However, the 1306:

Lovelock started defining the idea of a self-regulating Earth controlled by the community of living organisms in September 1965, while working at the

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argued that a Gaian system is almost inevitably produced as a result of an evolution towards far-from-equilibrium homeostatic states that maximise

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Gaia: that life and the environment had evolved in a coupled way. Kirchner claimed that this was already accepted scientifically and was not new.

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criticised the Gaia hypothesis for its imprecision. Kirchner claimed that Lovelock and Margulis had not presented one Gaia hypothesis, but four:

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current scientific understanding of evolution. Like Doolittle, he also rejected the possibility that feedback loops could stabilize the system.

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It has been suggested that the results were predictable because Lovelock and Watson selected examples that produced the responses they desired.

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spoke on the influence of metaphor in science, and of the Gaia hypothesis as offering a new and potentially game-changing metaphorics, while

5120: 1795:. The resulting expansion of the polar ice sheets decreased the overall fraction of sunlight absorbed by the Earth, resulting in a runaway 1743:, initially suggested as a potential example of direct Gaian feedback, has subsequently been found to be less credible as understanding of 1877:(LUCA). Various other proposals for biosphere-level selection include sequential selection, entropic hierarchy, and considering Gaia as a 5710: 2467:

Owen, T.; Cess, R.D.; Ramanathan, V. (1979). "Earth: An enhanced carbon dioxide greenhouse to compensate for reduced solar luminosity".

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was proposed: that life has highly detrimental (biocidal) impacts on planetary conditions, in direct opposition to the Gaia hypothesis.

1422: 3973: 5725: 1772:) have shown that the Earth and the biosphere can enter self-destructive positive feedback loops that lead to mass extinction events. 1350:

Lovelock called it first the Earth feedback hypothesis, and it was a way to explain the fact that combinations of chemicals including

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Lovelock, J. E.; Giffin, C.E. (1969). "Planetary Atmospheres: Compositional and other changes associated with the presence of Life".

546:. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas and the terrestrial crust would be results of interventions carried out by Gaia through the 5690: 4167: 3828: 3798: 2726: 3586: 3507:

Lenton, TM; Lovelock, JE (2000). "Daisyworld is Darwinian: Constraints on adaptation are important for planetary self-regulation".

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How does the earth system generate and maintain thermodynamic disequilibrium and what does it imply for the future of the planet?

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Nicholson, Arwen E.; Wilkinson, Davin M.; Williams, Hywel T. P.; Lenton, Timothy M. (2018). "Alternative mechanisms for Gaia".

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Gaia: that life maintained the stability of the natural environment, and that this stability enabled life to continue to exist.

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and white daisies, which are assumed to occupy a significant portion of the surface. The colour of the daisies influences the

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McKinney, M. L. (1987). "Taxonomic selectivity and continuous variation in mass and background extinctions of marine taxa".

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Currently the increase in human population and the environmental impact of their activities, such as the multiplication of

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Doolittle WF, Inkpen SA. Processes and patterns of interaction as units of selection: An introduction to ITSNTS thinking.

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Ice Ages, to a world that very nearly became a solid "snowball". These epochs are evidence against the ability of the pre

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whereby life on Earth could have evolved to regulate its abiotic environment, how could such feedback loops have arisen?

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Biologists and Earth scientists usually view the factors that stabilize the characteristics of a period as an undirected

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Boyd, E.S.; Skidmore, M.; Mitchell, A.C.; Bakermans, C.; Peters, J.W. (2010). "Methanogenesis in subglacial sediments".

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with using process models or global models of the climate system that include the biota and allow for chemical cycling?"

994:(at an amount of 100,000 tonnes produced per year) should not exist, as methane is combustible in an oxygen atmosphere. 945: 691:, explained below, plays a critical role in the maintenance of the Earth temperature within the limits of habitability. 492: 339: 5665: 5343: 5337: 4071:

Crowley, T.J.; Hyde, W.T.; Peltier, W.R. (2001). "CO 2 levels required for deglaciation of a 'near-snowball' Earth".

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formulated a theory of Earth's development that is now one of the foundations of ecology. Vernadsky was a Ukrainian

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levels rise in the atmosphere the temperature increases and plants grow. This growth brings higher consumption of CO

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Watson, A.J.; Lovelock, J.E (1983). "Biological homeostasis of the global environment: the parable of Daisyworld".

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as one of the complex processes that maintain conditions suitable for life. The only significant natural source of

1326:. This difference with the Earth atmosphere was considered to be a proof that there was no life in these planets. 850:

the salt influx from rivers was known. Recently it was suggested that salinity may also be strongly influenced by

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The existence of a planetary homeostasis influenced by living forms had been observed previously in the field of

218: 4298: 3043: 2561:; Andreae, M. O.; Warren, S. G. (1987). "Oceanic phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and climate". 5675: 1602:, Senior Fellow, Atmospheric Policy Program, American Meteorological Society and noted environmental ethicist, 1426: 990:

period, atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15% and 35% of atmospheric volume. Traces of

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term homeostasis was maintained within a framework of significant evolutionary long term structural change.

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Less accepted versions of the hypothesis claim that changes in the biosphere are brought about through the

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the flourishing of all life. Strong Gaia, Kirchner claimed, was untestable and therefore not scientific.

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into the stratosphere, where they reflected incoming solar radiation and had a strong cooling effect.

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separating sulfidic deep waters from oxygenated surface waters, which led to massive release of toxic

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recognized the coevolution of living organisms, climate, and Earth's crust. In the twentieth century,

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Lapenis, Andrei G. (2002). "Directed Evolution of the Biosphere: Biogeochemical Selection or Gaia?".

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about 250 million years ago. The precipitating event appears to have been volcanic eruptions in the

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Karhu, J.A.; Holland, H.D. (1 October 1996). "Carbon isotopes and the rise of atmospheric oxygen".

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than it is now. The removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, along with the oxidation of

1343:

of February 6, 1975, and a popular book length version of the hypothesis, published in 1979 as

1143: 5099: 5074: 5035: 5016: 4997: 4959: 4898: 4866: 4847: 4802: 4783: 4760: 4741: 4722: 4699: 4680: 4633: 4588: 4431: 4302: 4277: 4163: 4133: 4045: 3978: 3903: 3873: 3824: 3794: 3767: 3532: 3413: 3261: 3201: 3116: 3022: 2948: 2930: 2873: 2786: 2735: 2517: 2331: 2200: 1997: 1847: 1825: 1792: 1723: 1675: 1648: 1623: 1079: 1058: 873: 830: 774: 753: 734: 503: 389: 124: 3112: 3106: 1484:. The first Chapman Conference on Gaia, was held in San Diego, California, on March 7, 1988. 41:

The study of planetary habitability is partly based upon extrapolation from knowledge of the

5444: 5333: 5303: 5219: 5066: 4921: 4625: 4580: 4421: 4413: 4378: 4341: 4294: 4249: 4232: 4204: 4125: 4090: 4037: 3944: 3865: 3759: 3524: 3489: 3378: 3361: 3334: 3193: 3176: 3039: 2994: 2938: 2920: 2865: 2778: 2694: 2667: 2578: 2486: 2469: 2385: 2291: 2249: 2127: 2085: 1953: 1926: 1892: 1834: 1769: 1748: 1462: 1458: 1243:

conservation, suggested a living Earth in his biocentric or holistic ethics regarding land.

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Planetary Atmospheres: Compositional and other Changes Associated with the Presence of Life

5644: 5519: 5474: 5368: 5353: 5238: 5178: 4912:

Kleidon, Axel (2004). "Beyond Gaia: Thermodynamics of Life and Earth system functioning".

