549:(2006) is of the same opinion and writes that the saga begins in a Vanir context, where two brothers are directed by a wise and divinely inspired woman. She is a priestess who invokes and receives help from the Vanir goddess Fre(yi)a, when her tribe is threatened by the more numerous Vandals. He comments that Fre(yi)a is portrayed as the wife of Woden (Odin), and this role normally belongs to the Aesir goddess Frigg, but he considers correct the view that she and several other goddess are versions of Freyja. Both the Vinnili and the Vandals were ready to transform themselves into more successful model of a migrating army, and consequently to reject their old Vanir (fertility) cult and embrace Odin as their leader. It is the women that sacrifice their past and their traditional cult in order to save their tribe under the leadership of their priestess Gambara and their goddess Freyja. They pave the way for their men's victory and they legitimize the transformation into a new tribe, the Lombards. Wolfram compares this to the legend of the
377:
over the
Winniles, besought Frea, the wife of Godan, to be propitious to the Winnilis . Then Frea gave counsel that at sunrise the Winniles should come, and that their women, with their hair let down, around the face in the likeness of a beard, should also come with their husbands. Then when it became bright, while the sun was rising, Frea, the wife of Godan, turned around the bed where her husband was lying, and put his face toward the east and awakened him. And he, looking at them, saw the Winniles and their women having their hair let down around the face. And he says, "Who are those Long-beards?" And Frea said to Godan "As you have given them a name, give them also the victory." And he gave them the victory, so that they should defend themselves according to his counsel and obtain the victory. (Foulke's translation).
396:
391:
victory for the
Winnili, and that Frea gave her counsel that the women of the Winnili should take down their hair and arrange it upon the face like a beard, and that in the early morning they should be present with their husbands and in like manner station themselves to be seen by Godan from the quarter in which he had been wont to look through his window toward the east. And so it was done. And when Godan saw them at sunrise he said: "Who are these long-beards?" And then Frea induced him to give the victory to those to whom he had given the name.' And thus Godan gave the victory to the Winnili. These things are worthy of laughter and are to be held of no account. (Foulke's translation).
627:
507:
682:. Odin had conspired and succeeded in making his own ward Geirrøðr replace Frigg's ward Agnarr on the throne, in spite of the fact that Agnar was the elder brother. Geirrøðr rules as the king while Agnarr is exiled to a cave, where he has offspring with a giantess. Frigg points out that Odin has failed in bringing up Geirrøðr because he is so stingy for food that when he has too many guests he starts harassing them. The two make a bet, and Odin sets off to find out about his ward's character in person.
2127:
22:
568:
mediaeval perception of this having happened in the past. There is long tradition among scholars to discuss this legend as such a transition, or as a change from a mother goddess to a god of war, but Pohl (2006) notes that the account was written down 700 years later then the events it describes. He also remarks that the legend is the only genealogy where a
Germanic tribe (
339:
381:
One scholar argues that at the time Paul the Deacon wrote his version of the account, the
Lombards had been Christian for generations, and their language, if it ever existed, mostly forgotten, except for some legal and military terms. However, McKinnell notes that all over the Germanic-speaking parts
474:
was of an opposing view and argued that nothing is known about
Germanic priesthood at this time. He identified her and the other seeresses as "wise women", who may only have been relevant when they could say something about the future to representatives of a male priesthood, but he acknowledged that
376:
Then Ambri and Assi, that is, the leaders of the
Vandals, asked Godan that he should give them victory over the Winniles. Godan answered, saying: "Whom I shall first see when at sunrise, to them I will give the victory." At that time, Gambara with her two sons, that is Ybor and Agio, who were chiefs
689:
to Geirrøð and she informs him that an evil sorcerer will visit him in his hall. When Odin appears Geirrøð tortures him and starves him, but eventually Geirrøð's son Agnarr, who is named for his uncle, takes pity on the sorcerer and offers him a horn to drink from. Odin curses Geirrøðr who stumbles
453:
When these two men brought the news to their mother, Gambaruk, she saw that the authors of the nefarious decree had grounded their own safety on this crime; condemning the assembly's decision, she denied that it needed the murder of kindred to rescue them from their predicament and declared that it
642:
Although, Paul the Deacon wanted the reader not to take the story seriously, it appears to be an authentic pagan myth about how the fledgling tribe was saved through the cunning of their goddess, who tricked her husband for their sake. Also, in spite of dismissing it, Paul the Deacon did write it
567:
Pohl (2002) points out that in the beginning they are called the
Vinnili and are led by Gambara, a woman, but in the end, they are called the Longobards and are ruled by two men, her sons, and it may be discussed whether this represents a shift from matrilinearity to patrilinearity, or if it is a
346:
Tacitus relates that the
Germanic tribes ascribed prophetic powers to women, but the seeresses do not appear to have been just any women, but existing as an office. The very fact that Gambara's name was written out in the legend testifies to her importance, and it is remarkable in being the only
390:
At this point, the men of old tell a silly story that the
Wandals coming to Godan (Wotan) besought him for victory over the Winnili and that he answered that he would give the victory to those whom he saw first at sunrise ; that then Gambara went to Frea (Freja) wife of Godan and asked for
576:), himself. In addition, it reverses the gender roles, because the bearded warriors that Odin sees are in fact women. He suggests that this prominent role of women is due to the Lombard traditions having been transmitted and told by Lombard women. The first history of the Lombards, the lost
723:). There is also the similarity that Frigg means 'love', but Freyja was the goddess of Love, and the day Friday ('Venus' day') was translated as Frigg's day and not as Freyja's day. In addition Freyja was married to Óðr (Odin?), who was often gone on long journeys, and in
80:) instead. Frea advised them to trick her husband, by having the Winnili women spread their hair in front of their faces so as to look bearded and present themselves as warriors. When Odin saw them, he was embarrassed and asked who the "long-beards" (
478:
However, others may not see the roles of "priestess" and "wise woman" as mutually exclusive. Pohl writes that
Gambara, even though she was not a virgin like Veleda, "combined the roles of the wise woman/priestess, the mother and the princess/queen".
