1400:(for gases) is a mathematical model used to roughly describe or predict the state properties of a gas. At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all gases under all conditions. Therefore, a number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases in specific temperature and pressure ranges. The "gas models" that are most widely discussed are "perfect gas", "ideal gas" and "real gas". Each of these models has its own set of assumptions to facilitate the analysis of a given thermodynamic system. Each successive model expands the temperature range of coverage to which it applies.
2278:
1239:
2312:
632:
1639:
upper end of the engine temperature ranges (e.g. combustor sections – 1300 K), the complex fuel particles absorb internal energy by means of rotations and vibrations that cause their specific heats to vary from those of diatomic molecules and noble gases. At more than double that temperature, electronic excitation and dissociation of the gas particles begins to occur causing the pressure to adjust to a greater number of particles (transition from gas to
852:
1621:
590:
manner. These ideal relationships apply to safety calculations for a variety of flight conditions on the materials in use. However, the high technology equipment in use today was designed to help us safely explore the more exotic operating environments where the gases no longer behave in an "ideal" manner. As gases are subjected to extreme conditions, tools to interpret them become more complex, from the
3621:
2438:". At some future time, a second observation of the skin temperature produces a second microstate. By continuing this observation process, it is possible to produce a series of microstates that illustrate the thermal history of the bar's surface. Characterization of this historical series of microstates is possible by choosing the macrostate that successfully classifies them all into a single grouping.
3303:
2412:) which is proportional to viscosity. It is one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and is used, usually along with other dimensionless numbers, to provide a criterion for determining dynamic similitude. As such, the Reynolds number provides the link between modeling results (design) and the full-scale actual conditions. It can also be used to characterize the flow.
2342:
2203:
1751:
1643:). Finally, all of the thermodynamic processes were presumed to describe uniform gases whose velocities varied according to a fixed distribution. Using a non-equilibrium situation implies the flow field must be characterized in some manner to enable a solution. One of the first attempts to expand the boundaries of the ideal gas law was to include coverage for different
643:(or absolute pressure) refers to the average force per unit area that the gas exerts on the surface of the container. Within this volume, it is sometimes easier to visualize the gas particles moving in straight lines until they collide with the container (see diagram at top). The force imparted by a gas particle into the container during this collision is the change in
1121:
3307:
2453:
not change), and all chemical reactions within the system are complete. The timeline varies for these events depending on the system in question. A container of ice allowed to melt at room temperature takes hours, while in semiconductors the heat transfer that occurs in the device transition from an on to off state could be on the order of a few nanoseconds.
582:
80:
3278:
602:, adapted to the conditions of the gas system in question, makes it possible to solve such complex dynamic situations as space vehicle reentry. An example is the analysis of the space shuttle reentry pictured to ensure the material properties under this loading condition are appropriate. In this flight situation, the gas is no longer behaving ideally.
1156:
frictional force of many gas molecules, punctuated by violent collisions of an individual (or several) gas molecule(s) with the particle. The particle (generally consisting of millions or billions of atoms) thus moves in a jagged course, yet not so jagged as would be expected if an individual gas molecule were examined.
3282:
1768:
performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the volume of gas was carefully measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure
1638:
Each one of the assumptions listed below adds to the complexity of the problem's solution. As the density of a gas increases with rising pressure, the intermolecular forces play a more substantial role in gas behavior which results in the ideal gas law no longer providing "reasonable" results. At the
728:
process) produces translational, rotational, and vibrational motion. In contrast, a solid can only increase its internal energy by exciting additional vibrational modes, as the crystal lattice structure prevents both translational and rotational motion. These heated gas molecules have a greater speed
589:
There are many mathematical tools available for analyzing gas properties. Boyle's lab equipment allowed the use of just a simple calculation to obtain his analytical results. His results were possible because he was studying gases in relatively low pressure situations where they behaved in an "ideal"
157:
The gaseous state of matter occurs between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper-temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention. High-density atomic gases super-cooled
2452:
When energy transfer ceases from a system, this condition is referred to as thermodynamic equilibrium. Usually, this condition implies the system and surroundings are at the same temperature so that heat no longer transfers between them. It also implies that external forces are balanced (volume does
2362:
In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. The satellite view of weather around
Robinson Crusoe
1250:) which occur as the pressure is varied. The compressibility factor Z, is equal to the ratio Z = PV/nRT. An ideal gas, with compressibility factor Z = 1, is described by the horizontal line where the y-axis is equal to 1. Non-ideality can be described as the deviation of a gas above or below Z = 1.
