877:. Electrons in the conduction band can respond to the electric field in the detector, and therefore move to the positive contact that is creating the electrical field. The gap created by the moving electron is called a "hole", and is filled by an adjacent electron. This shuffling of holes effectively moves a positive charge to the negative contact. The arrival of the electron at the positive contact and the hole at the negative contact produces the electrical signal that is sent to the preamplifier, the MCA, and on through the system for analysis. The movement of electrons and holes in a solid-state detector is very similar to the movement of ions within the sensitive volume of gas-filled detectors such as
270:
25:
856:
361:
82:
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971:
325:
interaction or pair production, a portion of the energy may escape from the detector volume, without being absorbed. The absorbed energy thus gives rise to a signal that behaves like a signal from a ray of lower energy. This leads to a spectral feature overlapping the regions of lower energy. Using larger detector volumes reduces this effect. More sophisticated methods of reducing this effect include using
944:(Figure 1, the first peak left of the Compton edge), the so-called backscatter peak. The detailed shape of backscatter peak structure is influenced by many factors, such as the geometry of the experiment (source geometry, relative position of source, shielding and detector) or the type of the surrounding material (giving rise to different ratios of the cross sections of Photo- and Compton-effect).
770:
2068:
584:
477:
the energy of the gamma ray and usually shown as percentage. Using the preceding example, the resolution of the detector is 7.5% at 122 keV, and 12.5% at 662 keV. A typical resolution of a coaxial germanium detector is about 2 keV at 1332 keV, yielding a relative resolution of 0.15%.
476:
or MeV) or relative terms. For example, a sodium iodide (NaI) detector may have a FWHM of 9.15 keV at 122 keV, and 82.75 keV at 662 keV. These resolution values are expressed in absolute terms. To express the energy resolution in relative terms, the FWHM in eV or MeV is divided by
1017:
If a gamma spectrometer is used for identifying samples of unknown composition, its energy scale must be calibrated first. Calibration is performed by using the peaks of a known source, such as caesium-137 or cobalt-60. Because the channel number is proportional to energy, the channel scale can then
490:
of the detector. High-efficiency detectors produce spectra in less time than low-efficiency detectors. In general, larger detectors have higher efficiency than smaller detectors, although the shielding properties of the detector material are also important factors. Detector efficiency is measured by
324:
To accurately determine the energy of the gamma ray, it is advantageous if the photoelectric effect occurs, as it absorbs all of the energy of the incident ray. Absorbing all the energy is also possible when a series of these interaction mechanisms take place within the detector volume. With
Compton
506:
The energy of the gamma rays being detected is an important factor in the efficiency of the detector. An efficiency curve can be obtained by plotting the efficiency at various energies. This curve can then be used to determine the efficiency of the detector at energies different from those used to
495:
gamma ray of a specified energy passing through the detector will interact and be detected. Relative efficiency values are often used for germanium detectors, and compare the efficiency of the detector at 1332 keV to that of a 3 in Ă 3 in NaI detector (i.e., 1.2Ă10 cp
494:
Efficiency, like resolution, can be expressed in absolute or relative terms. The same units are used (i.e., percentages); therefore, the spectroscopist must take care to determine which kind of efficiency is being given for the detector. Absolute efficiency values represent the probability that a
460:
by analogy to optical spectroscopy. The width of the peaks is determined by the resolution of the detector, a very important characteristic of gamma spectroscopic detectors, and high resolution enables the spectroscopist to separate two gamma lines that are close to each other. Gamma spectroscopy
439:
ADC, a technique pioneered by Marek
Dolleiser. Specialized computer software performs pulse-height analysis on the digitized waveform, forming a complete MCA. Sound cards have high-speed but low-resolution (up to 192 kHz) ADC chips, allowing for reasonable quality for a low-to-medium count
427:
The MCA can send its data to a computer, which stores, displays, and further analyzes the data. A variety of software packages are available from several manufacturers, and generally include spectrum analysis tools such as energy calibration (converting bins to energies), peak area and net area