612:
However, in a more recent work, Pohl (2018) supports the pagan origin of the legend by noting that it is not surprising that Paul the Deacon warns his readers that the story was a "ridiculous fable" as it implies the agency of pagan gods. Likewise,
448:
and her sons Aio and Ibor want to avert a famine by killing all the infants and the elderly and banish all the rest who are not able bodied warriors and farmers. Instead they should draw lots, and a part of the population should seek new lands.
414:
Thus did the aforesaid Gambara assert concerning them (not prophesying things which she knew not, but, like the Pythoness or Sibyl, speaking because a divine visitation moved her), that "the thorn should be turned into a rose". (Hodgkin's
56:, then known as the Winnili, and it takes place either before they emigrated from Scandinavia or after their migration, having settled in modern-day northern Germany. It relates that Assi and Ambri, the leaders of their neighbours the
403:
In the Latin original text, Paul the Deacon uses the past infinitive in order to distance the events and remind the reader the information must not be taken seriously. Gambara is also mentioned in the early 9th century
372:, where Gambara's two sons join her in invoking the goddess Frea, and here they are still in Scandinavia, while Paul the Deacon's version places the event after they have migrated to Scoringa (modern northern Germany):
454:
would be a more decent scheme, and desirable for the good of their souls and bodies, if they preserved the duty owed to parents and children and selected by lot those who should leave the land. (Fisher's translation).
29:" (approx 900 AD): silver figurine depicting a deity identified as Odin, accompanied by his two ravens Huginn and Munin and seated on his throne Hliðskjálf (at his window), from which he is able to look down upon all
617:
condemns openly the people who believe that Odin had given them their name. Consequently, Pohl concludes "t is hardly plausible that this objectionable legend had simply been invented by Christian authors."
604:
were not only garantors of royal legitimacy, but they probably played a central role in the Lombard identity politics of the time. They represented the prestige of the ancient royal Lombard lineage, and the
361:
The mother of these leaders, Gambara by name,' was a woman of the keenest ability and most prudent in counsel among her people, and they trusted not a little to her shrewdness in doubtful matters. (Foulke's
187:
clan of the gods, whom it has been argued were the primary gods of the early Lombards in Scandinavia, and Gambara would have been the priestess and earthly representative of the Vanir goddess Frea (Freyja).
342:
The legend of Gambara takes place when they are either still in Scandinavia or when they had settled in northern Germany, but the tradition was written down when the Lombards were settled in Italy.
729:, stanza 9, the two goddesses are identified as the same. There is sometimes confusion between the two in Norse myths. Consequently, Freyja and Frigg may originally have been the same goddess.
553:, the Gothic priestesses who after the Goths' migration from Scandinavia represented the conservative faction, but they lost when the majority of the Goths changed cult, and were banished.
643:
down and doing so he preserved a legend that can be compared with several traditions from Scandinavian sources, such as the window from which Odin looked down on earth which recalls the
431:
comments that Gambara lived in a world and era where prophecy was important, and not being a virgin like Veleda, she combined the roles of priestess, wise woman, mother and queen.
609:
explained how, and Pohl suggests that the account may have been shaped in Italy with influence from the recurrent wise women in the literature about the early Germanic tribes.
694:, Frigg uses cunning to make Odin prepare the way for the younger Agnarr, who is a substitute for the elder one, and who contrast with his father through his generosity.