2083:
In 1811, Amedeo
Avogadro verified that equal volumes of pure gases contain the same number of particles. His theory was not generally accepted until 1858 when another Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to explain non-ideal exceptions. For his work with gases a century prior, the physical
1346:
If two molecules are moving at high speeds, in arbitrary directions, along non-intersecting paths, then they will not spend enough time in proximity to be affected by the attractive London-dispersion force. If the two molecules collide, they are moving too fast and their kinetic energy will be much
1116:
changes with temperature, due to certain degrees of freedom being unreachable (a.k.a. "frozen out") at lower temperatures. As internal energy of molecules increases, so does the ability to store energy within additional degrees of freedom. As more degrees of freedom become available to hold energy,
537:
or global point of view of the gas. This region (referred to as a volume) must be sufficient in size to contain a large sampling of gas particles. The resulting statistical analysis of this sample size produces the "average" behavior (i.e. velocity, temperature or pressure) of all the gas particles
2328:
Particles will, in effect, "stick" to the surface of an object moving through it. This layer of particles is called the boundary layer. At the surface of the object, it is essentially static due to the friction of the surface. The object, with its boundary layer is effectively the new shape of the
1996:
published results of similar, though more extensive experiments. Gay-Lussac credited
Charles' earlier work by naming the law in his honor. Gay-Lussac himself is credited with the law describing pressure, which he found in 1809. It states that the pressure exerted on a container's sides by an ideal
1772:
Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the pressure exerted by a gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely with the volume of the gas. For example, if the volume is halved, the pressure is doubled; and if the volume is doubled, the pressure is halved. Given the inverse relationship
1726:
Permanent gas is a term used for a gas which has a critical temperature below the range of normal human-habitable temperatures and therefore cannot be liquefied by pressure within this range. Historically such gases were thought to be impossible to liquefy and would therefore permanently remain in
1317:
too-close, their attraction increases as the magnitude of their potential energy increases (becoming more negative), and lowers their total internal energy. The attraction causing the molecules to get closer, can only happen if the molecules remain in proximity for the duration of time it takes to
967:) is non-zero, the gas particles will begin to move around the container. As the box is further heated (as more energy is added), the individual particles increase their average speed as the system's total internal energy increases. The higher average-speed of all the particles leads to a greater
826:
Since gas molecules can move freely within a container, their mass is normally characterized by density. Density is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance, or the inverse of specific volume. For gases, the density can vary over a wide range because the particles are free to move closer
2377:
Viscosity, a physical property, is a measure of how well adjacent molecules stick to one another. A solid can withstand a shearing force due to the strength of these sticky intermolecular forces. A fluid will continuously deform when subjected to a similar load. While a gas has a lower value of
1091:
The use of statistical mechanics and the partition function is an important tool throughout all of physical chemistry, because it is the key to connection between the microscopic states of a system and the macroscopic variables which we can measure, such as temperature, pressure, heat capacity,
875:
If one could observe a gas under a powerful microscope, one would see a collection of particles without any definite shape or volume that are in more or less random motion. These gas particles only change direction when they collide with another particle or with the sides of the container. This
1155:
Since it is at the limit of (or beyond) current technology to observe individual gas particles (atoms or molecules), only theoretical calculations give suggestions about how they move, but their motion is different from
Brownian motion because Brownian motion involves a smooth drag due to the
2295:) to alter the ideal gas equation to account for compressibility effects of real gases. This factor represents the ratio of actual to ideal specific volumes. It is sometimes referred to as a "fudge-factor" or correction to expand the useful range of the ideal gas law for design purposes.