518:
use crystals that emit light when gamma rays interact with the atoms in the crystals. The intensity of the light produced is usually proportional to the energy deposited in the crystal by the gamma ray; a well known situation where this relationship fails is the absorption of < 200 keV
579:
Electron hole recombination will emit light that can re-excite pure scintillation crystals; however, the thallium dopant in NaI(Tl) provides energy states within the band gap between the conduction and valence bands. Following excitation in doped scintillation crystals, some electrons in the
899:
Germanium detectors provide significantly improved energy resolution in comparison to sodium iodide detectors, as explained in the preceding discussion of resolution. Germanium detectors produce the highest resolution commonly available today. However, a disadvantage is the requirement of
722:
The spectrum in Figure 1 was measured using a NaI-crystal on a photomultiplier, an amplifier, and a multichannel analyzer. The figure shows the number of counts within the measuring period versus channel number. The spectrum indicates the following peaks (from left to right):
1018:
be converted to an energy scale. If the size of the detector crystal is known, one can also perform an intensity calibration, so that not only the energies but also the intensities of an unknown sourceâor the amount of a certain isotope in the sourceâcan be determined.
416:. Each channel represents a specific range of energy in the spectrum, the number of detected signals for each channel represents the spectral intensity of the radiation in this energy range. By changing the number of channels, it is possible to fine-tune the spectral
925:
processes (e.g. in the housing material of the radioactive source, in shielding material or material otherwise surrounding the experiment) before entering the detector material. This leads to a peak structure that can be seen in the above shown energy spectrum of
193:
A detailed analysis of this spectrum is typically used to determine the identity and quantity of gamma emitters present in a gamma source, and is a vital tool in radiometric assay. The gamma spectrum is characteristic of the gamma-emitting
846:
Because of the poor resolution of NaI-based detectors, they are not suitable for the identification of complicated mixtures of gamma ray-producing materials. Scenarios requiring such analyses require detectors with higher resolution.
472:(FWHM). This is the width of the gamma ray peak at half of the highest point on the peak distribution. Energy resolution figures are given with reference to specified gamma ray energies. Resolution can be expressed in absolute (i.e.,
866:, also called solid-state detectors, are fundamentally different from scintillation detectors: They rely on detection of the charge carriers (electrons and holes) generated in semiconductors by energy deposited by gamma ray photons.
982:
can occur. The resulting positron annihilates with one of the surrounding electrons, typically producing two photons with 511 keV. In a real detector (i.e. a detector of finite size) it is possible that after the annihilation:
954:
Some photons will undergo a
Compton scattering process in e.g. the shielding material or the housing of the source with a scattering angle close to 180° and some of these photons will subsequently be detected by the
189:
Most radioactive sources produce gamma rays, which are of various energies and intensities. When these emissions are detected and analyzed with a spectroscopy system, a gamma-ray energy spectrum can be produced.
485:
Not all gamma rays emitted by the source that pass through the detector will produce a count in the system. The probability that an emitted gamma ray will interact with the detector and produce a count is the
1493:
1299:
465:. In most spectra the horizontal position of the peak is determined by the gamma ray's energy, and the area of the peak is determined by the intensity of the gamma ray and the efficiency of the detector.
273:
Laboratory equipment for determination of Îł-radiation spectrum with a scintillation counter. The output from the scintillation counter goes to a
Multichannel Analyzer which processes and formats the data.
253:) may occur in the continuum spectra observed in astrophysics and elementary particle physics. The difference between gamma rays and X-rays is somewhat blurred. Gamma rays arise from transitions between
839:
caused by changes in environmental temperature will shift the spectrum on the horizontal axis. Peak shifts of tens of channels or more are commonly observed. Such shifts can be prevented by using
580:
conduction band will migrate to the activator states; the downward transitions from the activator states will not re-excite the doped crystal, so the crystal is transparent to this radiation.