60:, demanded that Ibor and Agio, the leaders of the Winnili, pay tribute to them, but their mother Gambara advised them not to. Before the battle, the Vandals called on
685:
In order to get back at Odin for favouring his own ward, Frigg appears to have consciously deceived her husband about Geirrøð's character. She sends her handmaiden
1522:
386:
takes care to caution the mediaeval reader – in more than one place in his account – that the pagan legend involving Gambara is not to be taken seriously. :
556:
In a similar vein, two Italian scholars, Gaspari (1983) and Taviani-Carozzi (1991) have interpreted the legend as a representation of the priestly aspect of
482:
Simek points out that although her name is interpreted as meaning 'seeress' ('staff bearer'), she is not said to perform any prophesying in the legend, but
1625:
Janson, Henrik (2018). "Pictured by the Other: Classical and Early Medieval Perspectives on Religions in the North". In Clunies Ross, Margaret (ed.).
714:
395:
128:'wand bearer', i.e. 'seeress'. Her name is thus grouped with other seeresses who have staff names, or names that can be interpreted as such, like
406:
523:
argues that the legend goes back to a time when the early Lombards primarily worshiped the mother goddess Freyja, as part of the Scandinavian
2035:
2014:
1964:
1890:
1850:
1805:
1722:
1663:
1634:
1606:
1492:
1454:
674:, but where they also appear to be able to inform themselves about places beyond these realms. They have an argument about their foster-sons
705:
characterized as a sorceress and as false, and who was skilled in magic. These two goddesses trick with illusions anyone who opposes them.
2067:
1995:
1943:
1824:
1769:
1703:
1558:
1539:
1473:
655:
where Frigg also conspires against Odin, in a parallel with the Lombard myth, but in this case it is about who will rule over the
626:
2167:
1869:
1741:
600:
is unusual because it mostly enumerates the consorts and the children of the Lombard rulers. Theodelinda and her daughter
299:
2239:
516:. She had her palace decorated with illustrations on Lombard legends, and her daughter may have influenced the legend.
2182:
2005:
Sundqvist, Olof (2020). "Cultic Leaders and Religious Specialists". In Schjødt, J.P.; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.).
1929:
368:
701:
show how Frigg deceives her husband with sorcery and guile, and emphasize her similarities with Freyja, whom even
84:) were, and thus naming them he became their godfather and had to grant them victory. The legend has parallels in
1597:
Hermann, Pernille (2020). "Memory, Oral Tradition, and Sources". In Schjødt, J.P; Lindow, J.; Andrén, A. (eds.).
1900:
Pohl, Walter (2018). "Narratives of Origin and Migration in Early Medieval Europe: Problems of Interpretation".
561:
440:(viii.13.2), where the setting is in Scandinavia before the emigration of the Winnili, and there she is called
97:
1698:. Handbooks of World Mythology. ABC-CLIO, Inc., Santa Barbara, California; Denver, Colorado; Oxford, England.
719:
Frigg's deceptiveness and connection with prophecy normally belong to Freyja, and her association with magic (
675:
2060:
353:
228:
399:
Odin, the god of wisdom and intrigues was no match for his wife, in both Lombard and Scandinavian accounts.
2244:
520:
506:
470:
Hauck describes her as a priestess and an earthly representative of the mother goddess Frea (Freyja), but
216:
1933:
614:
1673:
Kovalev, Roman K. (2012). "Grand Princess Olga of Rus' Shows the Bird: Her 'Christian Falcon' Emblem".
278:
is can also be identified as Frigg/Freyja, or simply as Freyja, but the names are different in origin.
52:) who appears in several sources from the 8th to 12th centuries. The legend is about the origin of the
1534:. Translated by Foulke, William Dudley. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
2177:
2172:
1879:
Pohl, Walter (2006). "Gender and ethnicity in the early middle ages". In Noble, Thomas F. X. (ed.).
2126:
2115:
1502:
2024:
Wolfram, Herwig (2006). "Gothic history as historical ethnography". In Noble, Thomas F. X. (ed.).
725:
2095:
2076:
1917:
1627:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, Research and Reception, From the Middle Ages to c. 1830
1585:
1516:
145:
121:
41:
2053:
557:
382:
of Europe, Christian scholars were driven by the motive of eradicating pagan superstitions, and
1860:
Pohl, Walter (2002). "Ethnicity, Theory, and Tradition: A Response". In Gillett, Andrew (ed.).
2218:
2031:
2010:
1991:
1960:
1939:
1886:
1865:
1846:
1820:
1801:
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1718:
1699:
1659:
1630:
1602:
1554:
1535:
1488:
1469:
1450:
690:
and falls on his own sword. When the elder Agnarr had been lost among the chaos forces of the
635:
1783:. Lund Studies in History of Religion. Vol. 5. Department of History of Religions, Lund.
