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functioning in an organism, for example, making choices or perceiving the world and sending those signals to the brain. He also listed "imagination, memory, recollection, knowledge, thought, consideration, voluntary motion, and sensation" as being found within the rational soul. The functions of "growing or being alive" resided in the spirited soul. The spirited soul also contained our passions, such as anger. These passions were considered to be even stronger than regular emotions, and, as a consequence, more dangerous. The third part of the soul, or the appetitive spirit, controlled the living forces in our body, most importantly blood. The appetitive spirit also regulated the pleasures of the body and was moved by feelings of enjoyment. This third part of the soul is the animalistic, or more natural, side of the soul; it deals with the natural urges of the body and survival instincts. Galen proposed that when the soul is moved by too much enjoyment, it reaches states of "incontinence" and "licentiousness", the inability to willfully cease enjoyment, which was a negative consequence of too much pleasure.
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present in the winter of 168–69 during an outbreak among troops stationed at
Aquileia. He had experience with the epidemic, referring to it as very long lasting, and described its symptoms and his treatment of it. His references to the plague are scattered and brief. Galen was not trying to present a description of the disease so that it could be recognized in future generations; he was more interested in the treatment and physical effects of the disease. For example, in his writings about a young man afflicted with the plague, he concentrated on the treatment of internal and external ulcerations. According to Niebuhr, "this pestilence must have raged with incredible fury; it carried off innumerable victims. The ancient world never recovered from the blow inflicted upon it by the plague that visited it in the reign of M. Aurelius." The mortality rate of the plague was 7–10 percent; the outbreak in 165–168 would have caused approximately 3.5 to 5 million deaths.
844:. The blood created in the liver would eventually flow unidirectionally into the right ventricle of the heart via the great vein. Galen also proposed a theory on how blood receives air from the lungs to be distributed throughout the body. He declared that the venous artery carried air from the lungs into the left ventricle of the heart to mix with created blood from the liver. This same venous artery allowed for an exchange of waste products from the blood back into the lungs to be exhaled. In order to receive air from the lungs in the left ventricle, the new blood needed to get there from the right ventricle. Thus, Galen asserted that there are small holes in the septum dividing the left and right sides of the heart; these holes allowed the blood to pass through easily to receive air and exchange the aforementioned waste products. Although his anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a more complete understanding of the circulatory system,
1027:(also called Dogmatists or Philosophers), with the Methodists being a smaller group. The Empiricists emphasized the importance of physical practice and experimentation or "active learning" in the medical discipline. In direct opposition to the Empiricists were the Rationalists, who valued the study of established teachings in order to create new theories in the name of medical advancements. The Methodists formed somewhat of a middle ground, as they were not as experimental as the Empiricists, nor as theoretical as the Rationalists. The Methodists mainly utilized pure observation, showing greater interest in studying the natural course of ailments than making efforts to find remedies. Galen's education had exposed him to the five major schools of thought (Platonists, Peripatetics, Stoics, Epicureans, Pyrrhonists), with teachers from the Rationalist sect and from the Empiricist sect.
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1624:. Since Galen states that he is using observations of monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) to give an account of what the body looks like, Vesalius could portray himself as using Galen's approach of description of direct observation to create a record of the exact details of the human body, since he worked in a time when human dissection was allowed. Galen argued that monkey anatomy was close enough to humans for physicians to learn anatomy with monkey dissections and then make observations of similar structures in the wounds of their patients, rather than trying to learn anatomy only from wounds in human patients, as would be done by students trained in the Empiricist model. The examinations of Vesalius also disproved medical theories of
922:
showing they controlled the making of sound. He used the same method to tie off the ureters to prove his theories of kidney and bladder function. Galen believed the human body had three interconnected systems that allowed it to work. The first system that he theorized consisted of the brain and the nerves, responsible for thought and sensation. The second theorized system was the heart and the arteries, which Galen believed to be responsible for providing life-giving energy. The last theorized system was the liver and veins, which Galen theorized were responsible for nutrition and growth. Galen also theorized that blood was made in the liver and sent out around the body.
1419:, is regarded as a masterpiece of Galen's literary works. A part of the Alexandrian compendium of Galen's work, this 10th-century manuscript comprises two parts that include details regarding various types of fevers (Humyat) and different inflammatory conditions of the body. More important is that it includes details of more than 150 single and compound formulations of both herbal and animal origin. The book provides an insight into understanding the traditions and methods of treatment in the Greek and Roman eras. In addition, this book provides a direct source for the study of more than 150 single and compound drugs used during the Greco-Roman period.
852:, and other structures, his work contained scientific errors. Galen believed the circulatory system to consist of two separate one-way systems of distribution, rather than a single unified system of circulation. He believed venous blood to be generated in the liver, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. He posited that arterial blood originated in the heart, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. The blood was then regenerated in either the liver or the heart, completing the cycle. Galen also believed in the existence of a group of blood vessels he called the
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thinking that the soul had to be acquired because the soul does not always reside within the human body. Plato's influence in Galen's model showed itself most prominently in what Galen dubbed arterial blood, which is a mixture of nutritious blood from the liver and the vital spirit (the soul) which was attained from the lungs. The vital spirit within this medium was necessary for the body to function and eventually completely absorbed. This process was then repeated indefinitely, according to Galen, so that the body could be replenished with the soul, or the vital spirit.
938:, referring to the three parts as rational, spiritual, and appetitive. Each corresponded to a localized area of the body. The rational soul was in the brain, the spiritual soul was in the heart, and the appetitive soul was in the liver. Galen was the first scientist and philosopher to assign specific parts of the soul to locations in the body because of his extensive background in medicine. This idea is now referred to as localization of function. Galen's assignments were revolutionary for the time period, which set the precedent for future localization theories.
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reinterpreting, such as in Magnus of
Nisibis' 4th-century work on urine, which was in turn translated into Arabic. Yet the full importance of his contributions was not appreciated until long after his death. Galen's rhetoric and prolificity were so powerful as to convey the impression that there was little left to learn. The term Galenism has subsequently taken on both a positive and pejorative meaning as one that transformed medicine in late antiquity yet so dominated subsequent thinking as to stifle further progress.
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753:. In Galen's view, an imbalance of each humor corresponded with a particular human temperament (blood – sanguine, black bile – melancholic, yellow bile – choleric, and phlegm – phlegmatic). Thus, individuals with sanguine temperaments are extroverted and social; choleric people have energy, passion, and charisma; melancholics are creative, kind, and considerate; and phlegmatic temperaments are characterised by dependability, kindness, and affection.
1168:. Some of Galen's treatises have appeared under many different titles over the years. Sources are often in obscure and difficult-to-access journals or repositories. Although written in Greek, by convention the works are referred to by Latin titles, and often by merely abbreviations of those. No single authoritative collection of his work exists, and controversy remains as to the authenticity of a number of works attributed to Galen. As a consequence, research on Galen's work is fraught with hazard.
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1532:, which elaborated on Galen's works. Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe did not exercise a universal prohibition of the dissection and autopsy of the human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at least the 13th century. However, Galen's influence was so great that when dissections discovered anomalies compared with Galen's anatomy, the physicians often tried to fit these into the Galenic system. An example of this is
1091:. His book contained directions on how to provide counsel to those with psychological issues to prompt them to reveal their deepest passions and secrets, and eventually cure them of their mental deficiency. The leading individual, or therapist, had to be a male, preferably of an older, wiser, age, as well as free from the control of the passions. These passions, according to Galen, caused the psychological problems that people experienced.
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This was where his opposition to the Stoics became most prevalent. Galen proposed organs within the body to be responsible for specific functions. According to Galen, the Stoics' lack of scientific justification discredited their claims of the separateness of mind and body, which is why he spoke so strongly against them. There is an intense scholarly debate about soul–body relations in Galen's psychological writings. In his brief treatise
1620:, was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form. Seeking to examine critically Galen's methods and outlook, Vesalius turned to human cadaver dissection as a means of verification. Galen's writings were shown by Vesalius to describe details present in monkeys but not in humans, and he demonstrated Galen's limitations through books and hands-on demonstrations despite fierce opposition from orthodox pro-Galenists such as
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536:, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthy men in Asia. Galen claims that the High Priest chose him over other physicians after he eviscerated an ape and challenged other physicians to repair the damage. When they refused, Galen performed the
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told me that, some ten years before, a young man had come to the city and had given, like me practical demonstrations of the resources of our art; this young man was put to death by poison, together with two servants who accompanied him." When Galen's animosity with the Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared he might be exiled or poisoned, so he left the city.
950:) within the brain. He conducted many anatomical studies on animals, most famously an ox, to study the transition from vital to psychic pneuma. Although highly criticized for comparing animal anatomy to human anatomy, Galen was convinced that his knowledge was abundant enough in both anatomies to base one on the other. In his treatise
54:
488:, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which the sick would come to seek the ministrations of the priesthood. Romans frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical relief from illness and disease. It was also the haunt of notable people such as the historian Claudius Charax, the orator
1075:, Galen says both that the soul "follows" the mixtures of the body, and that the soul is a bodily mixture. Scholars have offered ways of reconciling these claims, arguing for a materialist reading of Galen's philosophy of mind. According to this materialist reading, Galen identifies the soul with the mixtures of the body.
579:, Galen felt obliged to treat him "since he was my teacher and I happened to live nearby". He wrote: "I return to the case of Eudemus. He was thoroughly attacked by the three attacks of quartan ague, and the doctors had given him up, as it was now mid-winter." Some Roman physicians criticized Galen for his use of the
1673:. It was followed in Venice in 1541–1542 by the Giunta. There were fourteen editions of the book from that date until 1625. Just one edition was produced from Lyon between 1548 and 1551. The Lyon edition has commentaries on breathing and blood streaming that correct the work of earlier renowned authors such as
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Galen believed there is no sharp distinction between the mental and the physical. This was a controversial argument at the time, and Galen agreed with some Greek philosophical schools in believing that the mind and body were not separate faculties. He believed that this could be scientifically shown.
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Galen combined his observations of his dissections with Plato's theory about the soul. Plato believed that the body and the soul were separate entities, rivaling the Stoics. Plato proclaimed that the soul is immortal, so it must exist before one is born, beyond the human body. This influenced Galen's
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Galen believed each part of this tripartite soul controlled specific functions within the body and that the soul, as a whole, contributed to the health of the body, strengthening the "natural functioning capacity of the organ or organs in question". The rational soul controlled higher level cognitive
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Through his vivisection practices, Galen also proved that the voice was controlled by the brain. One of the most famous experiments that he recreated in public was the squealing pig: Galen would cut open a pig, and while it was squealing he would tie off the recurrent laryngeal nerve, or vocal cords,
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believes that over half the population of the empire perished. J. F. Gilliam believes that the
Antonine plague probably caused more deaths than any other epidemic during the empire before the mid-3rd century. Although Galen's description is incomplete, it is sufficient to enable a firm identification
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in the 4th century, preserved and disseminated Galen's works, making them more accessible. Nutton refers to these authors as the "medical refrigerators of antiquity". In late antiquity, medical writing veered increasingly in the direction of the theoretical at the expense of the practical, with many
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The Stoics, according to Galen, failed to give a credible answer for the localization of functions of the psyche, or the mind. Through his use of medicine, he was convinced that he came up with a better answer, the brain. The Stoics only recognized the soul as having one part, which was the rational
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2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of
Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), Francisco Javier González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and
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2004 "The edition of Lyon of the "Opera omnia' by
Galenus of the printer Jean Frellon (1548–1551) commented by Michael Servetus", Francisco Javier González Echeverría and Ancín Chandía, Teresa. In: Medicine in the presence of the new millennium: a historical perspective. Coordinators: José Martínez
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2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of
Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the
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that flowed in the veins. Galen, however, staunchly defended venesection in his three books on the subject and in his demonstrations and public disputations. Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century in Europe. In the middle of the 16th century,
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covered the victim's entire body and was usually black. The exanthem became rough and scabby where there was no ulceration. He states that those who were going to survive developed a black exanthem. According to Galen, it was black because of a remnant of blood putrefied in a fever blister that was
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Various attempts have been made to classify Galen's vast output. For instance Coxe (1846) lists a
Prolegomena, or introductory books, followed by 7 classes of treatise embracing Physiology (28 vols.), Hygiene (12), Aetiology (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4), and Therapeutics
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Galen was also a skilled surgeon, operating on human patients. Many of his procedures and techniques would not be used again for centuries, such as the procedures he performed on brains and eyes. His surgical experiments included ligating the arteries of living animals. Although many 20th-century
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as "windows into the body". Only five deaths among the gladiators occurred while he held the post, compared to sixty in his predecessor's time, a result that is in general ascribed to the attention he paid to their wounds. At the same time he pursued studies in theoretical medicine and philosophy.