527:; a photocathode converts the light into electrons; and then by using dynodes to generate electron cascades through delta ray production, the signal is amplified. Common scintillators include
1887:
305:. Through these processes, the energy of the gamma ray is absorbed and converted into a voltage signal by detecting the energy difference before and after the interaction (or, in a
448:
Gamma spectroscopy systems are selected to take advantage of several performance characteristics. Two of the most important include detector resolution and detector efficiency.
1560:
1524:
792:
748:
The
Compton distribution is a continuous distribution that is present up to channel 150 in Figure 1. The distribution arises because of primary gamma rays undergoing
755:
If many gamma rays are present in a spectrum, Compton distributions can present analysis challenges. To reduce gamma rays, an anticoincidence shield can be usedâ
1778:
974:
Scintillation gamma spectrum of a radioactive Am-Be-source. Visible are the main photopeak of C neutron excitation and the two escape peaks associated with it.
491:
comparing a spectrum from a source of known activity to the count rates in each peak to the count rates expected from the known intensities of each gamma ray.
1711:
1656:
1625:
752:
within the crystal: Depending on the scattering angle, the
Compton electrons have different energies and hence produce pulses in different energy channels.
503:
at 25 cm). Relative efficiency values greater than one hundred percent can therefore be encountered when working with very large germanium detectors.
576:
NaI(Tl) is also convenient to use, making it popular for field applications such as the identification of unknown materials for law enforcement purposes.
1620:
293:
Gamma spectroscopy detectors are passive materials that are able to interact with incoming gamma rays. The most important interaction mechanisms are the
1993:
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1605:
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are the energy-sensitive radiation detector and the electronic devices that analyse the detector output signals, such as a pulse sorter (i.e.,
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1816:
1459:
1646:
1025:), the spectrum should be analyzed when no source is present. The background radiation must then be subtracted from the actual measurement.
1751:
1696:
1374:
Kasani, H.; Ashrafi, S.; Ghal-Eh, N. (July 2021). "High count-rate digital gamma-ray spectroscopy using a low-cost COTS digitizer system".
46:
994:
One of the two photons escapes the detector and only one of the photons deposits its energy in the detector, resulting in a peak with
1326:
Marek works at The
University of Sydney, with third year physics students, and developed PRA as an educational tool for his students.
1978:
1730:
1546:
1129:
1114:
68:
869:
In semiconductor detectors, an electric field is applied to the detector volume. An electron in the semiconductor is fixed in its
1983:
1801:
1522:
Amateur gamma spectrometry of a chunk of a black mold picked in
Minamisoma, close to the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear plant. Japan.
313:). The voltage of the signal produced is proportional to the energy of the detected gamma ray. Common detector materials include
241:, corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with reasonably long lifetimes. Such sources typically produce gamma-ray
1998:
1968:
1899:
1833:
1521:
357:(ADC). In new systems with a very high-sampling-rate ADC, the analog-to-digital conversion can be performed without reshaping.
832:
source that has not been subtracted. A backscatter peak can be seen near channel 150, similar to the second peak in Figure 1.
226:
energy due to their shorter wavelength. Because of this, the energy of gamma-ray photons can be resolved individually, and a
1927:
1718:
1615:
1181:
461:
systems are designed and adjusted to produce symmetrical peaks of the best possible resolution. The peak shape is usually a
285:). Additional components may include signal amplifiers, rate meters, peak position stabilizers, and data handling devices.
261:, which are monoenergetic), or are electrically generated (X-ray tube, linear accelerator) and have a broad energy range.
1725:
1630:
1083:
1073:
1058:
958:
The result is a peak structure with approximately the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the
Compton edge.
546:(BGO). Because photomultipliers are also sensitive to ambient light, scintillators are encased in light-tight coverings.