649:
of Norse mythology, and from where he could see everything. There are also similarities with
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genealogy that was written in the post-Roman era to have a woman as the origin. Moreover, in
1909:
1793:
1682:
1651:
1577:
1442:
445:
232:
1644:
Jarnut, Jörg (1998). "Gambara". In Beck, Heinrich; Geuenich, Dieter; Steuer, Heiko (eds.).
1568:
Hauck, K. (1955). "Lebensnormen und Kultmythen in germ. Stammes-und Herrschergenealogien".
1506:
679:
651:
645:
2100:
1755:. Translated by Hustvedt, Sigurd Bernhard. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation.
1549:
Grundy, Stephan (1996). "Freyja and Frigg". In Billington, Sandra; Green, Miranda (eds.).
572:) derives its origins from the actions of a woman, and relying on Frea, she outwits Odin (
383:
348:
129:
85:
219:
until they reached a peace agreement, united and exchanged hostages. His brother's name
1839:
666:, Frigg and Odin sit on Hliðskjálf from where they can find information not only about
546:
540:
483:
471:
1953:
Samplonius, Kees (2013) . "From Veleda to the Völva". In Mulder-Bakker, Anneke (ed.).
532:
2233:
1921:
1834:
1589:
528:
436:
1983:
1581:
1713:
Mazo, Jeffrey A. (2016). "Grímnismál". In Pulsiano, Philip; Wolf, Kirsten (eds.).
2025:
1954:
1880:
1862:
On Barbarian Identity, Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages
581:
428:
338:
2146:
1788:
Näsström, B.M. (1996). "Freyja and Frigg – two aspects of the Great Goddess".
1686:
601:
550:
475:
Gambara as a wise woman, like Veleda, could have exerted political influence.
195:, is a very rare Germanic personal name that is probably derived from PGmc *
21:
1913:
1797:
638:, in a parallel with how she tricked Odin at his window in the Lombard myth.
512:
490:, from the early 9th century, she is characterized as a great seeress, like
691:
2208:
2110:
671:
589:
224:
133:
53:
2090:
667:
236:
212:
57:
30:
2198:
2151:
2105:
2045:
1487:. Vol. 1. Translated by Fisher, Peter. Oxford University Press.
491:
77:
316:
2203:
1956:
Sanctity and Motherhood: Essays on Holy Mothers in the Middle Ages
1792:. Religion and Society. Vol. 36. De Gruyter. pp. 81–96.
686:
656:
593:
585:
524:
505:
495:
462:, Saxo Grammaticus, portrayed her the wisest person in the realm.
184:
180:
73:
26:
20:
1817:
Nordiska gudinnor : nytolkningar av den förkristna mytologin
2213:
2007:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures
1655:
1599:
The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, History and Structures
702:
536:
458:
It is noteworthy that, just like Paul the Deacon, the author of
61:
2049:
1645:
630:
Frigg and Odin wagering against each other upon Hliðskjálf in
596:
decorated with scenes from the Lombard past. In addition, the
88:, where Frigg also deceives her husband in earthly politics.
1935:
The Viking Way, Magic and Mind in Late Iron Age Scandinavia
1764:. Vol. I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–93.
1760:
Myhre, Bjørn (2008). "The Iron Age". In Helle, Knut (ed.).
366:
The earliest account of Gambara appears in the 7th century
1620:. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Oxford at the Clarendon Press.
1133:
1131:
1129:
1027:
1025:
865:
863:
861:
800:
798:
796:
794:
792:
324:
308:
284:
274:. However, according to differences in scholarly opinion,
205:
197:
173:
161:
138:
114:
106:
964:
962:
1485:
Saxo Grammaticus Gesta Danorum, The History of the Danes
1397:
1395:
1190:
1188:
423:
in Latin which means 'priestess' or 'sorceress', and as
215:
clan of gods, and who according to Scandinavian sources
191:
The name of the Vandal enemy leader, on the other hand,
68:) to give them victory, but Gambara invoked Odin's wife
1990:. Translated by Angela Hall. Boydell & Brewer Ltd.
1175:
1173:
1160:
1158:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1447:
The Poetic Edda: Stories of the Norse Gods and Heroes
1938:(2 ed.). Oxbow Books, Oxford and Philadelphia.
755:
753:
751:
749:
747:
745:
743:
741:
434:
The tradition is also reflected in the late 12th c.
2191:
2160:
2134:
2083:
527:worship, and he adds that a Lombard counterpart of
1978:(2, new print ed.). Verlag C.H.Beck, München.