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was largely influenced by previous works of philosophers Plato and
Aristotle, as well as from the physician Hippocrates. He was one of the first people to use experiments as a method of research for his medical findings. Doing so allowed him to explore various parts of the body and its functions.
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was named after Marcus
Aurelius' family name of Antoninus. It was also known as the Plague of Galen and held an important place in medicinal history because of its association with Galen. He had first-hand knowledge of the disease, and was present in Rome when it first struck in 166, and was also
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However, Eudemus warned Galen that engaging in conflict with these physicians could lead to his assassination. "Eudemus said this, and more to the same effect; he added that if they were not able to harm me by unscrupulous conduct they would proceed to attempts at poisoning. Among other things he
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Galen was well known for his advancements in medicine and the circulatory system, but he was also concerned with philosophy. He developed his own tripartite soul model following the examples of Plato; some scholars refer to him as a
Platonist. Galen developed a theory of personality based on his
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In order to unite his theories about the soul and how it operated within the body, he adapted the theory of the pneuma, which he used to explain how the soul operated within its assigned organs, and how those organs, in turn, interacted together. Galen then distinguished the vital pneuma, in the
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described. Galen describes symptoms of the alimentary tract via a patient's diarrhea and stools. If the stool was very black, the patient died. He says that the amount of black stools varied. It depended on the severity of the intestinal lesions. He observes that in cases where the stool was not
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represents a complex middle ground between the extremes of those two viewpoints. Many of his works have been preserved and/or translated from the original Greek, although many were destroyed and some credited to him are believed to be spurious. Although there is some debate over the date of his
882:. He was also able to describe the nerves that emerge from the spine, which is integral to his research about the nervous system. Galen went on to be the first physician to study what happens when the spinal cord is transected on multiple different levels. He worked with pigs and studied their
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Galen summarized and synthesized the work of his predecessors, and it is in Galen's words (Galenism) that Greek medicine was handed down to subsequent generations, such that Galenism became the means by which Greek medicine was known to the world. Often, this was in the form of restating and
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Galen was the physician to Commodus for much of the emperor's life and treated his common illnesses. According to Dio Cassius 72.14.3–4, in about 189, under Commodus' reign, a pestilence occurred which at its height killed 2,000 people a day in Rome. This was most likely the same plague (the
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on humans were practised in Alexandria at this time, Galen did not have Imperial permission to perform his own, and had to use animals instead. Galen would encourage his students to go look at dead gladiators or bodies that washed up in order to get better acquainted with the human body. His
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began to be interested in Greek scientific and medical texts for the first time, and had some of Galen's texts translated into Arabic, often by Syrian Christian scholars (see below). As a result, some texts of Galen exist only in Arabic translation, while others exist only in medieval Latin
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between 1821 and 1833. This collection consists of 122 of Galen's treatises, translated from the original Greek into Latin (the text is presented in both languages). Over 20,000 pages in length, it is divided into 22 volumes, with 676 index pages. Many of Galen's works are included in the
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to write down his words. Galen may have written as many as 500 treatises, amounting to some 10 million words. Although his surviving works amount to some 3 million words, this is thought to represent less than a third of his complete writings. In 191, or more likely in 192, a fire in the
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Galen's work on animals led to some inaccuracies, most notably his anatomy of the uterus which largely resembled a dog's. Though incorrect in his studies of human reproduction and reproductive anatomy, he came very close to identifying the ovaries as analogous to the male testes.
711:(which may, however, be spurious) to events of 204. There are also statements in Arabic sources that he died in Sicily at age 87, after 17 years studying medicine and 70 practicing it, which would mean he died about 216. According to these sources, the tomb of Galenus in
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After the collapse of the Western Empire the study of Galen and other Greek works almost disappeared in the Latin West. In contrast, in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman empire (Byzantium), many commentators of the subsequent centuries, such as
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himself and in so doing won the favor of the High Priest of Asia. Over his four years there, he learned the importance of diet, fitness, hygiene, and preventive measures, as well as living anatomy, and the treatment of fractures and severe trauma, referring to their
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went so far as to refer to Christ as a second and neglected Galen. Galen continued to exert an important influence over the theory and practice of medicine until the mid-17th century in the Byzantine and Arabic worlds and Europe. A few centuries after Galen,
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Because Galen's works were not translated into Latin in the ancient period, and because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of Galen, along with the Greek medical tradition as a whole, went into decline in Western Europe during the
622:) in the Mediterranean world, broke out, and the emperor summoned Galen back to Rome. He was ordered to accompany Marcus and Verus to Germany as the court physician. The following spring Marcus was persuaded to release Galen after receiving a report that
595:. Galen retaliated against his detractors by defending his own methods. Garcia-Ballester quotes Galen as saying: "In order to diagnose, one must observe and reason." This was the basis of his criticism of the doctors who proceeded alogos and askeptos."
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appearing in London in 1523. Debates on medical science now had two traditions, the more conservative Arabian and the liberal Greek. The more extreme liberal movements began to challenge the role of authority in medicine, as exemplified by
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2002 " Michael Servetus in the 'Opera Omnia' of Galenus of 1548–1551 printed by Jean Frellon", González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. Book of communications, XII National Congress on History of Medicine., Albacete, 7–9 of February, pp.
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of all time. In India many Hindu physicians studied Persian and Urdu languages and learnt Galenic medicine. This trend of studies among Hindu physicians began in the 17th century and lasted until the early 20th century (Speziale 2018).
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In his time, Galen's reputation as both physician and philosopher was legendary, the emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among doctors and unique among philosophers
464:. His father had planned a traditional career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary and philosophical influences. However, Galen states that in around 145 his father had a dream in which the god
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was amongst those who translated both Hippocrates and Galen from Arabic. In addition to the more numerous translations of Arabic texts in this period, there were a few translations of Galenic works directly from the Greek, such as
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424:, an architect and builder, with eclectic interests including philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture and literature. Galen describes his father as a "highly amiable, just, good and benevolent man". At that time
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Pérez, Isabel Porras Gallo, Pedro Samblás Tilve, Mercedes Del Cura González, Minutes from the XII Congress in History of Medicine, 7–9 February 2002, Albacete. Ed. Of the University of Castilla-La Mancha. Cuenca, pp. 645–657.
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he took aspects from each group and combined them with his original thought. He regarded medicine as an interdisciplinary field that was best practiced by utilizing theory, observation, and experimentation in conjunction.
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Galen continued to work and write in his final years, finishing treatises on drugs and remedies as well as his compendium of diagnostics and therapeutics, which would have much influence as a medical text both in the
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King, D. Brett (2009). The Roman Period and the Middle Ages. In King, D. B., Viney, W., Woody, W. D. (Eds.) A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context (4th ed., pp. 70–71) Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education,
1536:, who describes rudimentary blood circulation in his writings but still asserts that the left ventricle should contain air. Some cited these changes as proof that human anatomy had changed since the time of Galen.
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Boudon-Millot V (ed. and trans.) Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe Paris: Les Belles Lettres. 2007, lxxvii–lxxx
1685:. "Michel De Villeneuve" had contracts with Jean Frellon for that work, and the Servetus scholar-researcher Francisco Javier González Echeverría presented research that became an accepted communication in the
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Kotrc RF, Walters KR. "A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic". Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979
1295:. So strong was Galenism that other authors such as Hippocrates began to be seen through Galen's eyes, while his opponents became marginalised and other medical sects such as Asclepiadism slowly disappeared.
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Galen's father died in 148, leaving Galen independently wealthy at the age of 19. He then followed the advice he found in Hippocrates' teaching and traveled and studied widely including such destinations as
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Kotrc RF, Walters KR. A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic. Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979
1644:" (1553) with only three copies of the book surviving, but these remained hidden for decades; the rest were burned shortly after its publication because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities.
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Galen's interest in human anatomy ran afoul of Roman law that prohibited the dissection of human cadavers since roughly 150 BC. Because of this restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living
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in 162 and made his mark as a practicing physician. His public demonstrations and impatience with alternative views on medicine brought him into conflict with other doctors practicing in the city. When the
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Although the main focus of his work was on medicine, anatomy, and physiology, Galen also wrote about logic and philosophy. His writings were influenced by earlier Greek and Roman thinkers, including
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The most important translator of Galen's works into Latin was Niccolò di Deoprepio da Reggio, who spent several years working on Galen. Niccolò worked at the Angevin Court during the reign of king
934:, sought to demonstrate the unity of the two subjects and their views. Using their theories, combined with Aristotle's, Galen developed a tripartite soul consisting of similar aspects. He used the
258:, a wealthy Greek architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in the ancient city of
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historians have claimed that Galen believed the lens to be in the exact center of the eye, Galen actually understood that the crystalline lens is located in the anterior aspect of the human eye.
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translations of the Arabic. In some cases scholars have even attempted to translate from the Latin or Arabic back into Greek where the original is lost. For some of the ancient sources, such as
3114:'Tragically, the prohibition of human dissection by Rome in 150 BC arrested this progress and few of their findings survived', Arthur Aufderheide, 'The Scientific Study of Mummies' (2003), p. 5
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Another convincing case where understanding of the body was extended beyond where Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of the nature of human circulation and the subsequent work of
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primum Andrea Vesalem..Post hunc, Michael Villanovanus familiariter milhi in consectionibus adhibitus est, vir in omni genere litterarum ornatissimus in Galenic doctrina, vix illi secundus..
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Galen also rejected Stoic propositional logic and instead embraced a hypothetical syllogistic which was strongly influenced by the Peripatetics and based on elements of Aristotelian logic.
1558:(1453), were accompanied by an influx of Greek scholars and manuscripts to the West, allowing direct comparison between the Arabic commentaries and the original Greek texts of Galen. This
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in the 16th century. In the 1530s, the Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius' most famous work,
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challenged the anatomical knowledge of Galen by conducting dissections on human cadavers. These investigations allowed Vesalius to refute aspects of Galen's theories regarding anatomy.
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at the university in the 16th century, is an unknown medical document of Galen or an unknown commentary on his work. The medical text describes the phenomenon of "hysterical apnea".
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Galen was also a pioneer in research about the human spine. His dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations that helped him accurately describe the human spine,
840:. He believed that blood originated in the liver, which follows the teachings of Hippocrates. The liver converted nutrients gathered from ingested food into blood to be used in the
723:
has erroneously interpreted the 70 years of Galen's career in the Arabic tradition as referring to his whole lifespan. Boudon-Millot more or less concurs and favors a date of 216.