1266:
of molecular systems. Due to the general applicability and importance, the
Lennard-Jones model system is often referred to as 'Lennard-Jonesium'. The Lennard-Jones potential between molecules can be broken down into two separate components: a long-distance attraction due to the
3012:
1599:
This approximation is more suitable for applications in engineering although simpler models can be used to produce a "ball-park" range as to where the real solution should lie. An example where the "ideal gas approximation" would be suitable would be inside a
1577:
of a gas. In the most general case, the specific heat is a function of both temperature and pressure. If the pressure-dependence is neglected (and possibly the temperature-dependence as well) in a particular application, sometimes the gas is said to be a
2223:
published the law of partial pressures from his work with ideal gas law relationship: The pressure of a mixture of non reactive gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone. Mathematically, this can be represented for
1051:. In real thermodynamic systems, quantum phenomena play a large role in determining thermal motions. The random, thermal motions (kinetic energy) in molecules is a combination of a finite set of possible motions including translation, rotation, and
1569:
is the specific gas constant for a particular gas, in units J/(kg K), and ρ = m/V is density. This notation is the "gas dynamicist's" version, which is more practical in modeling of gas flows involving acceleration without chemical reactions.
1338:
the molecules into close proximity, and raising the pressure, the repulsions will begin to dominate over the attractions, as the rate at which collisions are happening will increase significantly. Therefore, at low temperatures, and low pressures,
1190:. Intermolecular forces are experienced by molecules when they are within physical proximity of one another. These forces are very important for properly modeling molecular systems, as to accurately predict the microscopic behavior of molecules in
2434:. In order to illustrate this principle, observe the skin temperature of a frozen metal bar. Using a thermal image of the skin temperature, note the temperature distribution on the surface. This initial observation of temperature represents a "
1143:
Brownian motion is the mathematical model used to describe the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid. The gas particle animation, using pink and green particles, illustrates how this behavior results in the spreading out of gases
948:(the theoretical temperature at which atoms or molecules have no thermal energy, i.e. are not moving or vibrating), you begin to add energy to the system by heating the container, so that energy transfers to the particles inside. Once their
1769:
of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. The image of Boyle's equipment shows some of the exotic tools used by Boyle during his study of gases.
796:
of a gas that is identical throughout a system at equilibrium. 1000 atoms a gas occupy the same space as any other 1000 atoms for any given temperature and pressure. This concept is easier to visualize for solids such as iron which are
1907:, found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval. He noted that, for an ideal gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its temperature:
462:
result from electrostatic interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another; gases that contain permanently charged
2329:
object that the rest of the molecules "see" as the object approaches. This boundary layer can separate from the surface, essentially creating a new surface and completely changing the flow path. The classical example of this is a
925:
and geometric relationships of a cube to relate macroscopic system properties of temperature and pressure to the microscopic property of kinetic energy per molecule. The theory provides averaged values for these two properties.
843:. It can be shown by kinetic theory that the density is inversely proportional to the size of the container in which a fixed mass of gas is confined. In this case of a fixed mass, the density decreases as the volume increases.
570:, thereby making the number of particles and the temperature constant. He observed that when the pressure was increased in the gas, by adding more mercury to the column, the trapped gas' volume decreased (this is known as an
671:
3008:
1111:
are equally populated, and therefore equally utilized for storing energy within the molecule. It would imply that internal energy changes linearly with temperature, which is not the case. This ignores the fact that
475:
bonds contain permanent charge imbalances and so experience relatively strong intermolecular forces, although the compound's net charge remains neutral. Transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar
2879:
The authors make the connection between molecular forces of metals and their corresponding physical properties. By extension, this concept would apply to gases as well, though not universally. Cornell (1907) pp.