1838:
1553:. Routledge, London and New York. pp. 56–67.
1449:. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.
231:in 102 BC, apparently driven from their homes by
227:, a tribe who left southern Scandinavia and were
451:
412:
388:
374:
359:
183:, the god of fertility and the main god of the
292:
2061:
1508:Altdeutsches Namenbuch, Band 1: Personennamen
104:('strenuous'), while others interpret it as *
8:
1650:. Vol. 10 (2010 ed.). De Gruyter.
298:('own, dear, beloved') through their common
2009:. Vol. II. Brepols. pp. 739–780.
1753:Norse Mythology, Legends of Gods and Heroes
1647:Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde
2068:
2054:
2046:
1734:Meeting the Other in Norse Myth and Legend
1521:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
917:
881:
804:
410:, but without the Godan and Frea account:
270:would have been more correctly spelled as
2027:From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms
1882:From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms
1137:
1108:
941:
771:
715:Frigg and Freyja common origin hypothesis
1601:. Vol. I. Brepols. pp. 41–62.
1532:Paul the Deacon, History of the Lombards
1413:
1386:
1374:
1362:
1350:
1031:
625:
394:
337:
314:and means 'lady', and the same word OHG
1781:Freyja – the Great Goddess of the North
1629:. Vol. I. Brepols. pp. 7–40.
1302:
1254:
1242:
1206:
1149:
1016:
968:
816:
783:
737:
242:In Lombard, Odin and Frigg were called
1885:. Psychology Press. pp. 139–156.
1514:
1425:
1401:
1338:
1314:
1194:
1120:
1096:
1084:
1060:
980:
905:
759:
488:Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani
407:Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani
223:is probably derived from the ethnonym
1715:Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia
1230:
1179:
1072:
953:
929:
869:
828:
266:in Old English, but the Lombard form
179:) the animal sacred to the Norse god
167:('sword', 'edge'), while his brother
7:
2030:. Psychology Press. pp. 57–74.
1762:The Cambridge History of Scandinavia
1326:
1290:
1278:
1266:
1218:
1164:
1048:
1004:
992:
893:
852:
840:
1483:Friis-Jensen, Karsten, ed. (2015).
357:, she is introduced with the words
229:virtually annihilated by the Romans
697:The Lombard legend of Gambara and
14:
2125:
1988:Dictionary of Northern Mythology
1841:A Handbook of Germanic Etymology
171:s name means 'boar' (from PGmc *
486:comments that in the so-called
1790:Shamanism and Northern Ecology
1582:10.7788/saeculum.1955.6.jg.186
580:from 610, was commissioned by
330:meaning 'lady' or 'mistress'.
1:
1864:. Brepols. pp. 221–240.
211:, which refers to Odin's own
1902:The Medieval History Journal
1530:Peters, Edward, ed. (1974).
592:, and she had her palace in
444:. She is outraged that the
419:Gambara is characterized as
290:and identical with Sanskrit
1696:Handbook of Norse Mythology
588:who had led the tribe into
510:Theodelinda in a fresco by
217:waged war against the Vanir
2261:
1819:. Albert Bonniers Förlag.
1736:. D.S. Brewer, Cambridge.
1717:. Routledge. p. 243.
1551:The Concept of the Goddess
712:
369:Origo Gentis Langobardorum
300:Proto-Indo-European origin
2123:
1687:10.1163/48763316-03904002
1075:, p. 209, note 135a.
250:, while they were called
120:with the same meaning as
96:Some connect her name to
1974:Schmidt, Ludwig (1969).
1914:10.1177/0971945818775460
1798:10.1515/9783110811674.81
1732:McKinnell, John (2005).
1616:Hodgkin, Thomas (1895).
562:trifunctional hypothesis
16:Germanic mythical figure
1815:Näsström, B.M. (2009).
1779:Näsström, B.M. (1994).
584:, the granddaughter of
531:has been discovered in
325:
317:
309:
285:
258:in Old High German and
206:
198:
174:
162:
149:
139:
125:
115:
107:
101:
2135:Early Mediaeval record
1618:Italy and her Invaders
1464:Enright, M.J. (1996).
1269:, p. 222, note 5.
639:
517:
456:
417:
400:
393:
379:
364:
354:Historia langobardorum
343:
293:
282:is derived from PGmc *
34:
2161:North Germanic record
1694:Lindow, John (2001).
1468:. Four Courts Press.
713:Further information:
629:
509:
398:
341:
155:The name of her son
24:
1751:Munch, P.A. (1926).
1466:Lady with a Mead Cup
1443:Crawford, Jackson W.
351:'s late 8th c. work
132:('wand-bearer') and
2168:Þorbjörg Lítilvölva
2116:Woman of the Chatti
1511:(2 ed.). Bonn.