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pustular. His writings state that raised blisters were present in the Antonine plague, usually in the form of a blistery rash. Galen states that the skin rash was close to the one
630:. It was here in court that Galen wrote extensively on medical subjects. Ironically, Lucius Verus died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius himself died in 180, both victims of the plague.
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3936:"Rosen RM. Review of Vivian Nutton (ed.) Galen. On My Own Opinions. Corpus Medicorum Graecorum 5.3.2 Galeni De Proprius Placentis. Bryn Mawr Classical Review August 24 2000"
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Since no contemporary depictions or descriptions of Galen are known to have existed, later artists' impressions are unlikely to have reproduced his appearance accurately.
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Mattern SP. Physicians and the Roman Imperial Aristocracy: The Patronage of Therapeutics. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Volume 73, Number 1, Spring 1999, pp. 1–18
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by severing different nerves either totally or partially to see how it affected the body. He even dealt with diseases affecting the spinal cord and nerves. In his work
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Debru A. "Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium", Lille, 16–18 March 1995 Brill, 1997
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understanding of fluid circulation in humans, and he believed that there was a physiological basis for mental disorders. Galen connected many of his theories to the
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was a controversial topic in Galen's lifetime, as there was much debate over if the male was solely responsible for the seed, or if the woman was also responsible.
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2011 September 9th, Francisco González Echeverría VI International Meeting for the History of Medicine, (S-11: Biographies in History of Medicine (I)), Barcelona.
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Brain P (trans.) Galen on Bloodletting: A study of the origins, development, and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works. Cambridge 1986
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1148:, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire. All of the extant Greek manuscripts of Galen were copied by Byzantine scholars. In the Abbasid period (after 750)
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The first edition of Galen's complete works in Latin translation was edited by Diomede Bonardo of Brescia and printed at Venice by Filippo Pinzi in 1490.
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Galen's approach to medicine became and remains influential in the Islamic world. The first major translator of Galen into Arabic was the Arab Christian
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anatomical reports remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work
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Galenism's final defeat came from a combination of the negativism of Paracelsus and the constructivism of the Italian Renaissance anatomists, such as
707:
lexicon states that Galen died at the age of 70, which would place his death in about the year 199. However, there is a reference in Galen's treatise
4920:
Galen on Sense Perception, His Doctrines, Observations and Experiments on Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch and Pain, and Their Historical Sources
4230:
6077:
6047:
5483:
5457:(Commentary on Hippocrates' On the Nature of Man; On the Natural Faculties; Exhortation to Study the Arts: To Menodotus; On Diagnosis from Dreams)
1589:. Nevertheless, Galen's pre-eminence amongst the great thinkers of the millennium is exemplified by a 16th-century mural in the refectory of the
5433:
6107:
1498:
1331:
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philosophers, to whom Galen was exposed at age 14. His studies also took in each of the principal philosophical systems of the time, including
2047:
Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium, Lille, 16–18 March 1995
1411:(AD 865–925), continue to be the source of discovery of new or relatively inaccessible Galenic writings. One of Hunayn's Arabic translations,
946:
arterial system, from the psychic pneuma, in the brain and nervous system. Galen placed the vital pneuma in the heart and the psychic pneuma (
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5201:
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4691:
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4615:
4599:
3874:
3826:
2698:
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2213:
2189:
2098:
1314:. From then on, Galen and the Greek medical tradition in general became assimilated into the medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.
5533:
5022:
4376:
1667:
1513:. From that time, Galenism took on a new, unquestioned authority, Galen even being referred to as the "Medical Pope of the Middle Ages".
1208:
5338:
5326:
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5480:
Medicorum graecorum opera quae exstant, editionem curavit D. Carolus Gottlob Kühn, Lipsiae prostat in officina libraria Car. Cnoblochii
5461:
4514:
3445:
954:, Galen argued that the perfect suitability of each part of the body to its function indicated the role of an intelligent creator. His
6072:
4607:
Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe
2055:
1724:
Galenic scholarship remains an intense and vibrant field, following renewed interest in his work, dating from the German encyclopedia
808:. Galen believed that the anatomical structures of these animals closely mirrored those of humans. Galen clarified the anatomy of the
309:. However, when he discovered that their facial expressions were too much like those of humans, he switched to other animals, such as
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5882:
5867:
4852:
3612:
3039:
3012:
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2786:
1906:
1880:
1526:. Galen's works on anatomy and medicine became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum, alongside Ibn Sina's
2660:
4558:
4332:
Joanna Carraway Vitiello, "Forensic Evidence, Lay Witnesses and Medical Expertise in the Criminal Courts of Late Medieval Italy",
3410:
Pasipoularides, Ares (2014). "Galen, father of systematic medicine. An essay on the evolution of modern medicine and cardiology".
791:
634:
so-called "Antonine Plague" and most likely smallpox) that struck Rome during Marcus Aurelius' reign. Galen was also physician to
6097:
5887:
5291:
5090:
International Conference Scientiae 2014: Disciplines of knowing in the Early Modern World, Scientiae International Research Group
1183:
4045:"Nutton V. From Galen to Alexander, aspects of medicine and medical practice in late antiquity. Dunbarton Oaks Papers. 38, 1984"
6005:
5526:
5441:
5379:
1894:
Galen on bloodletting: a study of the origins, development, and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works
1469:, now closely identified with Islamic culture, and widely practiced from India (where it is officially recognized) to Morocco.
5417:
5098:
Introduction Générale, Sur L'ordre de ses Propres Livres, Sur ses Propres Livres, Que L'excellent Médecin est Aussi Philosophe
1048:
soul and they claimed it would be found in the heart. Galen, following Plato's idea, came up with two more parts to the soul.
5877:
5437:
4875:
Nutton V. "Roman Medicine, 250 BC to AD 200, and Medicine in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages", in Lawrence C.(ed.)
3652:
2890:
R. J. Littman and M. L. Littman, 1973 Galen and the Antonine Plague, The American Journal of Philology 94 no. 3, pp. 243–255
1446:
led to new results and new observations, which were contrasted and combined with those of Galen by writers such as al-Rāzi,
274:, where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several
3935:
1087:, discussed how to approach and treat psychological problems. This was Galen's early attempt at what would later be called
6132:
5663:
5085:
Ancient medicine, humanistic medicine: the Renaissance commentaries of Galen, transmission and transformation of knowledge
2077:
Rocca, Julius (2003). "Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century AD".
1408:
1178:
5283:
4139:
2285:
Siraisi, Nancy G., (1991) Girolamo Cardano and the Art of Medical Narrative, Journal of the History of Ideas. pp. 587–88.
328:, where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations. Galen's theory of the physiology of the
270:), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in
6057:
4654:
1868:
5367:
5345:
4770:. "Aus Galens Praxis. Neue Jahrbücher für das Klassische Altertum", Geschichte und Deutsche Literatur 15: 276–312, 1905
4051:
3346:"The heart exhibits right to left communication between the fibres of the muscular part of the interventricular septum"
2233:
6137:
6062:
6037:
5723:
1733:
Copies of his works translated by Robert M. Green are held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.
1655:
816:
generates the voice. In one experiment, Galen used bellows to inflate the lungs of a dead animal. Galen's research on
476:
Following his earlier liberal education, Galen at age 16 began his studies at the prestigious local healing temple or
6127:
5872:
5857:
5498:
1898:
1851:
691:
533:
320:
1473:
was influenced by Galen, whom he cited most often in his medical works, and whom he considered to be the greatest
6117:
5852:
5778:
2742:
1502:
1200:
935:
5391:
1543:. Among Niccolò's translations is a piece from a medical treatise by Galen, of which the original text is lost.
1318:
is said to have translated 36 of Galen's works into Syriac, some of which were later translated into Arabic by
1105:
5950:
5862:
5549:
5354:
4773:
4545:"Selected works of Galen / translated by Robert Montraville Green for Sidney Licht [c. 1953] 1951–1979"
1254:
642:
on keeping a supply of drugs for their friends and mentioned three cases in which they had been of use in 198.
554:
421:
3297:"Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey: Discovery of the cardiovascular system"
4079:
Encyclopaedia of Philosophical and Natural Sciences as Taught in Baghdad about A.D. 817, or Book of Treasures
3345:
2045:
1160:
Even in his own time, forgeries and unscrupulous editions of his work were a problem, prompting him to write
856:
in the carotid sinus. Both of these theories of the circulation of blood were later (beginning with works of
5892:
5768:
5613:
4991:
Medicine and Philosophy in Classical Antiquity: Doctors and Philosophers on Nature, Soul, Health and Disease
3132:. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press/Wellcome Historical Medical Museum. pp. 195–207.
1633:
1514:
1451:
1447:
1336:
1019:
Several schools of thought existed within the medical field during Galen's lifetime, the main two being the
5633:
5618:
4227:
4223:
2297:
Physiology of the Soul. Mind, Body and Matter in the Galenic Tradition of the Late Renaissance (1550-1630)
1555:
1540:
1510:
1350:
1246:
1141:
1115:
Galen may have produced more work than any author in antiquity, rivaling the quantity of work issued from
975:
879:
31:
1065:
5783:
5758:
5469:
1528:
1459:
1381:
1263:
1129:
485:
354:
2765:
Ustun C. Galen and his anatomic eponym: Vein of Galen. Clinical Anatomy Volume 17 Issue 6 454–457, 2004
1302:(Byzantium) ruled Syria and western Mesopotamia, regions that were conquered in the 7th century by the
1228:
5453:
4712:
2460:
Physiology of the Soul: Mind, Body and Matter in the Galenic Tradition of Late Renaissance (1550-1630)
2206:
At the Crossroads of Greco-Roman History, Culture, and Religion: Papers in Memory of Carin M. C. Green
5748:
5743:
5728:
5598:
2958:
2588:
1705:
1632:. One of the best known examples of Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was his demonstration that the
1563:
1299:
1190:
1145:
836:(bright) blood. In addition to these discoveries, Galen postulated much more about the nature of the
1204:, a digital library of Greek literature started in 1972. Another useful modern source is the French
760:
At first reluctantly but then with increasing vigor, Galen promoted Hippocratic teaching, including
677:
black, the black exanthema appeared. Galen describes the symptoms of fever, vomiting, fetid breath,
6122:
6032:
6027:
5773:
5668:
5214:, Leiden – Boston, E. J. Brill, Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science. Texts and Studies, 2018.
4908:
Peterson DW. "Observations on the chronology of the Galenic Corpus". Bull Hist Med 51(3): 484, 1977
1775:
1770:
1737:
1586:
1279:
1007:. Galen was concerned to combine philosophical thought with medical practice, as in his brief work
907:
576:
493:
437:
4683:
Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment
3629:"Mapping the Soul in the Instrumental Body: Galen on the Functions of the Parts of the Human Body"
1298:
Greek medicine was part of Greek culture, and Syrian Christians came in contact with it while the
5793:
5708:
5693:
5673:
5603:
5570:
5154:
Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century A.D.
5070:
5046:
4756:
4421:
4294:
4205:
4121:
3977:
3969:
3844:
3776:
3698:
3326:
2982:
2643:
2557:
2514:
2151:
1950:
1829:
1572:
1434:, the works of Galen were not accepted unquestioningly, but as a challengeable basis for further
1288:
1233:
1116:
849:
841:
837:
825:
738:
695:
572:
329:
294:
5412:
4161:
Reflections Chairman's (2004). "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting".
5407:
5083:
1716:
as a remedy for many ailments, however, remained influential until well into the 19th century.