1859:
1706:
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1332:
2015:
1854:
1823:
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1038:
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828:) The two gamma lines can be seen well-separated; the peak to the left of channel 200 most likely indicates a strong
39:
33:
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energy levels and are monoenergetic, whereas X-rays are either related to transitions between atomic energy levels (
2005:
1947:
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469:
2031:
2010:
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1651:
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Sodium iodide systems, as with all scintillator systems, are sensitive to changes in temperature. Changes in the
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341:
The voltage pulses produced for every gamma ray that interacts within the detector volume are then analyzed by a
211:
50:
2104:
215:
269:
2072:
1355:. International Nuclear Science, Technology & Engineering Conference 2013 (iNuSTEC2013). pp. 50â53.
1904:
1600:
532:
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Gamma rays detected in a spectroscopic system produce peaks in the spectrum. These peaks can also be called
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2109:
2094:
1691:
1351:
Ibrahim, Maslina Mohd; Yussup, Nolida; Lombigit, Lojius; Rahman, Nur Aira Abdul; Jaafar, Zainudin (2014).
1157:
1048:
893:
863:
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436:
278:
227:
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The above Am-Be-source spectrum shows an example of single and double escape peak in a real measurement.
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2060:
1932:
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1088:
836:
462:
342:
306:
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345:(MCA). In the MCA, a pulse-shaping amplifier takes the transient voltage signal and reshapes it into a
89:, showing about a dozen discrete lines superimposed on a smooth continuum, allows one to identify the
1383:
1232:
1022:
978:
For incident photon energies E larger than two times the rest mass of the electron (1.022 MeV),
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294:
258:
199:
1205:
380:. Two discriminators emit a counting signal if their set voltage-level is reached by a pulse. Pulse
2114:
1988:
1701:
1610:
1419:"Design of a Low-Resolution Gamma-ray Spectrometer for Monitoring Radioactive Levels of Wastewater"
758:
728:
698:
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rate. The "sound card spectrometer" has been further refined in amateur and professional circles.
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1973:
1952:
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in the crystal until a gamma ray interaction provides the electron enough energy to move to the
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radiation by intrinsic and doped sodium iodide detectors. The mechanism is similar to that of a
1937:
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1838:
1455:
1248:
1125:
1110:
1063:
889:
543:
330:
1430:
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obtain the curve. High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors typically have higher sensitivity.
175:
81:
1317:
404:. The anti-coincidence counter prevents a pulse from being sorted into more than one region
1528:
979:
905:
874:
524:
310:
1353:
Development of multichannel analyzer using sound card ADC for nuclear spectroscopy system
1274:
1029:
absorbers can be placed around the measurement apparatus to reduce background radiation.
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1236:
1053:
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473:
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shape. From this shape, the signal is then converted into a digital form, using a fast
298:
171:
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1403:
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1244:
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emits a single gamma line of 662 keV. The 662 keV line shown is actually produced by
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314:
302:
254:
970:
921:
In a real detector setup, some photons can and will undergo one or potentially more
1569:
870:
823:
515:
234:
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it produces intense bursts of light compared to other spectroscopic scintillators.
904:
temperatures for the operation of germanium detectors, typically by cooling with
1043:
859:
Germanium gamma spectrum of Co (Cobalt-60); compare with the NaI spectrum above.
734:
657:
615:
350:
202:, the optical spectrum is characteristic of the material contained in a sample.
178:, such as in the nuclear industry, geochemical investigation, and astrophysics.
153:
134:
987:
Both photons deposit their energy in the detector. This results in a peak with
432:
157:
94:
1252:
962:
The backscatter peak usually appears wide and occurs at lower than 250 keV.
901:
885:
583:
550:
500:
318:
769:
237:) commonly emit gamma rays in the energy range from a few keV to ~10
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346:
114:
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can measure and display the energies of the gamma-ray photons detected.
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195:
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86:
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Thallium-doped sodium iodide (NaI(Tl)) has two principal advantages:
496:
246:
223:
219:
569:
It can be produced in large crystals, yielding good efficiency, and
1341:– Cited for early mention of Marek Dolleiser's PRA software.