1341:, p. 129, 176.
42:Germanic wise woman
2240:Germanic seeresses
2183:Þuríðr Sundafyllir
2096:Cimbrian seeresses
2077:Germanic seeresses
872:, p. 186–223.
640:
539:in the modern day
518:
427:, i.e. 'seeress'.
401:
344:
334:The Lombard legend
35:
2227:
2226:
2219:Witch (etymology)
2037:978-0-415-32742-8
2016:978-2-503-57491-2
1966:978-1-134-81949-2
1892:978-0-415-32742-8
1852:978-90-04-12875-0
1835:Orel, Vladimir E.
1807:978-3-11-014186-3
1724:978-1-315-16132-7
1665:978-3-11-045562-5
1636:978-2-503-56881-2
1608:978-2-503-57491-2
1503:Förstemann, Ernst
1494:978-0-19-82052-34
1456:978-1-62-466356-7
2252:
2129:
2084:Roman era record
2070:
2063:
2056:
2047:
2041:
2020:
2001:
1979:
1970:
1949:
1925:
1896:
1875:
1856:
1844:
1830:
1811:
1784:
1775:
1756:
1747:
1728:
1709:
1690:
1669:
1640:
1621:
1612:
1593:
1564:
1545:
1526:
1520:
1512:
1498:
1479:
1460:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1390:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1336:
1330:
1324:
1318:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1198:
1192:
1183:
1177:
1168:
1162:
1153:
1147:
1141:
1135:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1035:
1029:
1020:
1014:
1008:
1002:
996:
990:
984:
978:
972:
966:
957:
951:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
909:
908:, pp. 51ff.
903:
897:
891:
885:
879:
873:
867:
856:
850:
844:
838:
832:
826:
820:
814:
808:
802:
787:
781:
775:
769:
763:
757:
709:Frigg and Freyja
328:
320:
312:
296:
288:
209:
201:
177:
165:
142:
118:
110:
54:Langobard people
2260:
2259:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2230:
2229:
2228:
2223:
2187:
2156:
2130:
2121:
2079:
2074:
2044:
2038:
2023:
2017:
2004:
1998:
1982:
1976:Die Ostgermanen
1973:
1967:
1952:
1946:
1928:
1899:
1893:
1878:
1872:
1859:
1853:
1833:
1827:
1814:
1808:
1787:
1778:
1772:
1759:
1750:
1744:
1731:
1725:
1712:
1706:
1693:
1675:Russian History
1672:
1666:
1643:
1637:
1624:
1615:
1609:
1596:
1576:(JG): 186–223.
1567:
1561:
1548:
1542:
1529:
1513:
1501:
1495:
1482:
1476:
1463:
1457:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1416:, p. 104f.
1412:
1408:
1400:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1361:
1357:
1349:
1345:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1321:
1313:
1309:
1301:
1297:
1293:, p. 206f.
1289:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1241:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1193:
1186:
1178:
1171:
1163:
1156:
1148:
1144:
1136:
1127:
1119:
1115:
1107:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1087:, p. 316f.
1083:
1079:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1047:
1038:
1030:
1023:
1015:
1011:
1003:
999:
991:
987:
979:
975:
967:
960:
952:
948:
940:
936:
928:
924:
918:Förstemann 1900
916:
912:
904:
900:
892:
888:
884:, p. 120f.
882:Förstemann 1900
880:
876:
868:
859:
851:
847:
839:
835:
827:
823:
819:, p. 186f.
815:
811:
805:Samplonius 2013
803:
790:
782:
778:
770:
766:
758:
739:
735:
717:
711:
624:
622:Norse mythology
504:
502:Interpretations
468:
384:Paul the Deacon
349:Paul the Deacon
336:
233:soil exhaustion
98:Old High German
94:
86:Norse mythology
17:
12:
11:
5:
2258:
2256:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2232:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2185:
2180:
2178:Heimlaug Völva
2175:
2173:Þordís Spákona
2170:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2138:
2136:
2132:
2131:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2087:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2065:
2058:
2050:
2043:
2042:
2036:
2021:
2015:
2002:
1997:978-0859915137
1996:
1980:
1971:
1965:
1950:
1945:978-1842172605
1944:
1926:
1908:(2): 192–221.
1897:
1891:
1876:
1870:
1857:
1851:
1831:
1826:978-9100122379
1825:
1812:
1806:
1785:
1776:
1771:978-0521472999
1770:
1757:
1748:
1742:
1729:
1723:
1710:
1704:
1691:
1681:(4): 460–517.
1670:
1664:
1641:
1635:
1622:
1613:
1607:
1594:
1565:
1559:
1546:
1540:
1527:
1499:
1493:
1480:
1474:
1461:
1455:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1428:, p. 65f.