5902:
5839:
5814:
5763:
5703:
5638:
5275:
5215:
5197:
4996:
4971:
4890:
4861:
4839:
4821:
4803:
4785:
4729:
4715:
4687:
4671:
4645:
4632:
4611:
4595:
4413:
4302:
4286:
4197:
4113:
3870:
3832:
3822:
3768:
3690:
3608:
3427:
3375:
3367:
3318:
3246:
3088:
3035:
3008:
2974:
2916:
2910:
2782:
2694:
2635:
2549:
2464:
2405:
2351:
2300:
2247:
2209:
2185:
2143:
2104:
2094:
2051:
1942:
1902:
1876:
1749:
1629:
1533:
1519:
1506:
1435:
1205:
1137:
1120:
980:
750:
635:
406:
5060:
5036:
3264:
3029:
1872:
1846:
749:: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Galen promoted this theory and the typology of
618:, a great plague, most likely one the first appearances of smallpox (then referred to as the
5973:
5940:
5698:
5683:
5648:
5575:
5310:
5301:
4870:
4748:
4511:
4405:
4278:
4189:
4105:
3994:
3961:
3760:
3682:
3600:
3575:
3527:
3489:
3419:
3357:
3308:
3236:
3228:
3164:
3156:
3078:
3068:
2966:
2776:
2627:
2596:
2541:
2506:
2341:
2333:
2229:
2184:, Cambridge Companions to Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–33,
2135:
2086:
1988:
1980:
1934:
1893:
1821:
1808:
S. Alexandru (2021). "Critical Remarks on Codices in which Galen Appears as a Member of the
1701:
1690:
1647:
1470:
1393:
1376:
1370:
1362:
1319:
903:
875:
780:
584:
489:
360:
Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise titled
325:
220:
173:
5450:
Digital Version of the Manuscript at the Saxon State and University Library, Dresden (SLUB)
5170:
Edited by E. Sanders, C. Carey and N. Lowe, 111–127. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2204:
Dean-Jones, Lesley (2018). "Galen and the Culture of Dissection". In Bell, Sinclair (ed.).
301:
medical science for more than 1,300 years. His anatomical reports were based mainly on the
5981:
5930:
5915:
5910:
5828:
5718:
5713:
5386:
5374:
5349:
5321:
5287:
5105:
alen and Galenism. Theory and Medical Practice from Antiquity to the European Renaissance.
4767:
4696:
4518:
4234:
3730:
1682:
1670:
1404:
1341:
1307:
1212:
1119:. So profuse was Galen's output that the surviving texts represent nearly half of all the
745:
theory, differences in human moods come as a consequence of imbalances in one of the four
651:
619:
603:
457:
365:
306:
298:
224:
5005:
4077:
1505:
school of thought, and were soon incorporated into the curriculum at the universities of
5246:
Greek Medicine, Being Extracts Illustrative of Medical Writers from Hippocrates to Galen
4604:
3185:
2962:
2592:
1640:). However, this had been revealed two years before by Michael Servetus in his fateful "
6087:
5986:
5920:
5821:
5653:
5565:
5557:
5359:
5244:
4578:
3241:
3216:
3169:
3144:
3125:
3083:
3056:
2970:
2346:
2321:
1993:
1968:
1745:
1709:
1621:
1567:
1466:
1100:
845:
774:
559:
369:
155:
4858:
Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. Brill, 1980
4193:
4000:
The Writings of Hippocrates and Galen. Epitomised from the Original Latin translations
2832:
Luis Garcia-Ballester, 2002, Galen and Galenism, Burlington: Ashgate-Variorum, p. 1663
2810:
Luis Garcia-Ballester, 2002, Galen and Galenism, Burlington: Ashgate-Variorum, p. 1641
2801:
Gleason, M. Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome. Princeton 1995
2600:
6021:
5935:
5678:
5658:
5643:
5504:
4927:
Galen on Psychology, Psychopathology, and Function and Diseases of the Nervous System
4625:
4502:
Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations. pp. 194–204
3981:
3780:
3531:
3313:
3296:
2691:
Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. Brill 1980
1969:"Galen on the affected parts. Translation from the Greek text with explanatory notes"
1833:
1753:
1598:
1315:
1258:
1088:
895:
853:
626:
was against the project. He was left behind to act as physician to the imperial heir
513:
275:
163:
4425:
4209:
3330:
2647:
2561:
2337:
2155:
1954:
1458:(Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr, and Ibn al-Nafis. For example, Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of the
1140:, when very few Latin scholars could read Greek. However, in general, Galen and the
737:
Galen contributed a substantial amount to the understanding of pathology. Under the
4955:
4739:
Houston, George W. (2003). "Galen, His Books, and the Horrea Piperataria at Rome".
3646:
3642:
1713:
1663:
1559:
1431:
1149:
915:
883:
857:
829:
769:
765:
761:
607:
567:
417:
340:
271:
255:
240:
201:
5418:
Taylor HO. Greek Biology and Medicine 1922: Chapter 5 – "The Final System: Galen"
4988:
4968:: Second Edition. XI The High Empire A.D. 70–192 Cambridge University Press, 2000
4964:
4932:
4899:
4882:
4857:
4680:
4663:
4641:
3865:
3764:
3604:
3423:
2690:
2458:
1287:
authors merely debating Galenism. Magnus of Nisibis was a pure theorist, as were
1266:
stated in his commentary on Hippocrates that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped.
289:: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm, as first advanced by the author of
17:
5807:
5493:
3952:
Nutton, Vivian (7 March 1990). "The Patient's Choice: A New Treatise by Galen".
2243:
1654:' fellow student and the best Galenist at the University of Paris, according to
1590:
1585:' symbolically burning the works of Avicenna and Galen at his medical school in
1465:
The influence of Galen's writings, including humorism, remains strong in modern
1165:
1024:
955:
899:
891:
871:
801:
525:
497:
373:
314:
227:, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including
3579:
3160:
2899:
Amari, M. Biblioteca Arabo-sicula, 2nd vol., Loscher, Turin, Rome, pp. 503–504.
2371:"That the best physician is also a philosopher" with a Modern Greek Translation
1306:. After 750, these Syrian Christians made the first translations of Galen into
5753:
5280:
4922:. Karger, Basel 1970 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars)
4871:
Muhaqqiq M. Medical Sects in Islam. al-Tawhid Islamic Journal, vol. VIII, No.2
4409:
4298:
4266:
3965:
3836:
3232:
2631:
2545:
2139:
1984:
1938:
1825:
1765:
1678:
1582:
1443:
1439:
1173:
1154:
1020:
1004:
963:
817:
746:
673:
656:
611:
588:
484:, or attendant) for four years. There he came under the influence of men like
477:
441:
302:
232:
216:
135:
74:
5468:
by the galenist Michael de Villanueva, and also the first description of the
5447:
4290:
4117:
4067:
Temkin O. Studies on late Alexandrian medicine. Bull Hist Med 3: 405–30, 1935
3772:
3694:
3686:
3493:
3371:
2978:
2710:
5847:
5623:
5590:
5489:
5403:
Lienhard JH. Engines of our Ingenuity, Number 2097 – Constantine the African
5342:
5317:
5065:
5041:
4487:
New Discoveries on the biography of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus)
2615:
1625:
1606:
1474:
1275:
1250:
996:
828:. He was the first to recognize that there are distinct differences between
668:
639:
623:
592:
583:
in his treatment of Eudemus. This practice conflicted with the then-current
580:
465:
461:
453:
445:
244:
236:
208:
5518:
5156:
Studies in Ancient Medicine 26. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.
4417:
4396:
Cosans C (1997). "Galen's Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy".
4306:
3816:
3431:
3379:
3322:
3092:
2639:
2553:
2532:
Cosans C (1997). "Galen's Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy".
2409:
2355:
2147:
2108:
1946:
1172:(17), in addition to 4 of aphorisms, and spurious works. The most complete
5438:
BIUM (Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Paris)
4699:
Shock and Awe: The Performance Dimension of Galen's Anatomy Demonstrations
4521:
Website with a study on the Opera Omnia of Galen, by Michael de Villanueva
4377:"The Latin Editions of Galen's Opera omnia (1490–1625) and Their Prefaces"
3480:
Gill C (2007). "Galen and the Stoics: Mortal Enemies or Blood Brothers?".
3250:
2090:
5925:
5733:
5688:
5271:
3362:
3073:
1674:
1651:
1613:
1594:
1455:
1427:
1000:
959:
732:
661:
627:
615:
509:
449:
425:
286:
282:
259:
131:
70:
5514:
The Galen Syriac Palimpsest – On the Mixtures and Powers of Simple Drugs
5402:
4201:
2986:
2946:
1245:). Other contemporary authors in the Greek world confirm this including
5963:
5580:
5397:
The Empire's Physician: Prosperity, Plague, and Healing in Ancient Rome
5196:. Cambridge Galen Translations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5161:
Writing Science: Medical and Mathematical Authorship in Ancient Greece.
4760:
4657:
Galen (AD 129–200) of Pergamun: anatomist and experimental physiologist
4228:
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/unanitibb.aspx
4180:
Al-Dabbagh S. A. (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation".
4125:
4093:
3702:
3670:
3628:
1741:
1658:, who taught both. In the Galenism of the Renaissance, editions of the
1650:, using the name "Michel de Villeneuve" during his stay in France, was
1194:
985:
809:
805:
712:
678:
537:
521:
429:
263:
228:
212:
127:
79:
5294:
with links to digitized editions, manuscripts and modern translations.
4915:, Basel 1968 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars)
4491:
New discoverys on the work of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus)
4439:
Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations. Note 481 (.."
3973:
2576:
2518:
5958:
5738:
5628:
5166:
Rosen, Ralph M. 2013. "Galen, Plato, and the Physiology of Eros." In
4620:
4544:
3917:
2378:
2374:
2322:"Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age"
1311:
1124:
1123:
from ancient Greece. It has been reported that Galen employed twenty
1041:
1037:
833:
813:
742:
542:
529:
505:
433:
267:
205:
83:
5182:
Die römische Gesellschaft bei Galen. Biographie und Sozialgeschichte
4752:
4147:
4109:
3818:
Bleed, blister, puke, and purge : America's medical middle ages
2251:
1132:
destroyed many of his works, in particular treatises on philosophy.
715:
was still well preserved in the tenth century. Nutton believes that
440:, second only to that in Alexandria, as well as being the site of a
5126:
Galen's Method of Healing: Proceedings of the 1982 Galen Symposium.
4282:
3057:"A medieval fallacy: the crystalline lens in the center of the eye"
2510:
1693:) is the author of the commentaries of this edition of Frellon, in
1384:
on horseback, questioning a patient who has received a snake bite.
772:, who predicted dire outcomes, believing that it was not blood but
53:
4076:
Translated works listed in Alphonse Mingana (ed.); Job of Edessa,
3593:
Dennis Sepper (2015). "Animal Spirits". In Nolan, Lawrence (ed.).
3193:
2393:
2239:
1602:
1485:
1426:
by al-Rāzi implies, as well as the writings of physicians such as
1369:
1335:
1303:
1227:
1104:
992:
979:
824:
Among Galen's major contributions to medicine was his work on the
790:
553:
517:
372:
medical sects, and his use of direct observation, dissection, and
248:
5422:
405:) 'calm'. Galen's Latin name (Aelius or Claudius) implies he had
5334:
4835:
4817:
4799:
4781:
3130:
Galen on anatomical procedures: De anatomicis administrationibus
1925:
Nutton Vivian (1973). "The Chronology of Galen's Early Career".
1694:
703:
468:
appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine.
5522:
5117:
Gill, Christopher, Tim Whitmarsh, and John Wilkins, eds. 2012.
614:. During the autumn of 169 when Roman troops were returning to
5107:
Collected Studies Series 710. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum.
4929:
1973 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars)
3055:
Leffler CT, Hadi TM, Udupa A, Schwartz SG, Schwartz D (2016).