854:
768:
582:
268:
762:. Gamma ray reduction techniques are especially useful for small
222:, visible light, infrared, radio) but having (in general) higher
1026:
820:, with two gamma rays with 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV respectively. (
1542:
1538:
1333:"NaI Scintillation Probe and Gamma Spectroscopy â PocketMagic"
468:
The most common figure used to express detector resolution is
400:. Pulse 2 is thus counted into the spectral region denoted as
250:
238:
18:
1158:"Scintillation Detector - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
16:
Quantitative study of the energy spectra of gamma-ray sources
1001:
Both photons escape the detector, resulting in a peak with
412:, sorting the pulses by their height into specific bins, or
1533:
1417:
Kim, Sangrok; Kim, Taeyoon; Yang, Hyungjin (1 June 2022).
609:
An example of a NaI spectrum is the gamma spectrum of the
156:. This spectrum was taken from a Uranium ore sample from
1021:
Because some radioactivity is present everywhere (i.e.,
587:
Figure 1: Sodium iodide gamma spectrum of caesium-137 (
744:
a photopeak (full energy peak) at an energy of 662 keV
329:
and employing segmented detectors with add-back (see:
773:
Figure 2: Sodium iodide gamma spectrum of cobalt-60 (
182:, on the other hand, is the method used to acquire a
1534:
On-line gamma-ray energy spectrum conversion utility
1219:
Lee, I Y; Deleplanque, M A; Vetter, K (2003-07-01).
2024:
1961:
1920:
1913:
1875:
1847:
1789:
1739:
1639:
1576:
549:Scintillation detectors can also be used to detect
249:), whereas much higher energies (upwards of 1
1221:"Developments in large gamma-ray detector arrays"
991:, identical to the energy of the incident photon.
1452:Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering
798:The gamma spectrum shown in Figure 2 is of the
364:Pulse-Height Analyzer Principle: Three pulses,
1554:
947:The basic principle, however, is as follows:
884:Common semiconductor-based detectors include
8:
1626:Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules
951:Gamma-ray sources emit photons isotropically
1005:â 2 Ă 511 keV, the double escape peak.
1917:
1621:Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy
1561:
1547:
1539:
1450:Shultis, John K.; Faw, Richard E. (2007).
826:article for the decay scheme of cobalt-60.
408:Additional logic in the MCA then performs
210:Gamma rays are the highest-energy form of
1994:Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy
1674:Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization
1434:
1275:"THE MULTICHANNEL ANALYZER, PHYSICS 359E"
1109:John Wiley & Sons, Chichester: 1995,
428:calculation, and resolution calculation.
198:contained in the source, just like in an
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
1762:Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
1454:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 175.
1182:"Gamma Spectroscopy | nuclear-power.com"
969:
359:
245:(i.e., many photons emitted at discrete
80:
32:This article includes a list of general
1149:
998:â 511 keV, the single escape peak.
317:scintillation counters and high-purity
1124:John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NY:2000,
966:Single escape and double escape peaks
766:-doped germanium (Ge(Li)) detectors.
7:
2067:
1122:Radiation Detection and Measurement.
1013:Calibration and background radiation
1331:Motisan, Radu (November 29, 2010).
265:Components of a gamma spectrometer
85:The gamma-ray spectrum of natural
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
1979:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
1731:Saturated absorption spectroscopy
1396:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2021.109438
1107:Practical Gamma-Ray Spectrometry.