1418:
1406:
1404:, p. 129.
1391:
1379:
1377:, p. 92f.
1367:
1365:, p. 91f.
1355:
1343:
1331:
1329:, p. 243.
1319:
1307:
1295:
1283:
1281:, p. 148.
1271:
1259:
1257:, p. 59f.
1247:
1235:
1233:, p. 187.
1223:
1221:, p. 146.
1211:
1209:, p. 619.
1199:
1197:, p. 595.
1184:
1182:, p. 98f.
1169:
1167:, p. 149.
1154:
1152:, p. 147.
1142:
1138:McKinnell 2005
1125:
1123:, p. 16f.
1113:
1111:, p. 39f.
1109:McKinnell 2005
1101:
1089:
1077:
1065:
1053:
1051:, p. 147.
1036:
1034:, p. 143.
1021:
1019:, p. 210.
1009:
1007:, p. 112.
997:
995:, p. 114.
985:
973:
971:, p. 506.
958:
956:, p. 298.
946:
942:McKinnell 2005
934:
922:
910:
898:
886:
874:
857:
845:
833:
821:
809:
788:
786:, p. 187.
776:
774:, p. 747.
772:Sundqvist 2020
764:
736:
734:
731:
710:
707:
636:Lorenz Frølich
623:
620:
541:Czech republic
503:
500:
467:
464:
335:
332:
159:is from PGmc *
93:
90:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2257:
2246:
2245:Lombard women
2243:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2066:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2051:
2048:
2039:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2022:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1984:Simek, Rudolf
1981:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1962:
1959:. Routledge.
1958:
1957:
1951:
1947:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1877:
1873:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1843:
1842:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1705:1-57607-217-7
1701:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1560:0-203-76462-5
1556:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1541:0-8122-1079-4
1537:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1518:
1510:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1475:1-85182-188-0
1471:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1427:
1422:
1419:
1415:
1414:Näsström 1994
1410:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1389:, p. 93.
1388:
1387:Näsström 1996
1383:
1380:
1376:
1375:Näsström 1996
1371:
1368:
1364:
1363:Näsström 1996
1359:
1356:
1353:, p. 61.
1352:
1351:Crawford 2015
1347:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1320:
1317:, p. 65.
1316:
1311:
1308:
1305:, p. 61.
1304:
1299:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1248:
1245:, p. 59.
1244:
1239:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1143:
1140:, p. 40.
1139:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1102:
1099:, p. 16.
1098:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1032:Näsström 2009
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1010:
1006:
1001:
998:
994:
989:
986:
983:, p. 16.
982:
977:
974:
970:
965:
963:
959:
955:
950:
947:
944:, p. 13.
943:
938:
935:
932:, p. 65.
931:
926:
923:
920:, p. 98.
919:
914:
911:
907:
902:
899:
896:, p. 21.
895:
890:
887:
883:
878:
875:
871:
866:
864:
862:
858:
855:, p. 82.
854:
849:
846:
842:
837:
834:
831:, p. 72.
830:
825:
822:
818:
813:
810:
807:, p. 88.
806:
801:
799:
797:
795:
793:
789:
785:
780:
777:
773:
768:
765:
761:
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
742:
738:
732:
730:
728:
727:
726:Oddrúnargrátr
722:
716:
708:
706:
704:
700:
695:
693:
688:
683:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
660:
658:
654:
653:
648:
647:
637:
633:
628:
621:
619:
616:
610:
608:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
565:
563:
559:
554:
552:
548:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
515:
514:
508:
501:
499:
497:
493:
489:
485:
480:
476:
473:
465:
463:
461:
460:Gesta Danorum
455:
450:
447:
443:
439:
438:
437:Gesta Danorum
432:
430:
426:
422:
416:
415:translation).
411:
409:
408:
397:
392:
387:
385:
378:
373:
371:
370:
363:
362:translation).
358:
356:
355:
350:
340:
333:
331:
329:
327:
321:
319:
313:
311:
305:
301:
297:
295:
289:
287:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
240:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
208:
202:
200:
194:
189:
186:
182:
178:
176:
170:
166:
164:
158:
153:
151:
147:
143:
141:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
117:
111:
109:
103:
99:
91:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
44:(also called
43:
39:
32:
28:
23:
19:
2141:
2026:
2006:
1987:
1975:
1955:
1934:
1905:
1901:
1881:
1861:
1840:
1816:
1789:
1780:
1761:
1752:
1733:
1714:
1695:
1678:
1674:
1646:
1626:
1617:
1598:
1573:
1569:
1550:
1531:
1507:
1484:
1465:
1446:
1421:
1409:
1382:
1370:
1358:
1346:
1334:
1322:
1310:
1303:Hermann 2020
1298:
1286:
1274:
1262:
1255:Wolfram 2006
1250:
1243:Wolfram 2006
1238:
1226:
1214:
1207:Schmidt 1969
1202:
1150:Hodgkin 1895
1145:
1116:
1104:
1092:
1080:
1068:
1063:, p. 5.