3814: 2967: 1740: 1683: 1642: 1619: 1284: 1185: 1098:

excess is compensated by an increase of coccolithophorid life, increasing the amount of CO

1084: 1066: 1062: 859: 787: 730: 695: 622: 596: 539: 477: 452: 421: 401: 397: 343: 335: 327: 157: 47: 5088: 4925: 4183:

Hulse, D; Lau, K.V.; Sebastiaan, J.V.; Arndt, S; Meyer, K.M.; Ridgwell, A (28 Oct 2021).

2745: 5062: 4576: 4466: 4409: 4374: 4337: 4290: 4245: 4200: 4185:"End-Permian marine extinction due to temperature-driven nutrient recycling and euxinia" 4121: 4086: 4033: 4020:

Harland, W. B. (1964-05-01). "Critical evidence for a great infra-Cambrian glaciation".

3861: 3755: 3520: 3485: 3374: 3330: 3189: 3035: 2990: 2916: 2861: 2663: 2574: 2482: 2381: 2123: 2081: 1164:

The idea of the Earth as an integrated whole, a living being, has a long tradition. The

5700: 5212: 4993:

The Revenge of Gaia: Why the Earth Is Fighting Back: and How We Can Still Save Humanity

4776: 4715: 3787: 2671: 2558: 2321: 2235: 1820: 1816: 1808: 1780: 1776: 1711: 1695: 1679: 1633:. Many scientists in particular also criticized the approach taken in his popular book 1615: 1595: 1492: 1375: 1299: 1295: 1276: 1184:. James Lovelock gave this name to his hypothesis after a suggestion from the novelist 1157: 1051: 955: 905: 897: 834:

at which the plants' reproductive rates are equal, allowing both life forms to thrive.

757: 664:

research has suggested that "oxygen shocks" and reduced methane levels led, during the

661: 600: 566: 461: 319: 308: 5134: 3948: 3679: 2325: 5720: 5659: 5328: 4216: 4184: 4129: 4057: 3789:

Lucky Planet: Why Earth is Exceptional – and What that Means for Life in the Universe

2943: 2900: 2798: 2141: 2089: 2003: 1947: 1812: 1599: 1430: 1379: 1365: 1339: 1173: 786:

In response to the criticism that the Gaia hypothesis seemingly required unrealistic

722: 531: 323: 195: 177: 172: 4933: 4518: 4261: 3213: 3006: 2885: 2397: 2303: 2261: 2222:(1990), "Hothouse earth: The greenhouse effect and Gaia" (Weidenfeld & Nicolson) 1686:

separately argued against this aspect of Gaia. Doolittle argued that nothing in the

1107:

concentration has increased and there is some evidence that concentrations of ocean

5552: 5538: 5095: 3885: 3544: 3390: 3162: 2706: 2590: 2498: 2219: 1965: 1719: 1446: 1442: 1232: 1208: 1181: 1043: 1037: 657: 656:

to that found in petrochemical smog, similar in some respects to the atmosphere on

554: 413: 392:, but later refinements aligned the Gaia hypothesis with ideas from fields such as 385: 162: 152: 96: 3338: 1986: – Limits not to be exceeded if humanity wants to survive in a safe ecosystem 1674:

Lovelock has suggested that global biological feedback mechanisms could evolve by

4629: 3846:"The case against climate regulation via oceanic phytoplankton sulphur emissions" 3281: 2769:

Gorham, Eville (1 January 1991). "Biogeochemistry: its origins and development".

2132: 2107: 5511: 5386: 1941: 1935: 1704: 1653: 1505: 1499: 1488: 1474: 1450: 1434: 1394:, nowadays accepted. Margulis dedicated the last of eight chapters in her book, 1211:

maintained that geological and biological processes are interlinked. Later, the

1197: 1189: 1108: 929: 885: 881: 738: 681: 618:, powered by the global thermodynamic disequilibrium state of the Earth system. 578: 547: 542:, all lifeforms are considered part of one single living planetary being called 535: 524: 456: 445: 374: 304: 45:'s conditions, as the Earth is the only planet currently known to harbour life ( 4584: 4417: 4208: 3763: 2905:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2685:

Kirchner, James W. (2003). "The Gaia Hypothesis: Conjectures and Refutations".

17: 5603: 5484: 2698: 2295: 2279: 2253: 1888: 1830: 1574: 1531: 1511: 1266: 1240: 1224: 1212: 1130:

by the plants, who process it into the soil, removing it from the atmosphere.

1118: 893: 818: 799: 779: 769: 718: 677: 643: 589: 582: 480:(1842–1921) (although he spent much of his professional life outside Russia), 469: 441: 4949:. D. Reidel Publishing Company. pp. 15–25 – via jameslovelock.org. 4306: 4049: 3739: 2934: 2925: 2790: 970:

present in the atmosphere are either made by organisms or processed by them.

5562: 5524: 5479: 5469: 5409: 4799:

On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth

3493: 3409: 2998: 2869: 2389: 1977: 1878: 1638: 1627: 1598:, President of the Heinz Center for Science, Economics and the Environment; 1540: 1387: 1384: 1271: 1193: 1148: 967: 706: 570: 507: 425: 354: 350: 167: 129: 52: 5078: 5070: 4592: 4435: 4137: 3877: 3771: 3725: 3536: 3528: 3280:

Lovelock, John and Sidney Epton, (February 8, 1975). "The quest for Gaia".

3174:

Lovelock, J. E. (1965). "A physical basis for life detection experiments".

2952: 2877: 1361: 1333:

in journal articles in 1972 and 1974, followed by a popularizing 1979 book

468:

to turn it aerobic, and thus supports the evolution of life (in particular

4863:

Solo l'atomo ci può salvare. L'ambientalismo nuclearista di James Lovelock

3982:(cover story). Vol. 202, no. 2713. 17 June 2009. pp. 28–31. 3231: 3205: 829:

Lovelock and Watson showed that, over a limited range of conditions, this

5613: 5557: 5489: 5424: 5310: 5298: 5270: 4891: 4346: 4321: 4094: 1990: 1959: 1630: 1280: 1153: 1070: 1002: 987: 954:

Levels of gases in the atmosphere in 420,000 years of ice core data from

933: 925: 917: 901: 851: 846: 699: 673: 669: 665: 615: 592: 433: 366: 362: 288: 101: 5013:

The Unity of Nature: Wholeness and Disintegration in Ecology and Science

4322:"Role of hydrogen sulfide in a Permian-Triassic boundary ozone collapse" 3869: 2618:"'Gaia' scientist James Lovelock: I was 'alarmist' about climate change" 5608: 5596: 5534: 5464: 5439: 5399: 5378: 5348: 4426: 4041: 3817:; Corfield, Richard; Dise, Nancy; Edwards, Neil; Harris, Nigel (2008). 3163:

100 Photographs that Changed the World by Life - The Digital Journalist

2782: 2108:"Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the gaia hypothesis" 1355: 1204: 1014: 714: 520: 417: 300: 4660:"The Mechanical and the Organic: On the Impact of Metaphor in Science" 5591: 5584: 5293: 5288: 5262: 5230: 4382: 4253: 3472:

Kirchner, James W. (1989). "The Gaia hypothesis: Can it be tested?".

3382: 3197: 2582: 2490: 1971: 1687: 1351: 1114: 1061:, while the only significant removal is through the precipitation of 978: 921: 913: 855: 822: 814: 760:, but he has since stated the effects will likely occur more slowly. 516: 3845: 1962: – Earth-centered philosophical, holistic, and spiritual belief 4567: 3900:

The Medea Hypothesis: Is Life on Earth Ultimately Self-Destruction?

2282:(2002), "The Gaia hypothesis: fact, theory, and wishful thinking", 1980: – Philosophical doctrine which holds that all matter is alive 1791:

by the released oxygen, resulted in a dramatic diminishment of the

1722:

to explain how Gaian self-regulation takes place through Darwinian

75: 5621: 5579: 5572: 5567: 5404: 5358: 5320: 5278: 5049:

Staley, M. (September 2002). "Darwinian selection leads to Gaia".