2124:"The Fatal Embrace: Galen and the History of Ancient Medicine"
1176:
of Galen's writings, surpassing even modern projects like the
719:
is genuine, that the Arabic sources are correct, and that the
436:) was a major cultural and intellectual centre, noted for its
310:
188:
4713:
Hankinson RJ (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Galen. CUP 2008
2369:
Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1992). Odysseas Hatzopoulos (ed.).
396:
386:
285:
was principally influenced by the then-current theory of the
5396:
4701:. Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics January 2007
4659:. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003 Sep;88(5):F441–443.
4321:
The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West
4094:"Socializing Medicine: Illustrations of the Kitāb al-diryāq"
1493:(c. 1550), Galen's treatise on the pulse, in Greek and Latin
5513:
3265:"BBC – History – Historic Figures: Galen (c. 130 – c. 210)"
878:. Galen also played a major role in the discoveries of the
768:, then unknown in Rome. This was sharply criticized by the
182:
4980:
4952:. Marshall Jones 1922. Chapter 5: The Final System – Galen
4707:
Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome
1164:. Forgeries in Latin, Arabic or Greek continued until the
3396:, Princeton University Press, and Bylebyl, J (ed), 1979,
795:
An interpretation of Galen's human "physiological system"
179:
5454:
Hypertexts – Medicina Antiqua, University College London
5413:
Pearcy L. Galen: A biographical sketch. Medicina Antiqua
4904:
1913. Plain Label Books 1987. Chapter II: Greek Medicine
3866:
Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction
2429:
Brian, P., 1977, "Galen on the ideal of the physician",
27:
Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher (129 – c. 216)
3566:
Hankinson R. J. (1991). "Galen's anatomy of the soul".
1291:
and Agnellus of Ravenna with their lectures on Galen's
219:. Considered to be one of the most accomplished of all
5380:
University of Virginia: Health Sciences Library. Galen
5212:
Culture persane et médecine ayurvédique an Asie du Sud
3188:. In Nicolao Regio Calabro (Nicolaus Rheginus) (ed.).
2381:: Odysseas Hatzopoulos & Company: Kaktos Editions.
1727:
Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft
1157:, Galen's account of their work is all that survives.
638:
during his reign in Rome. He complimented Severus and
364:. Galen was very interested in the debate between the
5159:
Rosen, Ralph M. 2013. "Galen on Poetic Testimony" In
4935:
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
4012:
Nutton V. "Galen in the eyes of his contemporaries".
2071:
2069:
2067:
1636:
of the heart was not permeable, as Galen had taught (
1366:, 1225–1250, Syria. Vienna AF 10, Syria. Vienna AF 10
5408:
Nutton V. Galen of Pergamum, Encyclopædia Britannica
5399:, NYU's Institute for the Study of the Ancient World
4836:
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences
4818:
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences
4800:
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences
4782:
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences
4621:
Boylen M. Galen. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4255:
Moshe Halbertal, Maimonides: Life and Thought, p 71.
3186:"De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII, cap. IV"
1417:
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences
1355:
377:
death, he was no younger than seventy when he died.
185:
5972:
5949:
5901:
5838:
5792:
5589:
5556:
5186:
Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte
2577:"The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology"
681:, cough, and ulceration of the larynx and trachea.
176:
123:
91:
63:
39:
5243:
5140:The Prince of Medicine: Galen In the Roman Empire.
4959:Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy
3747:Marechal, Patricia; Mathesis Publications (2019).
3733:,'Peripatetic Hypothetical Syllogistic in Galen',
1865:Life, death, and entertainment in the Roman Empire
5259:. R.J. Hankinson, trans. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
4267:"Medicine, 1450–1620, and the History of Science"
3561:
3446:"Galen: A Pioneer of Spine Research : Spine"
2176:Hankinson, R. J. (2008), Hankinson, R. J. (ed.),
1712:. Some Galenic teaching, such as his emphasis on
1687:International Society for the History of Medicine
1662:by Galen were very important, beginning from the
5163:Edited by M. Asper, 177–189. Berlin: De Gruyter.
4629:Galenos, Die verbrannte Bibliothek: Peri Alypias
4365:. London: H. K. Lewis & Co. Ltd. p. 19.
3559:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3518:Lloyd G (2007). "Pneuma between body and soul".
3217:"Artificial respiration, the history of an idea"
2861:20 no. 59, Cambridge University Press, pp. 60–71
1380:was allegedly based on the work of Galen. Here,
5124:Kudlien, Fridolf, and Richard J Durling. 1991.
4592:The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy
3947:
3945:
3124:Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1956). translated by
1576:including Galen in the Latin scientific canon,
1085:On the Diagnosis and Cure of the Soul's Passion
416:. He was born in September 129 AD. His father,
5505:Digital edition: Galeni septima Classis (1550)
4726:Cause and explanation in ancient Greek thought
3599:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 26–28.
3520:Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute
2711:"Galen | Biography, Achievements, & Facts"
1867:. David Stone Potter, D. J. Mattingly (1999).
1689:, which concluded that Michael De Villeneuve (
1462:contradicted the Galenic theory on the heart.
958:was anticipated by the anatomical examples of
5534:
3918:"Galen – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"
2208:. Archaeopress Publishing. pp. 229–248.
2032:Introduction. Galen. On the Natural Faculties
1748:on both sides, which is in the collection of
1009:That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher
606:and his then co-Emperor and adoptive brother
362:That the Best Physician Is Also a Philosopher
8:
4877:The Western Medical Tradition: 800–1800 A.D.
3513:
3511:
3509:
3507:
3505:
3503:
3149:Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine
2998:
2996:
2859:Galen and His Environment, Greece & Rome
2845:, London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., p. 212.
2823:, London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., p. 207.
2581:Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
1597:. It depicts pagan sages at the foot of the
1144:continued to be studied and followed in the
4346:Jones, Raymond F. (1963). "The Anatomist".
4039:
4037:
4035:
4033:
4031:
4002:. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1846
3716:
3714:
3712:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3400:, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
3196:: ex officina Simonis Colinaei. p. 339
2853:
2851:
1781:Timeline of medicine and medical technology
1501:began to appear in the West, alongside the
1499:Latin translations of Islamic medical texts
1232:A group of physicians in an image from the
1206:Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine
58:An 18th-century engraving by Georg P. Busch
5541:
5527:
5519:
5425:Includes alphabetical list of Latin Titles
3849:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2886:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2686:
2684:
2276:, Berkeley: University of California Press
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
952:On the usefulness of the parts of the body
812:and was the first to demonstrate that the
558:Galen dissecting a monkey, as imagined by
532:, and finally the great medical school of
52:
36:
5355:Works by Galen at Perseus Digital Library
4913:Galen's System of Physiology and Medicine
3361:
3312:
3240:
3190:De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII
3168:
3143:Claudii Galeni Pergameni (October 1956).
3082:
3072:
2485:Three Treatises on the Nature of Science,
2345:
1992:
984:Modern statue of Galen in his home town,
932:On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato
890:, Galen explained the difference between
602:Rome was engaged in foreign wars in 161;
353:), in which he reported his discovery of
350:Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon
297:. Galen's views dominated and influenced
3888:"Philip van der Eijk: Translating Galen"
3800:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3792:
3790:
2761:
2759:
2026:
2024:
1189:, is the one compiled and translated by
5509:University and State Library Düsseldorf
5423:Galenus von Pergamon – Leben und Werk.
4961:. Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1973
4778:Jawami Kitab Al-Nabd Al-Saghir by Galen
4747:. University of Michigan Press: 45–51.
4741:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome
4334:Medicine and the Law in the Middle Ages
3904:
2497:De Lacy P (1972). "Galen's Platonism".
2452:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2274:Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1791:
1044:' definition of and use of the pneuma.
902:, and explained the difference between
804:) and dead animals, mostly focusing on
5135:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5133:Methods and Problems in Greek Science.
3842:
2663:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
2394:"Medical ethics in a writing of Galen"
1332:Medicine in the medieval Islamic world
5448:Galeni opera varia – Mscr.Dresd.Db.93
5392:Channel 4 – History – Ancient surgery
5177:Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.
5121:Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
4594:. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
4559:"Mystery of the Basel papyrus solved"
3863:James E. McClellan III; Harold Dorn.
3664:
3662:
3394:Galen On Respiration and the Arteries
3301:Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis
3290:
3288:
3286:
3284:
2235:De humani corporis Fabrica, Libri VII
2171:
2169:
2167:
2165:
281:Galen's understanding of anatomy and
7:
5368:Gerhard Fichtner, Galen bibliography
5114:New York: Columbia University Press.
4082:(W. Hefer & Sons, 1935), p. xix.
3215:A. Barrington Baker (October 1971).
2872:Galen the Physician as Physiognomist
1415:, which is extant in the Library of
1413:Kitab ila Aglooqan fi Shifa al Amrad
1179:Corpus Medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum
1083:Another one of Galen's major works,
575:philosopher Eudemus became ill with
5472:in his Manuscript of Paris in 1546.
5339:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
5327:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4685:. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
4025:George of Pisida. Hexameron 1.1588f
3412:International Journal of Cardiology
2874:, American Philological Association
1740:discovered that a mysterious Greek
1566:movement, particularly the work of
1345:
345:Sharh tashrih al-qanun li' Ibn Sina
6103:Ancient Greek philosophers of mind
5307:Works by or about Claudius Galenus
5188:, Bd. 65) Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003
5142:New York: Oxford University Press.
4993:. Cambridge University Press, 2005
4943:Galen and the Logic of Proposition
4668:. Cambridge University Press, 1994
3749:"Galen's Constitutive Materialism"
2971:10.1038/scientificamerican0357-105
412:Galen describes his early life in
25:
5883:Medical community of ancient Rome
5868:Food and diet in ancient medicine
5119:Galen and the World of Knowledge.
4728:. Oxford University Press, 1998,
4610:Paris: Les Belles Lettres. 2007,
4605:Boudon-Millot V (ed. and trans.)
4577:The works of Galen are listed in
4398:Journal of the History of Biology
3184:Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1528).
2534:Journal of the History of Biology
162:; September 129 – 216 AD), often
6000:
5999:
5888:Nutrition in classical antiquity
5229:London: Oxford University Press.
5100:Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2007.
4902:The Evolution of Modern Medicine
4830:Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.).
4812:Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.).
4794:Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.).
4246:T. M. Rudavsky, Maimonides, p 6.
3532:10.1111/j.1467-9655.2007.00409.x
3392:Furley, D, and J. Wilkie, 1984,
3314:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x
3145:"Galen on Anatomical Procedures"
2392:Theodore J. Drizis (Fall 2008).
2182:The Cambridge Companion to Galen
2030:Arthur John Brock (translator),
172:
5149:London and New York: Routledge.
5112:Renaissance Concepts of Method.
5103:Garcia Ballester, Luis. 2002. G
4796:Kitab fi Firaq al Tibb by Galen
4547:. National Library of Medicine.
4454:Encyclopedia of the Black Death
3596:The Cambridge Descartes Lexicon
2915:. Routledge. pp. 226–227.
2735:"Hippocrates Collected Works I"
2483:Frede, M. and R. Walzer, 1985,
2338:10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008
1497:From the 11th century onwards,
1236:; Galen is depicted top center.
1142:ancient Greek medical tradition
610:were in the north fighting the
6078:3rd-century Greek philosophers
6048:2nd-century Greek philosophers
5878:Mental illness in ancient Rome
2945:Kilgour, Frederick G. (1957).
1897:". Peter Brain, Galen (1986).
1403:) 129 works of "Jalinos" into
1:
6108:Ancient Greek science writers
5227:Galen On Jews and Christians.
5082:Bacalexi, Dina (April 2014).