2066:
2055:
2054:
1984:Dual-polarization interferometry
376:are detected at different times
23:
1999:Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
1974:Circular dichroism spectroscopy
1969:Acoustic resonance spectroscopy
1376:Radiation Physics and Chemistry
727:low energy x radiation (due to
214:, being physically the same as
1928:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
1616:Vibrational circular dichroism
1225:Reports on Progress in Physics
912:Interpretation of measurements
538:(NaI(Tl))âoften simplified to
523:. The detectors are joined to
309:, the emitted photons using a
1:
1726:Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
1631:Thermal infrared spectroscopy
1084:Total absorption spectroscopy
1074:Perturbed angular correlation
1059:Liquid scintillation counting
851:Semiconductor-based detectors
737:at the low energy end of the
561:Sodium iodide-based detectors
1860:Inelastic neutron scattering
1921:Data collection, processing
1797:Photoelectron/photoemission
1494:"Compton effect (spectrum)"
1039:Alpha-particle spectroscopy
521:thermoluminescent dosimeter
355:analog-to-digital converter
327:Compton-suppression shields
2131:
2006:Photoacoustic spectroscopy
1948:Time-resolved spectroscopy
1245:10.1088/0034-4885/66/7/201
1139:. Accessed 8 October 2008.
470:full width at half maximum
452:Detector energy resolution
2050:
2032:Astronomical spectroscopy
2011:Photothermal spectroscopy
277:The main components of a
212:electromagnetic radiation
206:Gamma ray characteristics
1322:www.gammaspectacular.com
1137:Gamma Spectrum Generator
1105:Gilmore G, Hemingway J.
2016:Pumpâprobe spectroscopy
1905:Ferromagnetic resonance
1697:Laser-induced breakdown
864:Semiconductor detectors
793:a different measurement
516:Scintillation detectors
511:Scintillation detectors
53:more precise citations.
1712:Glow-discharge optical
1692:Raman optical activity
1606:Rotationalâvibrational
1069:Mössbauer spectroscopy
1049:Gamma ray spectrometer
975:
894:cadmium zinc telluride
860:
795:
606:
437:consumer off-the-shelf
435:can serve as a cheap,
405:
274:
228:gamma-ray spectrometer
186:spectrum measurement.
180:Gamma-ray spectrometry
164:Gamma-ray spectroscopy
160:
1933:Hyperspectral imaging
1476:"Backscattered peaks"
1186:www.nuclear-power.com
1162:www.sciencedirect.com
1089:Scintillation counter
973:
858:
837:operating temperature
772:
586:
463:Gaussian distribution
410:pulse-height analysis
363:
343:multichannel analyzer
307:scintillation counter
283:multichannel analyzer
272:
259:characteristic X rays
84:
1685:Coherent anti-Stokes
1640:UVâVisâNIR "Optical"
1318:"Software Downloads"
1280:. Western University
1023:background radiation
841:spectrum stabilizers
830:background radiation
739:Compton distribution
444:Detector performance
295:photoelectric effect
233:Radioactive nuclei (
200:optical spectrometer
1989:Hadron spectroscopy
1779:Conversion electron
1740:X-ray and Gamma ray
1647:Ultravioletâvisible
1436:10.3390/app12115613
1388:2021RaPC..18409438K
1337:www.pocketmagic.net
1237:2003RPPh...66.1095L
879:ionization chambers
759:Compton suppression
729:internal conversion
699:secular equilibrium
540:sodium iodide (NaI)
481:Detector efficiency
315:sodium iodide (NaI)
2037:Force spectroscopy
1962:Measured phenomena
1953:Video spectroscopy
1657:Cold vapour atomic
1527:2013-05-10 at the
1300:"MCA box settings"
1094:X-ray spectroscopy
1079:Pandemonium effect
976:
923:Compton scattering
861:
796:
750:Compton scattering
731:of the gamma ray),
607:
406:
279:gamma spectrometer
275:
161:
2082:
2081:
2046:
2045:
1938:Spectrophotometry
1865:Neutron spin echo
1839:Beta spectroscopy
1752:Energy-dispersive
1461:978-1-4398-9408-8
1361:10.1063/1.4866103
1135:Nucleonica Wiki.
1064:Mass spectrometry
890:cadmium telluride
544:bismuth germanate
331:clover (detector)
176:gamma-ray sources
79:
78:
71:
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1918:
1829:phenomenological
1578:Vibrational (IR)
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1423:Applied Sciences
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1231:(7): 1095â1144.