1870: 1487:

During the "philosophical foundations" session of the conference,

1360: 1294: 1169: 1142: 1091: 1087: 1006: 710: 703: 642: 612: 377:

of liquid water and other environmental variables that affect the

326:

in the 1970s. Following the suggestion by his neighbour, novelist

296: 42: 36: 3108:

The web of life: a new scientific understanding of living systems

1042:

Gaia scientists see the participation of living organisms in the

973:

The stability of the atmosphere in Earth is not a consequence of

5499: 5434: 5429: 5419: 5414: 5283: 331: 312: 5234: 2537: 2197:

Life, Temperature, and the Earth: The Self-Organizing Biosphere

2066:

Lovelock, J. E. (1972). "Gaia as seen through the atmosphere".

565:

The Gaia hypothesis posits that the Earth is a self-regulating

3618:"Gaia Theory Conference at George Mason University Law School" 3085: 3083: 1188:, who was living in the same village as Lovelock at the time ( 1177: 652: 2413:

Deep Ecology and World Religions: New Essays on Sacred Ground

1968: – Futuristic concept of a global interconnected network 428:". Lovelock (1995) gave evidence of this in his second book, 3359:

Lovelock, J. E. (1990). "Hands up for the Gaia hypothesis".

1417:

In 1985, the first public symposium on the Gaia hypothesis,

4299:

10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0351:RASCOM>2.0.CO;2

3044:

10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0867:CIATRO>2.3.CO;2

1383:

community with her advocacy of the theory on the origin of

267: 261: 4618:"Gaia — A Holobiont-like System Emerging From Interaction" 3935:

Tyrrell, Toby (26 October 2013), "Gaia: the verdict is…",

1944: – Interacting organisms living together in a habitat 752:

may cause negative feedbacks in the environment to become

464:

bacteria during Precambrian times completely modified the

5153:, CBC Ideas (radio program), broadcast January 3, 2008. 3995:"Snowball Earth: The times our planet was covered in ice" 3070:"Interagency Report Says Harmful Algal Blooms Increasing" 2411:

Barnhill, David Landis; Gottlieb, Roger S., eds. (2010).

625:, and it is being investigated also in other fields like 420:

environment, and that environment in turn influences the

311:

that helps to maintain and perpetuate the conditions for

258: 4831:

Dharma Gaia: A Harvest of Essays in Buddhism and Ecology

651:

Since life started on Earth, the energy provided by the

3296: 3294: 3292: 3290: 2734:. Library of Congress. pp. Chapter 5 3rd Edition. 1779:

glaciations appeared to result from the development of

416:

with their environment: that is, they "influence their

384:

The Gaia hypothesis was initially criticized for being

4320:

Lamarque, J.-F.; Kiehl, J. T.; Orlando, J. J. (2007).

3661: 3659: 3648:

Doolittle, W. F. (1981). "Is Nature Really Motherly".

2327:

The Emerald Planet: How plants changed Earth's history

1347:, began to attract scientific and critical attention. 1025:

did exceed 25%, has supported Lovelock's contention.

5184: 4666:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Archived from 2000: – Field in religion, conservation, and academia 884:, a correspondence author in 2001. Hsu suggests the " 455:

influence certain aspects of the abiotic world, e.g.

4717:

Homage to Gaia: The Life of an Independent Scientist

3315:"Spora and Gaia: how microbes fly with their clouds" 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 1815:

in Siberia. These eruptions released high levels of

1703:

lithosphere are regulated around "set points" as in

432:, showing the evolution from the world of the early 334:, the primordial deity who personified the Earth in 5498: 5455: 5377: 5319: 5269: 4947:

Biomineralization and Biological Metal Accumulation

4455:

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society

511:as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a 255: 5087: 4890: 4775: 4714: 4677:The Extended Phenotype: the Long Reach of the Gene 4662:. In Schneider, Stephen; Boston, Penelope (eds.). 3786: 1950: – Fields of natural science related to Earth 1869:planet. Collectively, Gaia constitutes the single 1756:2013 book-length evaluation of the Gaia hypothesis 1261:Another influence for the Gaia hypothesis and the 817:populated by two different types of plants, black 318:The Gaia hypothesis was formulated by the chemist 4616:zu Castell, W.; Lüttge, U.; Matyssek, R. (2019). 4485: 4483: 3643: 3641: 3639: 2514:The Ages of Gaia: A Biography of Our Living Earth 1287:an early symbol for the global ecology movement. 349:Topics related to the hypothesis include how the 5175:Clips of interview with James Lovelock from 2010 3974:"Gaia's evil twin: Is life its own worst enemy?" 1465:, and William Fields. Some 500 people attended. 1322:, planets like Mars or Venus had atmospheres in 5090:The Lives of a Cell; Notes of a Biology Watcher 2972:"Biogeochemical aspects of atmospheric methane" 2443:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 2363: 2361: 2359: 1974: – A system as a whole, not just its parts 1245: 756:. Lovelock has stated that this could bring an 5741:Words and phrases derived from Greek mythology 4865:. Torino, Utet: Prefazione di Enrico Bellone. 4846:. Torino, Utet: Prefazione di Enrico Bellone. 4611: 4609: 4544: 4542: 4540: 3823:. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. 2316: 2314: 2312: 2230: 2228: 2101: 2099: 1873:of all living survivors descended from life’s 1168:was the primal Greek goddess personifying the 806:underpinned planetary temperature regulation. 698:, inspired by the Gaia hypothesis, proposes a 5246: 5170:Interview: Jasper Gerard meets James Lovelock 2720: 2718: 2716: 2645: 2643: 1401:James Lovelock called his first proposal the 1103:terrestrial plants. Lately the atmospheric CO 1013:, and small amounts of other gases including 346:in part for his work on the Gaia hypothesis. 226: 8: 4975:"The Earth is about to catch a morbid fever" 4844:Blu come un'arancia. Gaia tra mito e scienza 4153: 4151: 4149: 4147: 3616:Official Site of Arlington County Virginia. 1425:, August 1–6. The principal sponsor was the 962:The Gaia hypothesis states that the Earth's 4738:The Vanishing Face of Gaia: A Final Warning 3460:Gaia in Action: Science of the Living Earth 3100: 3098: 2238:(2002), "Toward a future for Gaia theory", 264: 5504: 5253: 5239: 5231: 5015:. River Edge, NJ: Imperial College Press. 4945:. In Westbroek, P.; deJong, E. W. (eds.). 4782:. Revolutions in Science. UK: Icon Books. 3111:. Garden City, N.Y: Anchor Books. p. 2901:"Atmospheric oxygen over Phanerozoic time" 2274: 2272: 2270: 1090:which may have a role in the formation of 858:rocks, and emerging as hot water vents on 553:The Gaia paradigm was an influence on the 233: 219: 58: 4837:on 2013-10-31 – via Wildethics.org. 4801:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 4757:Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at Evolution 4670:on 2012-02-23 – via Wildethics.org. 4622:Emergence and Modularity in Life Sciences 4566: 4425: 4345: 3433:Joseph, Lawrence E. (November 23, 1986). 3406:Gaia's Body: Toward a Physiology of Earth 2942: 2924: 2549: 2547: 2131: 1956: – Philosophy about Earth protection 1707:, but those set points change with time. 5032:Scientists debate Gaia: the next century 3820:An Introduction to the Earth-Life System 3712: 3300: 3089: 2835: 2603: 2454: 2425: 1265:in general came as a side effect of the 949: 773: 633:Regulation of global surface temperature 412:Gaian hypotheses suggest that organisms 5191: 5149:Lovelock, James (2006), interviewed in 5034:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. 4549:Arthur, Rudy; Nicholson, Arwen (2022). 3960: 3922: 3665: 3150: 3056: 2350: 2061: 2059: 2055: 2039: 2022: 1235:, pioneer in the development of modern 322:and co-developed by the microbiologist 186: 143: 115: 82: 66: 3254:Advances in the Astronautical Sciences 2182: 2106:Lovelock, J. E.; Margulis, L. (1974). 2006: – Group of synergistic organisms 1310:in California on methods of detecting 940:Regulation of oxygen in the atmosphere 794:between organisms, James Lovelock and 778:Plots from a standard black and white 721:specifically proposes that particular 534:and maintain those conditions through 330:, Lovelock named the hypothesis after 4943:"Gaia as seen through the atmosphere" 4827:"The Perceptual Implications of Gaia" 4759:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 3700: 3313:Hamilton, W.D.; Lenton, T.M. (1998). 1314:. The first paper to mention it was 1231:Also in the turn to the 20th century 1065:. Carbon precipitation, solution and 733:, and that these responses lead to a 357:of organisms affect the stability of 7: 5160:"Lovelock: 'We can't save the planet 4624:. Springer, Cham. pp. 255–279. 4620:. In Wegner, L.; Lüttge, U. (eds.). 1718:, adding that it would take another 1429:. Speakers included James Lovelock, 1001:contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% 758:extremely accelerated global warming 647:Rob Rohde's palaeotemperature graphs 4973:Lovelock, James (16 January 2006). 4958:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4721:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4525:. University of Tennessee at Martin 4523:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3072:. 12 September 2007. Archived from 2516:. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. 2330:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1543:ceased, following this conference. 1423:University of Massachusetts Amherst 1117:and other organisms accelerate the 956:Vostok, Antarctica research station 687:Processing of the greenhouse gas CO 4926:10.1023/B:CLIM.0000044616.34867.ec 4451:"GAIA and the Anthropic Principle" 4110:Environmental Microbiology Reports 2728:The Introduction to Ocean Sciences 2672:10.1111/j.1600-0889.1983.tb00031.x 1207:consolidated as a modern science, 684:biosphere to fully self-regulate. 25: 5030:Schneider, Stephen Henry (2004). 4956:Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth 4162:. New York: Hachette Book Group. 3844:Quinn, P.K.; Bates, T.S. (2011), 2813:"Scientia Marina: List of Issues" 1805:Permian–Triassic extinction event 1797:ice–albedo positive feedback loop 1635:Gaia, a New Look at Life on Earth 1335:Gaia: A new look at life on Earth 958:. Current period is at the left. 876:as being Gaia's kidney is found ( 482:Rafail Vasil’evich Rizpolozhensky 27:Scientific hypothesis about Earth 5640: 5639: 5218: 5206: 5194: 4996:. Santa Barbara CA: Allen Lane. 4897:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 4833:. Parallax Press. Archived from 4778:Lovelock and Gaia: Signs of Life 4130:10.1111/j.1758-2229.2010.00162.x 3558:Simón, Federico (21 June 2000). 3319:Ethology Ecology & Evolution 1919: 1905: 1891: 798:developed a mathematical model, 737:loop that acts to stabilise the 729:are responsive to variations in 532:coordination of living organisms 497:Vladimir Alexandrovich Kostitzin 251: 83:Movements and schools of thought 74: 4551:"Selection principles for Gaia" 3993:Poppick, Laura (5 April 2019). 3138:The Discovery of Global Warming 2777:(3). Kluwer Academic: 199–239. 2616:Johnston, Ian (23 April 2012). 1698:'s grand vision was not wrong, 1670:Natural selection and evolution 1419:Is The Earth a Living Organism? 550:diversity of living organisms. 4555:Journal of Theoretical Biology 4519:"Altruism and Group Selection" 4398:Journal of Theoretical Biology 3902:. Princeton University Press. 