5010:. Harper & brothers, 1884
4966:The Cambridge Ancient History
4363:The Dawn of Humanism in Italy
4194:10.1016/s0140-6736(78)90318-5
3821:. San Francisco. p. 51.
2601:10.1016/s0039-3681(96)00005-2
2499:American Journal of Philology
2326:Journal of Applied Physiology
1409:Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi
1397:
861:
660:of the disease as related to
414:On the affections of the mind
333:
102:
95:
6083:3rd-century Roman physicians
6068:3rd-century Greek physicians
6053:2nd-century Roman physicians
6043:2nd-century Greek physicians
5464:Website with a study on the
5071:Resources in other libraries
5047:Resources in other libraries
3869:. JHU Press; 14 April 2006.
3765:10.5840/ancientphil201939110
3605:10.1017/CBO9780511894695.011
3424:10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.12.166
2667:, on Perseus Digital Library
2431:South Africa Medical Journal
2079:Studies in Ancient Medicine
1869:University of Michigan Press
1556:fall of the Byzantine Empire
930:One of Galen's major works,
332:remained unchallenged until
247:, as well as philosophy and
5724:Quintus Gargilius Martialis
5242:Brock, Arthur John (1929).
4348:Stories of Great Physicians
3653:Christ's College, Cambridge
2775:Galen; Grant, Mark (2018).
2299:. Brepols. pp. 21–40.
1656:Johann Winter von Andernach
1578:De Naturalibus Facultatibus
1356:
1278:, physician to the emperor
898:, discussed the concept of
395:) comes from the adjective
6154:
5873:Gynecology in ancient Rome
5858:Disability in ancient Rome
5476:Claudii Galeni opera omnia
5440:, see its digital library
5362:Corpus Medicorum Graecorum
5292:Corpus Medicorum Graecorum
4950:Greek Biology And Medicine
4534:Cambridge University Press
4381:Early Science and Medicine
4350:. Whitman. pp. 46–47.
4265:Siraisi, Nancy G. (2012).
3815:Younker, J. Marin (2018).
3671:"Plato's View of the Soul"
3580:10.1163/156852891321052787
3398:William Harvey and His Age
3161:10.1177/003591575604901017
2870:Elizabeth C. Evans, 1956,
2457:Bigotti, Fabrizio (2019).
2295:Bigotti, Fabrizio (2019).
1899:Cambridge University Press
1852:Collins English Dictionary
1618:De humani corporis fabrica
1407:. Arabic sources, such as
1329:
1098:
1063:
973:
730:
448:. The city attracted both
397:
387:
321:De humani corporis fabrica
29:
6073:3rd-century Greek writers
5995:
5853:Dentistry in ancient Rome
5462:Michael Servetus Research
5257:On the Therapeutic Method
5194:Galen: Writings on Health
5066:Resources in your library
5042:Resources in your library
5008:Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
4982:Thesaurus Linguae Graecae
4631:. Marix, Wiesbaden 2015,
4512:Michael Servetus Research
3966:10.1017/s000983880002694x
3669:Roberts, Eric J. (1905).
3295:Aird, W. C. (July 2011).
3233:10.1017/s0025727300016896
3034:. CRC Press. p. 91.
2841:Arthur John Brock, 1929,
2819:Arthur John Brock, 1929,
2791:– via Google Books.
2632:10.1007/s00415-007-0625-5
2140:10.1017/S0269889705000384
2060:– via Google Books.
1985:10.1017/s0025727300037935
1939:10.1017/S0009838800036600
1826:10.1163/1568525x-12342720
1706:Fabricio of Acquapendente
1601:, with Galen between the
1554:The Renaissance, and the
1201:Thesaurus Linguae Graecae
867:) shown to be incorrect.
159:
141:
116:
51:
46:
6113:Ancient ophthalmologists
6093:Ancient Greek anatomists
5863:Disease in Imperial Rome
5550:Medicine in ancient Rome
5180:Schlange-Schöningen, H.
5138:Mattern, Susan P. 2013.
5110:Gilbert, N. Ward. 1960.
4814:Kitab al Anasir by Galen
4774:Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman
4456:, ABC-CLIO, 2012, p. 231
4092:Pancaroǧlu, Oya (2001).
3494:10.1163/156852807X177977
2677:Galen and roman medicine
1720:Contemporary scholarship
1642:Christianismi restitutio
1255:Alexander of Aphrodisias
1031:Opposition to the Stoics
926:Localization of function
313:. While dissections and
6098:Ancient Greek logicians
5893:Surgery in ancient Rome
5614:Asclepiades of Bithynia
5360:Online Editions by the
5298:Works by or about Galen
5225:Walzer, Richard. 1949.
4945:, Rome, Angelicum, 1940
4832:Kitab al Mizaj of Galen
4410:10.1023/A:1004266427468
4361:Weiss, Roberto (1947).
3954:The Classical Quarterly
3344:Kuusela, P. J. (2014).
3028:Lois N. Magner (1992).
2715:Encyclopedia Britannica
2665:A Greek–English Lexicon
2546:10.1023/a:1004266427468
2044:Debru, Armelle (1997).
1634:interventricular septum
1515:Constantine the African
1452:Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi
1448:Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi
1438:. A strong emphasis on
1264:Palladius Iatrosophista
1257:. The 7th-century poet
1247:Theodotus the Shoemaker
5619:Aulus Cornelius Celsus
5192:Singer, R. N. (2023).
5173:Sarton, George. 1954.
5145:Nutton, Vivian. 2004.
5131:Lloyd, G. E. R. 1991.
4561:. University of Basel.
4532:Galen on Bloodletting,
4224:Science Museum, London
4016:58(3) fall 1984 315–24
3687:10.1093/mind/XIV.3.371
3061:Clinical Ophthalmology
3005:Galen on Food and Diet
2778:Galen on Food and Diet
2178:"The man and his work"
1494:
1389:
1367:
1237:
1112:
988:
976:Philosophy of medicine
880:central nervous system
796:
563:
32:Galen (disambiguation)
5759:Charmis of Marseilles
5470:pulmonary circulation
5152:Rocca, Julius. 2003.
4849:December;1(4):256–304
4237:accessed 29 Nov 2015.
3894:on December 19, 2013.
3805:December;1(4):256–304
3126:Charles Joseph Singer
3031:A History of Medicine
2857:D.E. Eichholz, 1951,
2487:Indianapolis: Hacket.
2091:10.1163/9789047401438
1529:The Canon of Medicine
1489:
1460:pulmonary circulation
1382:Andromachus the Elder
1373:
1339:
1330:Further information:
1231:
1108:
1064:Further information:
983:
794:
731:Further information:
667:Galen notes that the
557:
486:Aeschrion of Pergamon
355:pulmonary circulation
6133:People from Pergamon
5749:Crinas of Marseilles
5744:Athenaeus of Attalia
5729:Thessalus of Tralles
5599:Pedanius Dioscorides
5490:Discussion of Galens
5466:Opera Omnia of Galen
5343:Classicsindex: Galen
5210:Speziale, Fabrizio.
4150:on October 12, 2008.
3363:10.5603/FM.2014.0006
3074:10.2147/OPTH.S100708
3007:. Psychology Press.
3003:Grant, Mark (2000).
2781:. Psychology Press.
2620:Journal of Neurology
2398:Acta Med Hist Adriat
1300:Eastern Roman Empire
1146:Eastern Roman Empire
717:"On Theriac to Piso"
709:"On Theriac to Piso"
587:, which relied upon
291:On the Nature of Man
30:For other uses, see
6058:2nd-century writers
5669:Marcellus Empiricus
5128:Leiden: E.J. Brill.
4144:press.princeton.edu
2963:1957SciAm.196c.105K
2951:Scientific American
2909:Nutton, V. (2004).
2614:Todman, D. (2007).
2593:1998SHPSA..29...63C
2320:West, John (1985).
2254:on 1 September 2016
2122:Nutton, V. (2005).
1927:Classical Quarterly
1776:History of medicine
1771:Galenic formulation
1738:University of Basel
1388:, 1198–1199, Syria.
1040:and he opposed the
936:same terms as Plato
646:The Antonine Plague
444:to the healing god
385:Galen's Greek name
343:published his book
221:medical researchers
6138:Philosophy writers
6063:3rd-century deaths
6038:2nd-century births
5794:Medical literature
5709:Serenus Sammonicus
5694:Criton of Heraclea
5674:Caelius Aurelianus
5604:Soranus of Ephesus
5385:2007-12-10 at the
5373:2012-07-12 at the
5348:2008-12-24 at the
5286:2020-10-24 at the
5175:Galen of Pergamon.
5096:Boudon-Millot, V.
4838:, Aligarh, India,
4820:, Aligarh, India;
4802:, Aligarh, India;
4784:, Aligarh, India;
4517:2017-02-21 at the
4375:Stefania Fortuna,
4233:2015-10-10 at the
3753:Ancient Philosophy
3737:2, 2004 pp. 57–102
3648:Socrates vs Darwin
3350:Folia Morphologica
2128:Science in Context
1573:literae humaniores
1522:'s translation of
1495:
1390:
1368:
1289:John of Alexandria
1238:
1234:Vienna Dioscurides
1211:2014-04-21 at the
1117:Augustine of Hippo
1113:
1110:De curandi ratione
989:
888:De motu musculorum
850:respiratory system
842:circulatory system
838:circulatory system
826:circulatory system
797:
751:human temperaments
564:
330:circulatory system
295:Hippocratic corpus
6128:Middle Platonists
6015:
6014:
5815:De materia medica
5764:Scribonius Largus
5704:Marcellus of Side
5639:Antiochis of Tlos
5436:digitized by the
5276:Project Gutenberg
5220:978-90-04-35275-9
5203:978-1-009-15951-7
5147:Ancient Medicine.
5023:Library resources
5001:978-0-521-81800-1
4976:978-0-521-26335-1
4895:978-0-415-08611-0
4887:. Routledge, 2004
4866:978-90-04-06163-7
4844:978-81-906070-3-2
4826:978-81-906070-2-5
4808:978-81-906070-1-8
4790:978-81-901362-7-3
4734:978-0-19-924656-4
4720:978-0-521-81954-1
4692:978-0-521-00761-0
4676:978-0-521-35795-1
4664:Everson S. (ed.)
4650:978-90-04-10403-7
4637:978-3-7374-0962-9
4616:978-2-251-00536-2
4600:978-90-04-35275-9
4530:Brian, P., 1986,
3995:Coxe, John Redman
3907:, pp. 45–47.
3875:978-0-8018-8360-6
3828:978-1-5415-8168-5
2739:daedalus.umkc.edu
2699:978-90-04-06163-7
2616:"Galen (129–199)"
2575:Cosans C (1998).
2470:978-2-503-58161-3
2306:978-2-503-58161-3
2248:Johannes Oporinus
2215:978-1-78969-014-9
2191:978-0-521-81954-1
2100:978-90-47-40143-8
1752:, a professor of
1750:Basilius Amerbach
1671:in Venice in 1525
1630:Mondino de Liuzzi
1534:Mondino de Liuzzi
1524:De complexionibus
1520:Burgundio of Pisa
1396:. He translated (
1354:
1191:Karl Gottlob Kühn
1138:Early Middle Ages
1121:extant literature
1066:Mind–body problem
1060:Mind–body problem
948:spiritus animalis
701:The 11th-century
692:Latin Middle Ages
636:Septimius Severus
496:, and the consul
480:as a θεραπευτής (
472:Medical education
407:Roman citizenship
198:Galen of Pergamon
145:
144:
118:Scientific career
18:Galen of Pergamon
16:(Redirected from
6145:
6118:Court physicians
6003:
6002:
5941:Pneumatic school
5699:Sextus Empiricus
5684:Gessius of Petra
5649:Aurelius Opilius
5576:Spoon of Diocles
5543:
5536:
5529:
5520:
5432:
5331:
5322:Zalta, Edward N.