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59:December 2013
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35:
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20:
2100:Spectroscopy
2071:
2059:
2039:(a misnomer)
2025:Applications
1943:Time-stretch
1834:paramagnetic
1768:
1652:Fluorescence
1570:Spectroscopy
1501:. Retrieved
1497:
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1429:(11): 5613.
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1282:. Retrieved
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1189:. Retrieved
1185:
1176:
1165:. Retrieved
1161:
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1106:
1020:
1016:
1008:
1002:
995:
988:
977:
961:
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871:valence band
868:
862:
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834:
824:decay scheme
821:
797:
791:); see also
756:
754:
747:
721:
635:see Figure 1
634:
608:
578:
575:
564:
557:-radiation.
548:
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505:
493:
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409:
407:
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393:
392:but not the
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373:
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365:
340:
323:
321:detectors.
292:
276:
232:
209:
192:
188:
184:quantitative
183:
179:
167:
163:
162:
65:
56:
37:
1611:Vibrational
1498:CASSY Lab 2
1304:CASSY Lab 2
1100:Works cited
1044:Gamma probe
735:backscatter
422:sensitivity
394:Upper Level
386:Lower Level
351:trapezoidal
168:qualitative
154:decay chain
51:introducing
2115:Gamma rays
2089:Categories
1817:Two-photon
1719:absorption
1601:Rotational
1382:: 109438.
1191:2023-07-29
1167:2022-11-01
1144:References
488:efficiency
433:sound card
418:resolution
158:Moab, Utah
34:references
1895:Terahertz
1876:Radiowave
1774:Mössbauer
1503:9 January
1404:233696398
1261:121957980
1253:0034-4885
1120:Knoll G,
955:detector.
902:cryogenic
886:germanium
319:germanium
2061:Category
1790:Electron
1757:Emission
1707:emission
1664:Vibronic
1525:Archived
1284:27 March
1206:"X-rays"
1033:See also
822:See the
802:isotope
613:isotope
529:thallium
414:channels
347:Gaussian
289:Detector
247:energies
196:nuclides
91:nuclides
2073:Commons
1900:ESR/EPR
1848:Nucleon
1676:(REMPI)
1384:Bibcode
1233:Bibcode
764:lithium
611:caesium
255:nuclear
218:(e.g.,
166:is the
87:uranium
47:improve
1914:Others
1702:Atomic
1458:
1402:
1259:
1251:
1128:
1113:
892:, and
800:cobalt
675:, the
553:- and
431:A USB
372:, and
301:, and
297:, the
224:photon
220:X-rays
132:, and
36:, but
1855:Alpha
1824:Auger
1802:X-ray
1769:Gamma
1747:X-ray
1680:Raman
1591:Raman
1586:FT-IR
1400:S2CID
1278:(PDF)
1257:S2CID
741:, and
701:with
551:alpha
533:doped
458:lines
1505:2024
1456:ISBN
1286:2016
1249:ISSN
1126:ISBN
1111:ISBN
1027:Lead
757:see
555:beta
420:and
1883:NMR
1431:doi
1392:doi
1380:184
1357:doi
1241:doi
679:of
349:or
333:).
251:TeV
239:MeV
174:of
2091::
1888:2D
1807:UV
1496:.
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1427:12
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1320:.
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1255:.
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1229:66
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1223:.
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935:Cs
908:.
896:.
888:,
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843:.
811:Co
782:Co
719:.
710:Cs
688:Cs
665:Ba
646:Cs
637:.
623:Cs
596:Cs
501:Bq
474:eV
424:.
368:,
142:Bi
122:Pb
112:,
102:Ra
1562:e
1555:t
1548:v
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1464:.
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1433::
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1386::
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396:E
390:L
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382:2
378:t
374:3
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66:(
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57:(
43:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