3744:Journal of Theoretical Biology 3509:Journal of Theoretical Biology 1938: – Concept in metaphysics 1875:last universal common ancestor 1694:Margulis argued in 1999 that " 1480:organised a conference of the 1203:In the eighteenth century, as 1176:" (from Ge = Earth, and Aia = 841:Regulation of oceanic salinity 388:and against the principles of 30:For other uses of "Gaia", see 1: 4884:. Paris: Librairie Gallimard. 3949:10.1016/s0262-4079(13)62532-4 3339:10.1080/08927014.1998.9522867 2199:. Columbia University Press. 1730:Criticism in the 21st century 1390:and her contributions to the 1291:Formulation of the hypothesis 485: 373:levels, the maintenance of a 5181: (archived 3 March 2016) 5140:Resources in other libraries 4889:Joseph, Lawrence E. (1990). 4698:. Chelsea Green Publishing. 4630:10.1007/978-3-030-06128-9_12 4326:Geophysical Research Letters 4074:Geophysical Research Letters 3726:PNAS April 17, 2018 115 (16) 3585:American Geophysical Union. 3435:"Britain's Whole Earth Guru" 3408:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: 2979:Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2133:10.3402/tellusa.v26i1-2.9731 2090:10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 1283:mission became, through the 946:Geological history of oxygen 519:-rich one at the end of the 493:Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky 440:towards the oxygen-enriched 340:Geological Society of London 4893:Gaia: The Growth of an Idea 4882:Le Géon ou la Terre vivante 4829:. In Badiner, A. H. (ed.). 4679:. Oxford University Press. 4492:"Is the Earth an organism?" 3738:Doolittle, W. Ford (2017). 3680:"Kropotkin was no crackpot" 3439:The New York Times Magazine 3140:. Cambridge: Harvard Press. 2441:. Article submitted to the 2370:The Professional Geographer 2195:Schwartzman, David (2002). 1714:called the concept of Gaia 1405:but has also used the term 478:Piotr Alekseevich Kropotkin 5757: 5711:Evolution of the biosphere 5151:How to think about science 4585:10.1016/j.jtbi.2021.110940 4418:10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.08.032 4209:10.1038/s41561-021-00829-7 3764:10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.02.015 2899:Berner, R. A. (Sep 1999). 2156:"Wollaston Award Lovelock" 1747:has improved. In 2009 the 1555:The major questions were: 1482:American Geophysical Union 1077:One of these organisms is 1048:atmospheric carbon dioxide 1035: 943: 767: 636: 29: 5726:Meteorological hypotheses 5635: 5548: 5507: 5135:Resources in your library 5086:Thomas, Lewis G. (1974). 4740:. New York: Basic Books. 4694:Harding, Stephan (2006). 4675:Dawkins, Richard (1982). 3650:The Coevolution Quarterly 2415:. SUNY Press. p. 32. 1783:during a period when the 1745:cloud condensation nuclei 1308:Jet Propulsion Laboratory 986:. Since the start of the 523:and the beginning of the 444:today that supports more 5691:Climate change feedbacks 4990:Lovelock, James (2007). 4954:Lovelock, James (2000). 4941:Lovelock, James (1983). 4880:Jaworski, Helan (1928). 4736:Lovelock, James (2009). 4713:Lovelock, James (2001). 4449:Fellgett, P. B. (1988). 3678:Gould S.J. (June 1997). 2926:10.1073/pnas.96.20.10955 2512:Lovelock, James (1995). 1863:differential persistence 1427:National Audubon Society 1329:Lovelock formulated the 1239:and in the movement for 1172:, the Greek version of " 854:circulation through hot 809:Daisyworld examines the 107:Environmental personhood 5671:Astronomical hypotheses 5011:Marshall, Alan (2002). 4861:Bondì, Roberto (2007). 4842:Bondì, Roberto (2006). 4755:Margulis, Lynn (1998). 3785:Waltham, David (2014). 3494:10.1029/RG027i002p00223 3458:Bunyard, Peter (1996), 3105:Capra, Fritjof (1996). 2999:10.1029/GB002i004p00299 2870:10.1126/science.1140325 2725:Segar, Douglas (2012). 2699:10.1023/A:1023494111532 2390:10.1111/0033-0124.00337 2296:10.1023/a:1014218227825 2254:10.1023/a:1014237331082 2069:Atmospheric Environment 1710:Evolutionary biologist 1320:Pic du Midi observatory 1005:, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% 984:Great Oxygenation Event 964:atmospheric composition 595:system operated by the 588:Gaia evolves through a 287:, proposes that living 5071:10.1006/jtbi.2002.3059 4797:Tyrrell, Toby (2013). 4498:. Aeon Media Group Ltd 4158:Mann, Michael (2023). 3529:10.1006/jtbi.2000.2105 1853:According to the weak 1585:Fourth Gaia conference 1469:Second Gaia conference 1439:Mary Catherine Bateson 1368: 1303: 1263:environmental movement 1259: 1217:Alexander von Humboldt 1161: 1069:are influenced by the 959: 804:ecological competition 783: 764:Daisyworld simulations 702:that operates between 648: 609:atmosphere composition 538:. In some versions of 116:Traditional worldviews 56: 5686:Biological hypotheses 4825:Abram, David (1990). 4658:Abram, David (1991). 4022:Geologische Rundschau 3474:Reviews of Geophysics 3136:Weart, S. R. (2003). 2539:Snowball Earth theory 1913:Earth sciences portal 1547:Third Gaia conference 1413:First Gaia conference 1364: 1298: 1180:grandmother), or the 1146: 1111:are also increasing. 953: 777: 646: 438:methanogenic bacteria 379:habitability of Earth 342:awarded Lovelock the 275:), also known as the 40: 32:Gaia (disambiguation) 5520:Evolutionary history 4774:Turney, Jon (2003). 4490:Doolittle, W. Ford. 4347:10.1029/2006GL028384 4095:10.1029/2000GL011836 3898:Ward, Peter (2009). 3404:Volk, Tyler (2003). 2628:on 13 September 2012 2536:Hoffman, P.F. 2001. 1984:Planetary boundaries 1811:, a hilly region of 1396:The Symbiotic Planet 1392:endosymbiotic theory 1337:. An article in the 1324:chemical equilibrium 1237:environmental ethics 975:chemical equilibrium 627:Earth system science 513:reducing environment 394:Earth system science 291:interact with their 206:Rights of nature law 144:Scholars and authors 5706:Ecological theories 5457:Natural environment 5063:2002JThBi.218...35S 4577:2022JThBi.53310940A 4467:1988QJRAS..29...85F 4410:2018JThBi.457..249N 4375:2005Geo....33..397K 4338:2007GeoRL..34.2801L 4291:2001Geo....29..351T 4246:1987Natur.325..143M 4201:2021NatGe..14..862H 4122:2010EnvMR...2..685B 4087:2001GeoRL..28..283C 4034:1964GeoRu..54...45H 3870:10.1038/nature10580 3862:2011Natur.480...51Q 3756:2017JThBi.434...11D 3521:2000JThBi.206..109L 3486:1989RvGeo..27..223K 3375:1990Natur.344..100L 3331:1998EtEcE..10....1H 3190:1965Natur.207..568L 3092:, pp. 195–197. 3076:on 9 February 2008. 3036:1996Geo....24..867K 2991:1988GBioC...2..299C 2917:1999PNAS...9610955B 2911:(20): 10955–10957. 2862:2007Sci...317.1903A 2856:(5846): 1903–1906. 2664:1983TellB..35..284W 2575:1987Natur.326..655C 2483:1979Natur.277..640O 2445:on Thu, 10 Mar 2011 2382:2002ProfG..54..379L 2124:1974Tell...26....2L 2082:1972AtmEn...6..579L 1855:anthropic principle 1789:atmospheric methane 1763:Anthropic principle 1663:greedy reductionism 1279:in 1968 during the 1275:taken by astronaut 1200:acceptance speech. 1160:, December 24, 1968 999:atmosphere of Earth 605:surface temperature 434:thermo-acido-philic 92:Earth jurisprudence 62:Part of a series on 5666:1965 introductions 4664:Scientists On Gaia 4160:Our Fragile Moment 4042:10.1007/BF01821169 3740:"Darwinizing Gaia" 2817:scimar.icm.csic.es 2783:10.1007/BF00002942 2236:Kirchner, James W. 1899:Environment portal 1604:J. Baird Callicott 1596:Dr. Thomas Lovejoy 1579:entropy production 1457:, Donald Michael, 1369: 1345:The Quest for Gaia 1304: 1221:Vladimir Vernadsky 1162: 960: 936:) saline giants." 