1056:
1017:Enright 1996
1012:
1000:
988:
976:
969:Kovalev 2012
949:
937:
925:
913:
901:
889:
877:
848:
843:, p. 3.
836:
824:
817:Enright 1996
812:
784:Enright 1996
779:
767:
724:
720:
718:
698:
696:
684:
663:
661:
659:(stanza 2).
650:
644:
641:
631:
611:
606:
597:
577:
573:
569:
566:
555:
545:
519:
511:
487:
481:
477:
469:
459:
457:
452:
441:
435:
433:
424:
420:
418:
413:
405:
402:
389:
380:
375:
367:
365:
360:
352:
345:
323:
315:
307:
303:
291:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
241:
220:
204:
196:
192:
190:
172:
168:
160:
156:
154:
137:
113:
105:
95:
81:
69:
65:
49:
45:
37:
36:
18:
1930:Price, Neil
1656:10.1515/gao
1426:Grundy 1996
1402:Lindow 2001
1339:Lindow 2001
1315:Grundy 1996
1195:Fisher 2015
1121:Foulke 1974
1097:Janson 2018
1085:Foulke 1974
1061:Foulke 1974
981:Foulke 1974
906:Lindow 2001
760:Jarnut 1998
582:Theodelinda
551:haliurunnae
466:Description
144:- 'staff' (
82:longobarbae
25:"Odin from
2234:Categories
2147:Haliurunas
1871:2503511686
1743:1843840421
1231:Hauck 1955
1180:Simek 1996
1073:Hauck 1955
954:Munch 1926
930:Myhre 2008
870:Hauck 1955
829:Price 2019
733:References
699:Grímnismál
664:Grímnismál
652:Grímnismál
646:Hliðskjálf
634:(1895) by
632:Grímnismál
602:Gundeperga
578:Historiola
421:phitonissa
2118:(alleged)
1922:158374863
1845:. Brill.
1590:170200000
1517:cite book
1327:Mazo 2016
1291:Pohl 2018
1279:Pohl 2006
1267:Pohl 2002
1219:Pohl 2006
1165:Pohl 2006
1049:Pohl 2006
1005:Orel 2003
993:Orel 2003
894:Orel 2003
853:Orel 2003
841:Orel 2003
513:Zavattari
306:is from *
146:Old Norse
122:Old Norse
116:gand-bara
108:gand-bera
92:Etymology
46:priestess
2192:See also
2111:Waluburg
1986:(1996).
1932:(2019).
1837:(2003).
1570:Saeculum
1505:(1900).
1445:(2015).
680:Geirrøðr
672:Valhalla
615:Fredegar
590:Pannonia
494:and the
446:assembly
442:Gambaruc
302:, while
225:Ambrones
134:Waluburg
2142:Gambara
2091:Albruna
1435:Sources
668:Midgard
558:Dumézil
547:Wolfram
535:, near
529:Uppsala
472:Schmidt
425:sibylla
322:and OS
310:frawjōn
237:Jutland
76:and/or
58:Vandals
50:seeress
38:Gambara
31:Midgard
2199:Freyja
2152:Thiota
2106:Veleda
2034:
2013:
1994:
1963:
1942:
1920:
1889:
1868:
1849:
1823:
1804:
1768:
1740:
1721:
1702:
1662:
1633:
1605:
1588:
1557:
1538:
1491:
1472:
1453:
692:giants
676:Agnarr
492:Pythia
484:Jarnut
318:frouwa
304:Freyja
294:priyā́
286:frijjō
175:eƀuraz
102:gambar
78:Freyja
2209:Seiðr
2204:Galdr
2101:Ganna
1918:S2CID
1586:S2CID
721:seiðr
687:Fulla
657:Goths
607:Origo
598:Origo
594:Monza
586:Wacho
574:Wodan
533:Žuráň
525:Vanir
521:Hauck
496:Sibyl
280:Frigg
260:Woden
256:Friia
252:Uodan
244:Godan
221:Ambri
207:ansuz
199:ansiz
185:Vanir
181:Freyr
169:Ibor'
136:from
130:Ganna
126:vǫlva
74:Frigg
66:Godan
40:is a
27:Lejre
2214:Wand
2032:ISBN
2011:ISBN
1992:ISBN
1961:ISBN
1940:ISBN
1887:ISBN
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