5311:Internet Archive
5302:Internet Archive
5260:
5251:
5249:
5207:
5093:
4989:van der Eijk P.
4885:Ancient Medicine
4764:
4709:. Princeton 1995
4563:
4562:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4541:
4535:
4528:
4522:
4509:
4503:
4499:
4493:
4483:
4477:
4473:
4467:
4463:
4457:
4450:
4444:
4436:
4430:
4429:
4393:
4387:
4386:(2012): 391–412.
4373:
4367:
4366:
4358:
4352:
4351:
4343:
4337:
4330:
4324:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4262:
4256:
4253:
4247:
4244:
4238:
4220:
4214:
4213:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4158:
4152:
4151:
4146:. Archived from
4136:
4130:
4129:
4089:
4083:
4074:
4068:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4050:. Archived from
4049:
4041:
4026:
4023:
4017:
4010:
4004:
3992:
3986:
3985:
3949:
3940:
3939:
3932:
3926:
3925:
3914:
3908:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3890:. Archived from
3884:
3878:
3861:
3855:
3854:
3848:
3840:
3812:
3806:
3802:
3785:
3784:
3744:
3738:
3728:
3722:
3718:
3707:
3706:
3666:
3657:
3656:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3625:
3619:
3618:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3563:
3536:
3535:
3515:
3498:
3497:
3477:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3407:
3401:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3365:
3341:
3335:
3334:
3316:
3292:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3244:
3212:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3140:
3134:
3133:
3121:
3115:
3112:
3106:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3086:
3076:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3025:
3019:
3018:
3000:
2991:
2990:
2942:
2936:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2912:Ancient Medicine
2906:
2900:
2897:
2891:
2888:
2875:
2868:
2862:
2855:
2846:
2839:
2833:
2830:
2824:
2817:
2811:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2793:
2792:
2772:
2766:
2763:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2741:. Archived from
2731:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2707:
2701:
2688:
2679:
2674:
2668:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2494:
2488:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2454:
2437:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2349:
2332:(6): 1877–1880.
2317:
2311:
2310:
2292:
2286:
2283:
2277:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2250:. Archived from
2230:Andreas Vesalius
2226:
2220:
2219:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2173:
2160:
2159:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2085:. Brill: 1–313.
2073:
2062:
2061:
2041:
2035:
2034:. Edinburgh 1916
2028:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1979:(2): 212. 1977.
1965:
1959:
1958:
1922:
1909:
1889:
1883:
1862:
1856:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1805:
1799:
1796:
1702:Andrea Cesalpino
1691:Michael Servetus
1648:Michael Servetus
1541:Robert of Naples
1422:As the title of
1402:
1399:
1394:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
1386:Kitab al-Dariyak
1377:Kitab al-Dariyak
1363:Kitab al-Dariyak
1359:
1349:
1347:
1320:Hunain ibn Ishaq
1259:George of Pisida
1187:
1162:On His Own Books
1073:Quod animi mores
876:vertebral column
866:
863:
781:Andreas Vesalius
585:standard of care
490:Aelius Aristides
420:, was a wealthy
400:
399:
390:
389:
338:
335:
326:Andreas Vesalius
195:
194:
191:
190:
187:
184:
181:
178:
161:
160:Κλαύδιος Γαληνός
152:Claudius Galenus
107:
104:
100:
97:
56:
47:Κλαύδιος Γαληνός
37:
21:
6153:
6152:
6148:
6147:
6146:
6144:
6143:
6142:
6018:
6017:
6016:
6011:
5991:
5982:Antonine Plague
5968:
5945:
5931:Methodic school
5916:Eclectic school
5911:Dogmatic school
5897:
5834:
5829:Medicina Plinii
5788:
5719:Aemilia Hilaria
5714:Sextus Placitus
5585:
5552:
5547:
5482:, 1821–1833 in
5430:
5387:Wayback Machine
5375:Wayback Machine
5350:Wayback Machine
5315:
5288:Wayback Machine
5268:
5263:
5254:
5250:. London: Dent.
5241:
5237:
5235:Primary sources
5232:
5204:
5191:
5081:
5077:
5076:
5075:
5052:
5051:
5031:
5030:
5026:
5019:
5017:Further reading
5014:
4937:. J Walton 1849
4768:Johannes Ilberg
4753:10.2307/4238804
4738:
4724:Hankinson R.J.
4571:
4566:
4557:
4556:
4552:
4543:
4542:
4538:
4529:
4525:
4519:Wayback Machine
4510:
4506:
4500:
4496:
4484:
4480:
4474:
4470:
4464:
4460:
4451:
4447:
4437:
4433:
4395:
4394:
4390:
4374:
4370:
4360:
4359:
4355:
4345:
4344:
4340:
4331:
4327:
4318:
4314:
4264:
4263:
4259:
4254:
4250:
4245:
4241:
4235:Wayback Machine
4221:
4217:
4179:
4178:
4174:
4160:
4159:
4155:
4138:
4137:
4133:
4110:10.2307/1523306
4091:
4090:
4086:
4075:
4071:
4066:
4062:
4054:
4047:
4043:
4042:
4029:
4024:
4020:
4011:
4007:
3993:
3989:
3951:
3950:
3943:
3934:
3933:
3929:
3922:www.iep.utm.edu
3916:
3915:
3911:
3903:
3899:
3886:
3885:
3881:
3862:
3858:
3841:
3829:
3814:
3813:
3809:
3803:
3788:
3746:
3745:
3741:
3731:Susanne Bobzien
3729:
3725:
3719:
3710:
3681:(55): 371–389.
3668:
3667:
3660:
3641:
3640:
3636:
3627:
3626:
3622:
3615:
3592:
3591:
3587:
3565:
3564:
3539:
3517:
3516:
3501:
3479:
3478:
3463:
3454:
3452:
3444:
3443:
3439:
3409:
3408:
3404:
3391:
3387:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3294:
3293:
3282:
3273:
3271:
3263:
3262:
3258:
3221:Medical History
3214:
3213:
3209:
3199:
3197:
3183:
3182:
3178:
3142:
3141:
3137:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3100:
3067:(10): 649–662.
3054:
3053:
3049:
3042:
3027:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3002:
3001:
2994:
2944:
2943:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2923:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2878:
2869:
2865:
2856:
2849:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2827:
2818:
2814:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2789:
2774:
2773:
2769:
2764:
2757:
2748:
2746:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2719:
2717:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2671:
2659:
2655:
2613:
2612:
2608:
2574:
2573:
2569:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2496:
2495:
2491:
2482:
2478:
2471:
2456:
2455:
2440:
2428:
2424:
2414:
2412:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2280:
2271:
2267:
2257:
2255:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2216:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2175:
2174:
2163:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2101:
2076:
2074:
2065:
2058:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2029:
2002:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1924:
1923:
1912:
1890:
1886:
1863:
1859:
1845:
1841:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1762:
1722:
1683:Janus Cornarius
1668:editio princeps
1622:Jacobus Sylvius
1549:
1484:
1440:experimentation
1424:Doubts on Galen
1400:
1334:
1328:
1282:who compiled a
1226:
1221:
1213:Wayback Machine
1181:
1130:Temple of Peace
1103:
1097:
1095:Published works
1081:
1068:
1062:
1057:
1033:
978:
972:
928:
864:
789:
735:
729:
687:
652:Antonine Plague
648:
620:Antonine Plague
604:Marcus Aurelius
552:
498:Cuspius Rufinus
474:
383:
336:
175:
171:
134:
130:
112:
109:
105:
98:
87:
77:
68:
59:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6151:
6149:
6141:
6140:
6135:
6130:
6125:
6120:
6115:
6110:
6105:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6040:
6035:
6030:
6020:
6019:
6013:
6012:
6010:
6009:
5996:
5993:
5992:
5990:
5989:
5987:Cyprian Plague
5984:
5978:
5976:
5970:
5969:
5967:
5966:
5961:
5955:
5953:
5947:
5946:
5944:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5921:Empiric school
5918:
5913:
5907:
5905:
5899:
5898:
5896:
5895:
5890:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5844:
5842:
5836:
5835:
5833:
5832:
5825:
5822:Galenic Corpus
5818:
5811:
5804:
5798:
5796:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5761:
5756:
5751:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5696:
5691:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5654:Meges of Sidon
5651:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5611:
5606:
5601:
5595:
5593:
5587:
5586:
5584:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5566:Cimolian earth
5562:
5560:
5554:
5553:
5548:
5546:
5545:
5538:
5531:
5523:
5517:
5516:
5511:
5502:
5487:
5473:
5459:
5451:
5445:
5434:Galien's works
5428:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5394:
5389:
5377:
5365:
5357:
5352:
5332:
5316:Singer, P. N.
5313:
5304:
5295:
5281:Works by Galen
5278:
5272:Works by Galen
5267:
5266:External links
5264:
5262:
5261:
5255:Galen (1991).
5252:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5230:
5223:
5208:
5202:
5189:
5178:
5171:
5164:
5157:
5150:
5143:
5136:
5129:
5122:
5115:
5108:
5101:
5094:
5092:. Vienna: HAL.
5078:
5074:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5057:
5053:
5050:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5033:
5032:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5012:
5003:
4986:
4978:
4962:
4953:
4946:
4939:
4930:
4923:
4916:
4909:
4906:
4897:
4880:
4873:
4868:
4855:
4850:
4846:
4828:
4810:
4792:
4771:
4765:
4736:
4722:
4710:
4703:
4694:
4678:
4661:
4652:
4639:
4623:
4618:
4602:
4590:Algra K (ed.)
4587:
4586:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4579:Galenic corpus
4570:
4567:
4565:
4564:
4550:
4536:
4523:
4504:
4494:
4478:
4468:
4458:
4445:
4443:" Audrey, Jean
4431:
4388:
4368:
4353:
4338:
4325:
4319:Toby E. Huff,
4312:
4299:10.1086/667970
4283:10.1086/667970
4277:(3): 491–514.
4257:
4248:
4239:
4215:
4188:(8074): 1148.
4172:
4153:
4131:
4084:
4069:
4060:
4057:on 2008-12-16.
4027:
4018:
4005:
3987:
3960:(1): 236–257.
3941:
3927:
3909:
3897:
3879:
3856:
3827:
3807:
3786:
3759:(1): 191–209.
3739:
3723:
3708:
3658:
3634:
3620:
3613:
3585:
3574:(2): 197–233.
3537:
3499:
3461:
3437:
3402:
3385:
3336:
3280:
3256:
3227:(4): 336–351.
3207:
3176:
3135:
3116:
3107:
3098:
3047:
3040:
3020:
3013:
2992:
2957:(3): 105–117.
2937:
2928:
2921:
2901:
2892:
2876:
2863:
2847:
2843:Greek Medicine
2834:
2825:
2821:Greek Medicine
2812:
2803:
2794:
2787:
2767:
2755:
2726:
2702:
2680:
2669:
2653:
2626:(7): 975–976.
2606:
2567:
2524:
2511:10.2307/292898
2489:
2476:
2469:
2438:
2433:, 52: 936–938
2422:
2404:(2): 333–336.
2384:
2361:
2312:
2305:
2287:
2278:
2272:O'Malley, C.,
2265:
2221:
2214:
2196:
2190:
2161:
2134:(1): 111–121.
2114:
2099:
2063:
2057:978-9004104037
2056:
2036:
2000:
1960:
1933:(1): 158–171.