784: 743:Earth's atmosphere 649: 371:atmospheric oxygen 359:global temperature 57: 5653: 5652: 5631: 5630: 5304:chemical elements 5166:BBC Sci Tech News 5121:Library resources 5105:978-0-670-43442-8 5041:978-0-262-19498-3 5022:978-1-86094-330-0 5003:978-0-7139-9914-3 4965:978-0-19-286218-1 4904:978-0-31-204318-6 4872:978-88-02-07704-8 4853:978-88-02-07259-3 4808:978-0-691-12158-1 4789:978-1-84046-458-0 4766:978-0-297-81740-6 4747:978-0-465-01549-8 4728:978-0-19-860429-7 4705:978-1-933392-29-5 4686:978-0-19-286088-0 4639:978-3-030-06128-9 4240:(6100): 143–145. 3979:The New Scientist 3909:978-0-691-13075-0 3419:978-0-262-72042-7 3267:978-0-87703-028-7 3122:978-0-385-47675-1 2741:978-0-9857859-0-1 2569:(6114): 655–661. 2523:978-0-393-31239-3 2337:978-0-19-280602-4 2206:978-0-231-10213-1 1998:Spiritual ecology 1994:– 1990 video game 1848:natural selection 1793:greenhouse effect 1775:For example, the 1724:natural selection 1680:W. Ford Doolittle 1676:natural selection 1649:Stephen Jay Gould 1624:Stephen Jay Gould 1478:Stephen Schneider 1253:Stephan Harding, 1080:Emiliania huxleyi 1059:volcanic activity 874:Mediterranean Sea 831:negative feedback 754:positive feedback 735:negative feedback 504:emergent property 495:(1863–1945), and 426:Darwinian process 390:natural selection 243: 242: 16:(Redirected from 5748: 5643: 5642: 5515: 5505: 5445:tropical cyclone 5395: 5255: 5248: 5241: 5232: 5223: 5222: 5211: 5210: 5209: 5199: 5198: 5197: 5190: 5163: 5109: 5093: 5082: 5045: 5026: 5007: 4986: 4981:. Archived from 4969: 4950: 4937: 4908: 4896: 4885: 4876: 4857: 4838: 4812: 4793: 4781: 4770: 4751: 4732: 4720: 4709: 4690: 4671: 4644: 4643: 4613: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4570: 4546: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4530: 4517:Shavit, Ayelet. 4514: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4487: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4429: 4393: 4387: 4386: 4383:10.1130/G21295.1 4358: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4317: 4311: 4310: 4272: 4266: 4265: 4254:10.1038/325143a0 4227: 4221: 4220: 4180: 4174: 4173: 4155: 4142: 4141: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4017: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4006: 4001:. Kalmbach Media 3990: 3984: 3983: 3970: 3964: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3932: 3926: 3920: 3914: 3913: 3895: 3889: 3888: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3815:Cockell, Charles 3811: 3805: 3804: 3792: 3782: 3776: 3775: 3735: 3729: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3704: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3675: 3669: 3663: 3654: 3653: 3652:. Spring: 58–63. 3645: 3634: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3620:. Archived from 3613: 3607: 3606: 3604: 3602: 3593:. Archived from 3582: 3576: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3555: 3549: 3548: 3504: 3498: 3497: 3469: 3463: 3456: 3450: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3430: 3424: 3423: 3401: 3395: 3394: 3383:10.1038/344100a0 3356: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3341:. Archived from 3310: 3304: 3298: 3285: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3240: 3239: 3230:. Archived from 3224: 3218: 3217: 3198:10.1038/207568a0 3171: 3165: 3160: 3154: 3148: 3142: 3141: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3102: 3093: 3087: 3078: 3077: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3017: 3011: 3010: 2976: 2966:Cicerone, R.J.; 2963: 2957: 2956: 2946: 2928: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2845: 2839: 2833: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2823: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2766: 2760: 2759: 2757: 2756: 2750: 2744:. Archived from 2733: 2722: 2711: 2710: 2682: 2676: 2675: 2647: 2638: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2624:. Archived from 2613: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2583:10.1038/326655a0 2551: 2542: 2534: 2528: 2527: 2509: 2503: 2502: 2491:10.1038/277640a0 2464: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2435: 2429: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2408: 2402: 2401: 2365: 2354: 2348: 2342: 2341: 2318: 2307: 2306: 2276: 2265: 2264: 2232: 2223: 2217: 2211: 2210: 2192: 2186: 2180: 2167: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2152: 2146: 2145: 2135: 2103: 2094: 2093: 2063: 2043: 2037: 2031: 2027: 1954:Environmentalism 1929: 1927:Geography portal 1924: 1923: 1922: 1915: 1910: 1909: 1908: 1901: 1896: 1895: 1835:hydrogen sulfide 1770:Medea hypothesis 1749:Medea hypothesis 1700:only incomplete. 1459:Christopher Bird 1257: 1029:Processing of CO 860:mid-ocean ridges 750:greenhouse gases 727:dimethyl sulfide 639:Paleoclimatology 490: 487: 466:Earth atmosphere 295:surroundings on 274: 273: 270: 269: 266: 263: 260: 257: 235: 228: 221: 78: 68:Rights of nature 59: 21: 5756: 5755: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5746: 5745: 5676:Biogeochemistry 5656: 5655: 5654: 5649: 5627: 5544: 5513: 5494: 5451: 5393: 5373: 5364:Gaia hypothesis 5354:Plate tectonics 5315: 5265: 5259: 5229: 5217: 5207: 5205: 5195: 5193: 5185: 5179:Wayback Machine 5161: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5129: 5128: 5126:Gaia hypothesis 5124: 5117: 5112: 5106: 5085: 5048: 5042: 5029: 5023: 5010: 5004: 4989: 4979:The Independent 4972: 4966: 4953: 4940: 4914:Climatic Change 4911: 4905: 4888: 4879: 4873: 4860: 4854: 4841: 4824: 4820: 4818:Further reading 4815: 4809: 4796: 4790: 4773: 4767: 4754: 4748: 4735: 4729: 4712: 4706: 4693: 4687: 4674: 4657: 4653: 4648: 4647: 4640: 4615: 4614: 4607: 4597: 4595: 4548: 4547: 4538: 4528: 4526: 4516: 4515: 4511: 4501: 4499: 4489: 4488: 4481: 4471: 4469: 4448: 4447: 4443: 4395: 4394: 4390: 4360: 4359: 4355: 4319: 4318: 4314: 4274: 4273: 4269: 4229: 4228: 4224: 4195:(11): 862–867. 4182: 4181: 4177: 4170: 4157: 4156: 4145: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4070: 4069: 4065: 4019: 4018: 4014: 4004: 4002: 3992: 3991: 3987: 3972: 3971: 3967: 3959: 3955: 3943:(2940): 30–31, 3934: 3933: 3929: 3921: 3917: 3910: 3897: 3896: 3892: 3856:(7375): 51–56, 3843: 3842: 3838: 3831: 3813: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3784: 3783: 3779: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3723: 3719: 3711: 3707: 3699: 3695: 3684:Natural History 3677: 3676: 3672: 3664: 3657: 3647: 3646: 3637: 3627: 3625: 3615: 3614: 3610: 3600: 3598: 3584: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3557: 3556: 3552: 3506: 3505: 3501: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3457: 3453: 3443: 3441: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3420: 3403: 3402: 3398: 3369:(6262): 100–2. 3358: 3357: 3353: 3345: 3312: 3311: 3307: 3299: 3288: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3251: 3250: 3246: 3237: 3235: 3228:"Geophysiology" 3226: 3225: 3221: 3173: 3172: 3168: 3161: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3135: 3134: 3130: 3123: 3104: 3103: 3096: 3088: 3081: 3068: 3067: 3063: 3055: 3051: 3030:(10): 867–870. 3019: 3018: 3014: 2974: 2965: 2964: 2960: 2898: 2897: 2893: 2847: 2846: 2842: 2834: 2830: 2821: 2819: 2811: 2810: 2806: 2771:Biogeochemistry 2768: 2767: 2763: 2754: 2752: 2748: 2742: 2731: 2724: 2723: 2714: 2687:Climatic Change 2684: 2683: 2679: 2649: 2648: 2641: 2631: 2629: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2602: 2598: 2555:Charlson, R. J. 2553: 2552: 2545: 2535: 2531: 2524: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2477:(5698): 640–2. 2466: 2465: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2437:Kleidon, Axel. 2436: 2432: 2424: 2420: 2410: 2409: 2405: 2367: 2366: 2357: 2349: 2345: 2338: 2322:Beerling, David 2320: 2319: 2310: 2284:Climatic Change 2278: 2277: 2268: 2241:Climatic Change 2234: 2233: 2226: 2218: 2214: 2207: 2194: 2193: 2189: 2181: 2170: 2160: 2158: 2154: 2153: 2149: 2105: 2104: 2097: 2065: 2064: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2046: 2038: 2034: 2028: 2024: 2019: 2014: 2009: 1925: 1920: 1918: 1911: 1906: 1904: 1897: 1890: 1887: 1826:methane hydrate 1765: 1741:CLAW hypothesis 1736:Climatic Change 1732: 1684:Richard Dawkins 1672: 1620:Richard Dawkins 1612: 1587: 1549: 1471: 1415: 1403:Gaia hypothesis 1331:Gaia Hypothesis 1293: 1285:Overview Effect 1258: 1252: 1186:William Golding 1141: 1136: 1129: 1125: 1106: 1101: 1097: 1085:coccolithophore 1063:carbonate rocks 1055: 1040: 1034: 1032: 1024: 1020: 997:Dry air in the 948: 942: 868: 843: 788:group selection 772: 766: 731:climate forcing 696:CLAW hypothesis 690: 641: 635: 623:biogeochemistry 563: 540:Gaia philosophy 488: 410: 402:systems ecology 398:biogeochemistry 344:Wollaston Medal 338:. In 2006, the 336:Greek mythology 328:William Golding 315:on the planet. 305:self-regulating 254: 250: 247:Gaia hypothesis 239: 210: 201:Gaia hypothesis 182: 158:Cormac Cullinan 139: 111: 48:The Blue Marble 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Gaia Hypothesis 15: 12: 11: 5: 5754: 5752: 5744: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5731:Superorganisms 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5681:Biometeorology 5678: 5673: 5668: 5658: 5657: 5651: 5650: 5648: 5647: 5636: 5633: 5632: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5625: 5618: 5617: 5616: 5611: 5601: 5600: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5588: 5587: 5577: 5576: 5575: 5560: 5555: 5549: 5546: 5545: 5543: 5542: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5495: 5493: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5461: 5459: 5453: 5452: 5450: 5449: 5448: 5447: 5442: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5389: 5383: 5381: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5331: 5325: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5314: 5313: 5308: 5307: 5306: 5301: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5275: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5260: 5258: 5257: 5250: 5243: 5235: 5228: 5227: 5215: 5203: 5201:Earth sciences 5183: 5182: 5172: 5167: 5157: 5143: 5142: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5115:External links 5113: 5111: 5110: 5104: 5083: 5051:J. Theor. Biol 5046: 5040: 5027: 5021: 5008: 5002: 4987: 4985:on 2006-04-08. 4970: 4964: 4951: 4938: 4920:(3): 271–319. 4909: 4903: 4886: 4877: 4871: 4858: 4852: 4839: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4813: 4807: 4794: 4788: 4771: 4765: 4752: 4746: 4733: 4727: 4710: 4704: 4691: 4685: 4672: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4646: 4645: 4638: 4605: 4536: 4509: 4479: 4441: 4388: 4369:(5): 397–400. 4353: 4312: 4285:(4): 351–354. 4267: 4222: 4175: 4168: 4143: 4116:(5): 685–692. 4100: 4063: 4012: 3985: 3965: 3963:, p. 208. 3953: 3927: 3925:, p. 209. 3915: 3908: 3890: 3836: 3829: 3806: 3799: 3793:. Icon Books. 3777: 3730: 3717: 3705: 3693: 3670: 3655: 3635: 3608: 3597:on 4 June 2012 3577: 3550: 3499: 3480:(2): 223–235. 3464: 3462:(Floris Books) 3451: 3425: 3418: 3396: 3351: 3348:on 2011-07-23. 3305: 3286: 3273: 3266: 3244: 3219: 3184:(7): 568–570. 3166: 3155: 3143: 3128: 3121: 3094: 3079: 3061: 3049: 3012: 2985:(4): 299–327. 2968:Oremland, R.S. 2958: 2891: 2840: 2838:, p. 163. 2828: 2804: 2761: 2740: 2712: 2693:(1–2): 21–45. 2677: 2639: 2608: 2596: 2559:Lovelock, J. E 2543: 2529: 2522: 2504: 2459: 2457:, p. 179. 2447: 2430: 2428:, p. 255. 2418: 2403: 2376:(3): 379–391. 2355: 2343: 2336: 2308: 2290:(4): 423–430, 2266: 2248:(4): 391–408, 2224: 2212: 2205: 2187: 2168: 2147: 2095: 2076:(8): 579–580. 2054: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2045: 2044: 2040:Dawkins (1982) 2032: 2021: 2020: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2007: 2001: 1995: 1987: 1981: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1951: 1945: 1939: 1932: 1931: 1930: 1916: 1902: 1886: 1883: 1821:sulfur dioxide 1817:carbon dioxide 1809:Siberian Traps 1785:Sun was cooler 1781:photosynthesis 1777:Snowball Earth 1764: 1761: 1731: 1728: 1712:W. D. Hamilton 1671: 1668: 1616:Ford Doolittle 1611: 1608: 1586: 1583: 1571: 1570: 1563: 1560: 1548: 1545: 1519: 1518: 1515: 1509: 1503: 1500:CoEvolutionary 1493:James Kirchner 1470: 1467: 1414: 1411: 1376:microbiologist 1300:James Lovelock 1292: 1289: 1277:William Anders 1250: 1158:William Anders 1140: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1127: 1123: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1083:, an abundant 1053: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1022: 1018: 1011:carbon dioxide 941: 938: 910:Permo-Triassic 906:Gulf of Mexico 898:South Atlantic 882:Kenneth J. Hsu 866: 842: 839: 768:Main article: 765: 762: 688: 662:Snowball Earth 634: 631: 601:microorganisms 569:involving the 567:complex system 562: 559: 462:photosynthetic 409: 406: 320:James Lovelock 309:complex system 285:Gaia principle 241: 240: 238: 237: 230: 223: 215: 212: 211: 209: 208: 203: 198: 192: 189: 188: 184: 183: 181: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 149: 146: 145: 141: 140: 138: 137: 132: 127: 121: 118: 117: 113: 112: 110: 109: 104: 99: 94: 88: 85: 84: 80: 79: 71: 70: 64: 63: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5753: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5663: 5661: 5646: 5638: 5637: 5634: 5624: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5606: 5605: 5602: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5586: 5583: 5582: 5581: 5578: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5550: 5547: 5540: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5514:(abiogenesis) 5510: 5509: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5497: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5462: 5460: 5458: 5454: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5437: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5376: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5339: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5329:Earth science 5327: 5326: 5324: 5322: 5318: 5312: 5309: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5296: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5276: 5274: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5256: 5251: 5249: 5244: 5242: 5237: 5236: 5233: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5214: 5204: 5202: 5192: 5188: 5180: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5165: 5158: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5147: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5114: 5107: 5101: 5097: 5092: 5091: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5047: 5043: 5037: 5033: 5028: 5024: 5018: 5014: 5009: 5005: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4988: 4984: 4980: 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2285: 2281: 2275: 2273: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2242: 2237: 2231: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2220:Gribbin, John 2216: 2213: 2208: 2202: 2198: 2191: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2157: 2151: 2148: 2143: 2139: 2134: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2118:(1–2): 2–10. 