1910:
1884:
1857:
1839:
1820:(4): 553–597.
1800:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1761:
1758:
1746:mirror writing
1721:
1718:
1710:William Harvey
1638:Nat Fac III xv
1548:
1545:
1483:
1480:
1467:Unani medicine
1401: 830–870
1327:
1326:Medieval Islam
1324:
1225:
1224:Late antiquity
1222:
1220:
1217:
1101:Galenic corpus
1099:Main article:
1096:
1093:
1080:
1077:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1032:
1029:
971:
968:
927:
924:
896:sensory nerves
846:nervous system
788:
785:
779:the anatomist
770:Erasistrateans
728:
725:
696:Medieval Islam
686:
683:
647:
644:
566:Galen went to
560:Veloso Salgado
551:
548:
492:, the sophist
473:
470:
382:
379:
148:Aelius Galenus
143:
142:
139:
138:
125:
121:
120:
114:
113:
110:
93:
89:
88:
69:
65:
61:
60:
57:
49:
48:
44:
43:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6150:
6139:
6136:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6025:
6023:
6008:
6007:
5998:
5997:
5994:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5979:
5977:
5975:
5971:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5956:
5954:
5952:
5948:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5936:Miasma theory
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5908:
5906:
5904:
5900:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5846:
5845:
5843:
5841:
5837:
5831:
5830:
5826:
5824:
5823:
5819:
5817:
5816:
5812:
5810:
5809:
5805:
5803:
5800:
5799:
5797:
5795:
5791:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5750:
5747:
5745:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5697:
5695:
5692:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5682:
5680:
5679:Cassius Felix
5677:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5659:Sextius Niger
5657:
5655:
5652:
5650:
5647:
5645:
5644:Antonius Musa
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5596:
5594:
5592:
5588:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5563:
5561:
5559:
5555:
5551:
5544:
5539:
5537:
5532:
5530:
5525:
5524:
5521:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5500:
5496:'s programme
5495:
5491:
5488:
5485:
5481:
5477:
5474:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5452:
5449:
5446:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5429:
5427:
5426:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5384:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5372:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5363:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5347:
5344:
5340:
5337:entry in the
5336:
5333:
5329:
5328:
5323:
5319:
5314:
5312:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5299:
5296:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5273:
5270:
5269:
5265:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5247:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5228:
5224:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5199:
5195:
5190:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5176:
5172:
5169:
5165:
5162:
5158:
5155:
5151:
5148:
5144:
5141:
5137:
5134:
5130:
5127:
5123:
5120:
5116:
5113:
5109:
5106:
5102:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5086:
5080:
5079:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5058:
5056:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5016:
5011:
5009:
5004:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4992:
4987:
4985:
4983:
4979:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4967:
4963:
4960:
4957:
4954:
4951:
4947:
4944:
4941:Stakelum JW,
4940:
4938:
4936:
4931:
4928:
4924:
4921:
4917:
4914:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4903:
4898:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4886:
4881:
4878:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4847:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4827:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4772:
4769:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4737:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4721:
4717:
4714:
4711:
4708:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4695:
4693:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4679:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4667:
4662:
4660:
4658:
4653:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4634:
4630:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4608:
4603:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4588:
4582:
4580:
4575:
4574:
4573:
4572:
4568:
4560:
4554:
4551:
4546:
4540:
4537:
4533:
4527:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4513:
4508:
4505:
4498:
4495:
4492:
4488:
4482:
4479:
4472:
4469:
4462:
4459:
4455:
4452:J. P. Byrne,
4449:
4446:
4442:
4435:
4432:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4392:
4389:
4385:
4382:
4378:
4372:
4369:
4364:
4357:
4354:
4349:
4342:
4339:
4335:
4329:
4326:
4322:
4316:
4313:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4261:
4258:
4252:
4249:
4243:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4219:
4216:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4176:
4173:
4168:
4164:
4157:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4135:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4088:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4073:
4070:
4064:
4061:
4053:
4046:
4040:
4038:
4036:
4034:
4032:
4028:
4022:
4019:
4015:
4009:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3988:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3948:
3946:
3942:
3937:
3931:
3928:
3923:
3919:
3913:
3910:
3906:
3901:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3883:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3867:
3860:
3857:
3852:
3846:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3824:
3820:
3819:
3811:
3808:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3791:
3787:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3743:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3727:
3724:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3665:
3663:
3659:
3654:
3650:
3649:
3644:
3638:
3635:
3630:
3624:
3621:
3616:
3614:9780521193528
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3597:
3589:
3586:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3538:
3533:
3529:
3526:: S135–S146.
3525:
3521:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3495:
3491:
3488:(1): 88–120.
3487:
3483:
3476:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3451:
3447:
3441:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3406:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3389:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3340:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3281:
3270:
3269:www.bbc.co.uk
3266:
3260:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3211:
3208:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3177:
3171:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3139:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3120:
3117:
3111:
3108:
3102:
3099:
3094:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3051:
3048:
3043:
3041:9780824786731
3037:
3033:
3032:
3024:
3021:
3016:
3014:9780415232333
3010:
3006:
2999:
2997:
2993:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2938:
2932:
2929:
2924:
2922:9781134884568
2918:
2914:
2913:
2905:
2902:
2896:
2893:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2822:
2816:
2813:
2807:
2804:
2798:
2795:
2790:
2788:9780415232333
2784:
2780:
2779:
2771:
2768:
2762:
2760:
2756:
2745:on 2011-09-30
2744:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2727:
2716:
2712:
2706:
2703:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2685:
2681:
2678:
2673:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2654:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2571:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2480:
2477:
2472:
2466:
2462:
2461:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2426:
2423:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2388:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2316:
2313:
2308:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2288:
2282:
2279:
2275:
2269:
2266:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2236:
2231:
2225:
2222:
2217:
2211:
2207:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2053:
2049:
2048:
2040:
2037:
2033:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1964:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1907:0-521-32085-2
1904:
1900:
1896:
1895:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1881:0-472-08568-9
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1786:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1754:jurisprudence
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1736:In 2018, the
1734:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1599:Tree of Jesse
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1537:
1535:
1531:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1492:
1488:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1378:
1372:
1365:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1316:Job of Edessa
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1271:
1267:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1243:Praen 14: 660
1235:
1230:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1203:
1202:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1133:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1089:psychotherapy
1086:
1079:Psychotherapy
1078:
1076:
1074:
1067:
1059:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
987:
982:
977:
969:
967:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
943:
939:
937:
933:
925:
923:
919:
917:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
868:
859:
855:
854:rete mirabile
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
822:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
793:
786:
784:
782:
777:
776:
771:
767:
763:
758:
754:
752:
748:
747:bodily fluids
744:
740:
734:
726:
724:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
705:
699:
697:
693:
684:
682:
680:
675:
670:
665:
663:
658:
653:
645:
643:
641:
637:
631:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
600:
596:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
577:quartan fever
574:
569:
561:
556:
549:
547:
544:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
501:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
471:
469:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
410:
408:
404:
394:
380:
378:
375:
371:
367:
363:
358:
356:
352:
351:
346:
342:
331:
327:
323:
322:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
262:(present-day
261:
257:
252:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
207:
203:
199:
193:
169:
165:
157:
153:
149:
140:
137:
133:
129:
126:
122:
119:
115:
99: AD 216
94:
90:
85:
81:
76:
72:
66:
62:
55:
50:
45:
38:
33:
19:
6004:
5827:
5820:
5813:
5806:
5801:
5608:
5497:
5484:20 volumines
5479:
5475:
5465:
5456:
5424:
5361:
5325:
5256:
5245:
5226:
5211:
5193:
5185:
5181:
5174:
5167:
5160:
5153:
5146:
5139:
5132:
5125:
5118:
5111:
5104:
5097:
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147:
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5808:De Medicina
5802:Gynaecology
5769:Andromachus
5664:Archagathus
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5494:BBC Radio 4
5431:(in French)
5006:Watson PB.
4948:Taylor HO.
4925:Siegel RE.
4918:Siegel RE.
4911:Siegel RE.
4681:French RK.
4163:Heart Views
4140:"All Books"
4104:: 155–172.
3307:: 118–129.
3155:(10): 833.
2463:. Brepols.
2244:Switzerland
1660:Opera Omnia
1591:Great Lavra
1570:, promoted
1547:Renaissance
1511:Montpellier
1491:De Pulsibus
1482:Middle Ages
1182: [
1166:Renaissance
1021:Empiricists
1005:Pyrrhonists
956:creationism
908:antagonists
900:muscle tone
872:spinal cord
865: 1242
832:(dark) and
802:vivisection
762:venesection
739:Hippocratic
685:Later years
573:Peripatetic
482:therapeutes
374:vivisection
366:rationalist
337: 1242
287:four humors
254:The son of
217:philosopher
6123:Herbalists
6033:216 deaths
6028:129 births
6022:Categories
5754:Damocrates
5634:Philonides
5591:Physicians
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4883:Nutton V.
4336:, 134-135.
4323:, 191–193.
4182:The Lancet
3837:1132383841
3455:2020-12-18
3274:2020-12-18
2749:2009-12-11
2720:2020-12-18
1766:Abascantus
1583:Paracelsus
1471:Maimonides
1444:empiricism
1174:compendium
1155:Herophilus
1055:Psychology
1003:, and the
974:See also:
970:Philosophy
964:Empedocles
860:published
818:physiology
674:Thucydides
657:Otto Seeck
612:Marcomanni
589:divination
534:Alexandria
478:asclepeion
370:empiricist
303:dissection
233:physiology
164:anglicized
136:Philosophy
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5848:Archiater
5784:Herodotus
5624:Oribasius
4956:Temkin O.
4900:Osler W.
4655:Dunn PM.
4291:0021-1753
4118:0732-2992
3982:170328892
3845:cite book
3781:172100654
3773:0740-2007
3695:0026-4423
3568:Phronesis
3482:Phronesis
3372:1644-3284
2979:0036-8733
2050:. Brill.
1849:entry in
1834:225298224
1814:Mnemosyne
1626:Aristotle
1607:Aristotle
1475:physician
1351:romanized
1293:De Sectis
1276:Oribasius
1251:Athenaeus
997:Aristotle
669:exanthema
640:Caracalla
624:Asclepius
593:mysticism
581:prognosis
466:Asclepius
462:Epicurean
446:Asclepius
422:patrician
381:Biography
245:neurology
237:pathology
225:antiquity
209:physician
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6006:Category
5951:Religion
5926:Humorism
5903:Theories
5734:Albucius
5689:Antyllus
5571:Speculum
5383:Archived
5371:Archived
5346:Archived
5284:Archived
5055:By Galen
4834:(2008),
4816:(2008),
4798:(2008),
4780:(2007),
4666:Language
4515:Archived
4426:35323972
4418:11618979
4307:23286188
4231:Archived
4210:43154531
4098:Muqarnas
3877:. p. 92.
3432:24461486
3380:24590522
3331:12092592
3323:21781247
3200:7 August
3093:27114699
2987:24940775
2648:33437522
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2415:7 August
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2258:7 August
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2156:10878807
2148:16075496
2109:12848196
1973:Med Hist
1955:35645790
1947:11624046
1901:. p. 1.
1760:See also
1675:Vesalius
1652:Vesalius
1614:Vesalius
1595:Mt Athos
1564:Humanist
1562:and the
1456:Ibn Sina
1428:Ibn Zuhr
1284:Synopsis
1215:(BIUM).
1209:Archived
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960:Socrates
904:agonists
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662:smallpox
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616:Aquileia
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283:medicine
276:emperors
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132:Medicine
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2959:Bibcode
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2240:Basel
2152:S2CID
1951:S2CID
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1830:S2CID
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