2117: 2113: 2109: 2102: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2070: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2049: 2041: 2036: 2033: 2026: 2023: 2016: 2011: 2005: 2004:Superorganism 2002: 1999: 1996: 1993: 1992: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1952: 1949: 1948:Earth science 1946: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1933: 1928: 1917: 1914: 1903: 1900: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1858: 1856: 1851: 1849: 1843: 1840: 1837:(produced by 1836: 1832: 1827: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1813:flood basalts 1810: 1806: 1801: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1773: 1771: 1762: 1760: 1757: 1752: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1729: 1727: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1708: 1706: 1701: 1697: 1692: 1689: 1685: 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Retrieved 2150: 2115: 2111: 2073: 2067: 2035: 2025: 1989: 1966:Global brain 1866: 1862: 1859: 1852: 1844: 1802: 1774: 1766: 1753: 1735: 1733: 1709: 1699: 1693: 1673: 1659: 1647: 1639:teleological 1634: 1613: 1592: 1588: 1572: 1567:collaborated 1566: 1554: 1550: 1537: 1528: 1523: 1520: 1486: 1472: 1447:Thomas Berry 1443:Lewis Thomas 1421:was held at 1418: 1416: 1406: 1402: 1400: 1395: 1373: 1370: 1349: 1344: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1328: 1315: 1312:life on Mars 1305: 1270: 1260: 1254: 1246: 1233:Aldo Leopold 1230: 1209:James Hutton 1202: 1182:Earth Mother 1163: 1147: 1113: 1109:algal blooms 1078: 1076: 1044:carbon cycle 1041: 1038:Carbon cycle 996: 972: 961: 871: 864: 844: 836: 828: 808: 785: 747: 693: 686: 650: 620: 587: 579:hydrospheres 564: 555:deep ecology 552: 543: 529: 501: 474: 450: 446:complex life 430:Ages of Gaia 429: 411: 386:teleological 383: 348: 317: 284: 280: 276: 246: 244: 200: 163:Aldo Leopold 153:Thomas Berry 135:Sumak Kawsay 97:Deep ecology 55:photograph). 46: 5696:Cybernetics 5604:Prokaryotes 5392:Atmosphere 5387:Meteorology 5225:Environment 4598:11 December 4427:10871/40424 4404:: 249–257. 3325:(1): 1–16. 3260:: 179–193. 2606:, p. . 2280:Volk, Tyler 2183:Turney 2003 1942:Biocoenosis 1936:Anima mundi 1705:homeostasis 1654:autopoietic 1541:teleologism 1512:Geophysical 1506:Homeostatic 1489:David Abram 1451:David Abram 1435:George Wald 1407:Gaia theory 1198:Nobel prize 1190:Bowerchalke 1152:taken from 968:noble gases 930:Precambrian 886:desiccation 802:, in which 792:cooperation 739:temperature 682:Phanerozoic 536:homeostasis 525:Proterozoic 489: 1922 457:temperature 375:hydrosphere 301:synergistic 277:Gaia theory 5736:Syncretism 5660:Categories 5485:Wilderness 5338:geological 4568:1907.12654 4561:: 110940. 4529:9 December 4502:8 December 4472:8 December 4189:Nat Geosci 4005:6 December 3701:Abram 1991 3628:1 December 3570:1 December 3444:1 December 3238:2007-05-05 2822:2017-02-04 2755:2017-02-05 2161:19 October 2012:References 1831:chemocline 1716:Copernican 1637:for being 1575:Tyler Volk 1532:Daisyworld 1388:organelles 1385:eukaryotic 1267:Space Race 1241:wilderness 1225:geochemist 1213:naturalist 1139:Precedents 1119:weathering 1036:See also: 944:See also: 894:Cretaceous 890:deposition 800:Daisyworld 782:simulation 780:Daisyworld 770:Daisyworld 719:hypothesis 707:ecosystems 637:See also: 590:cybernetic 583:pedosphere 575:atmosphere 557:movement. 548:coevolving 470:eukaryotic 442:atmosphere 299:to form a 5716:Evolution 5563:Eukaryota 5530:Hierarchy 5525:Biosphere 5490:Wildfires 5480:Radiation 5470:Ecosystem 5410:Moonlight 5344:Structure 5299:particles 4307:0091-7613 4217:240076553 4058:128676272 4050:1432-1149 3999:Astronomy 3750:: 11–19. 3728:4006-4014 3601:7 January 3410:MIT Press 3284:, p. 304. 2935:0027-8424 2799:128563314 2791:1573-515X 2632:22 August 2142:129803613 2050:Citations 1978:Hylozoism 1879:holobiont 1628:neo-Pagan 1610:Criticism 1573:In 1997, 1524:to enable 1473:In 1988, 1455:John Todd 1272:Earthrise 1194:Wiltshire 1149:Earthrise 1009:, 0.039% 571:biosphere 527:periods. 508:entelechy 414:co-evolve 355:evolution 351:biosphere 293:inorganic 289:organisms 283:, or the 168:John Muir 130:Pachamama 53:Apollo 17 5645:Category 5614:bacteria 5597:protista 5558:Organism 5425:Sunlight 5271:Universe 5079:12297068 4934:55295082 4593:34710434 4436:30149011 4262:13473769 4138:23766256 3878:22129724 3772:28237396 3690:: 12–21. 3537:10968941 3214:33821197 3007:56396847 2970:(1988). 2953:10500106 2886:25260892 2878:17901330 2622:NBC News 2398:10796292 2324:(2007). 2304:32856540 2262:15776141 2112:Tellus A 1991:SimEarth 1960:Gaianism 1885:See also 1839:anerobic 1631:religion 1374:In 1971 1281:Apollo 8 1251:— 1154:Apollo 8 1071:bacteria 1067:fixation 1003:nitrogen 988:Cambrian 934:Gondwana 926:Cambrian 918:Devonian 902:Jurassic 856:basaltic 852:seawater 847:salinity 709:and the 678:Varanger 674:Marinoan 670:Sturtian 666:Huronian 616:salinity 593:feedback 581:and the 521:Archaean 484:(1862 – 476:include 408:Overview 367:seawater 363:salinity 353:and the 102:Wild law 5622:Viruses 5609:archaea 5585:animals 5537: ( 5535:Biology 5512:Origin 5465:Ecology 5440:tornado 5400:Climate 5394:(Earth) 5379:Weather 5349:Geology 5336: ( 5334:History 5213:Ecology 5187:Portals 5177:at the 5059:Bibcode 4573:Bibcode 4463:Bibcode 4406:Bibcode 4371:Bibcode 4363:Geology 4334:Bibcode 4287:Bibcode 4278:Geology 4242:Bibcode 4197:Bibcode 4118:Bibcode 4083:Bibcode 4030:Bibcode 3886:4417436 3858:Bibcode 3752:Bibcode 3564:El País 3545:5486128 3517:Bibcode 3482:Bibcode 3391:4354186 3371:Bibcode 3327:Bibcode 3206:5883628 3186:Bibcode 3032:Bibcode 3023:Geology 2987:Bibcode 2913:Bibcode 2858:Bibcode 2850:Science 2707:1153044 2660:Bibcode 2591:4321239 2571:Bibcode 2499:4326889 2479:Bibcode 2378:Bibcode 2120:Bibcode 2078:Bibcode 1356:methane 1205:geology 1134:History 1015:methane 992:methane 924:), and 892:of the 819:daisies 741:of the 717:. The 715:climate 561:Details 472:life). 418:abiotic 51:, 1972 5573:plants 5405:Clouds 5369:Future 5359:Oceans 5311:Change 5294:Matter 5289:Energy 5263:nature 5123:about 5102: 5077: 5038: 5019: 5000: 4962: 4932: 4901: 4869: 4850: 4805: 4786: 4763: 4744: 4725: 4702: 4683: 4636: 4591: 4461:: 85. 4434: 4305: 4260: 4233:Nature 4215: 4166: 4136: 4056: 4048: 3906: 3884: 3876: 3850:Nature 3827: 3797: 3770: 3543: 3535: 3416: 3389: 3362:Nature 3264: 3212: 3204: 3177:Nature 3119: 3005: 2951: 2941: 2933: 2884: 2876: 2797: 2789: 2738: 2705: 2652:Tellus 2589: 2563:Nature 2520: 2497: 2470:Nature 2396: 2334: 2302: 2260: 2203: 2140: 1972:Holism 1720:Newton 1696:Darwin 1688:genome 1352:oxygen 1302:, 2005 1115:Lichen 1092:clouds 979:Oxygen 922:Canada 914:Europe 845:Ocean 823:albedo 815:planet 577:, the 573:, the 517:oxygen 515:to an 125:Ubuntu 5701:Earth 5592:fungi 5580:fauna 5568:flora 5475:Field 5430:Tides 5321:Earth 5279:Space 4930:S2CID 4563:arXiv 4332:(2). 4258:S2CID 4213:S2CID 4054:S2CID 3882:S2CID 3541:S2CID 3387:S2CID 3346:(PDF) 3210:S2CID 3003:S2CID 2975:(PDF) 2944:34224 2882:S2CID 2795:S2CID 2749:(PDF) 2732:(PDF) 2703:S2CID 2587:S2CID 2495:S2CID 2394:S2CID 2300:S2CID 2258:S2CID 2138:S2CID 2017:Notes 1871:clade 1754:In a 1643:biota 1170:Earth 1088:algae 1057:) is 1007:argon 880:) by 813:of a 711:Earth 704:ocean 658:Titan 613:ocean 597:biota 453:biota 422:biota 297:Earth 187:Other 43:Earth 5721:Gaia 5500:Life 5435:Wind 5420:Snow 5415:Rain 5284:Time 5155:Link 5100:ISBN 5075:PMID 5036:ISBN 5017:ISBN 4998:ISBN 4960:ISBN 4899:ISBN 4867:ISBN 4848:ISBN 4803:ISBN 4784:ISBN 4761:ISBN 4742:ISBN 4723:ISBN 4700:ISBN 4681:ISBN 4634:ISBN 4600:2023 4589:PMID 4531:2023 4504:2023 4496:Aeon 4474:2023 4432:PMID 4303:ISSN 4164:ISBN 4134:PMID 4046:ISSN 4007:2023 3904:ISBN 3874:PMID 3825:ISBN 3795:ISBN 3768:PMID 3630:2013 3603:2017 3572:2013 3533:PMID 3446:2013 3414:ISBN 3262:ISBN 3202:PMID 3117:ISBN 2949:PMID 2931:ISSN 2874:PMID 2787:ISSN 2736:ISBN 2634:2012 2518:ISBN 2332:ISBN 2201:ISBN 2163:2015 1867:this 1819:and 1682:and 1622:and 1378:Dr. 1354:and 1094:. 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