2067:
2184:
791:
properties, while properties that do not depend on the amount of gas are called intensive properties. Specific volume is an example of an intensive property because it is the ratio of volume occupied by a
545:
Macroscopically, the gas characteristics measured are either in terms of the gas particles themselves (velocity, pressure, or temperature) or their surroundings (volume). For example, Robert Boyle studied
2255:
The image of Dalton's journal depicts symbology he used as shorthand to record the path he followed. Among his key journal observations upon mixing unreactive "elastic fluids" (gases) were the following:
1976:
2851:
There is probably no foundation in the idea (found from the 18th cent. onwards, e.g. in J. Priestley On Air (1774) Introd. 3) that van
Helmont modelled gas on Dutch geest spirit, or any of its cognates
733:
speed. The variance of this distribution is due to the speeds of individual particles constantly varying, due to repeated collisions with other particles. The speed range can be described by the
1888:
2378:
viscosity than a liquid, it is still an observable property. If gases had no viscosity, then they would not stick to the surface of a wing and form a boundary layer. A study of the
2479:
1223:(see physical characteristics section). The van der Waals interactions between gas molecules, is the reason why modeling a "real gas" is more mathematically difficult than an "
651:
component of velocity changes. A particle traveling parallel to the wall does not change its momentum. Therefore, the average force on a surface must be the average change in
1254:
The intermolecular attractions and repulsions between two gas molecules depend on the distance between them. The combined attractions and repulsions are well-modelled by the
2667:
This early 20th century discussion infers what is regarded as the plasma state. See page 137 of
American Chemical Society, Faraday Society, Chemical Society (Great Britain)
1537:
1043:
and other real substances, the motions which define the kinetic energy of a system (which collectively determine the temperature), are much more complex than simple linear
451:
for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law (see
716:, temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy stored in a molecule (also known as the thermal energy). The methods of storing this energy are dictated by the
672:
990:
scopic particle collisions with the surface, over which, individual molecules exert a small force, each contributing to the total force applied within a specific area. (
674:
2889:
One noticeable exception to this physical property connection is conductivity which varies depending on the state of matter (ionic compounds in water) as described by
1461:
2778:, he states: "... in nominis egestate, halitum illum, Gas vocavi, non longe a Chao ..." (... in need of a name, I called this vapor "gas", not far from "chaos" ...)
1567:
1815:
484:. The interaction of these intermolecular forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas. A comparison of
708:. The volume of the balloon in the video shrinks when the trapped gas particles slow down with the addition of extremely cold nitrogen. The temperature of any
1347:
greater than any attractive potential energy, so they will only experience repulsion upon colliding. Thus, attractions between molecules can be neglected at
1194:
system, and therefore, are necessary for accurately predicting the physical properties of gases (and liquids) across wide variations in physical conditions.
1820:
Because the before and after volumes and pressures of the fixed amount of gas, where the before and after temperatures are the same both equal the constant
1585:
For an ideal gas, the ideal gas law applies without restrictions on the specific heat. An ideal gas is a simplified "real gas" with the assumption that the
3528:
1063:
3558:
1286:
energy), they experience a weak attracting force, causing them to move toward each other, lowering their potential energy. However, if the molecules are
1108:
1097:
1086:
717:
1740:
933:
can help explain how the system (the collection of gas particles being considered) responds to changes in temperature, with a corresponding change in
675:
1592:
is set to 1 meaning that this pneumatic ratio remains constant. A compressibility factor of one also requires the four state variables to follow the
2472:
2118:
1714:
where extremely high temperatures and pressures were present or the gases produced during geological events as in the image of the 1990 eruption of
2096:). This specific number of gas particles, at standard temperature and pressure (ideal gas law) occupies 22.40 liters, which is referred to as the
913:
provides insight into the macroscopic properties of gases by considering their molecular composition and motion. Starting with the definitions of
975:
happen (i.e. greater number of collisions per unit of time), between particles and the container, as well as between the particles themselves.
1707:
For most applications, such a detailed analysis is excessive. Examples where real gas effects would have a significant impact would be on the
3492:
3450:
3431:
3085:
2982:
2942:
578:
was constant. This relationship held for every gas that Boyle observed leading to the law, (PV=k), named to honor his work in this field.
2465:
1030:
905:
734:
2435:
2318:
in wind tunnel. The shadows form as the indices of refraction change within the gas as it compresses on the leading edge of this wing.
1057:
784:
458:
Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and consequently, have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These
2003:
3486:
2829:
2112:
193:
1913:
503:
and temperature influence the particles within a certain volume. This variation in particle separation and speed is referred to as
1490:
is the temperature. Written this way, it is sometimes called the "chemist's version", since it emphasizes the number of molecules
1068:
Specific to atomic or molecular systems, we could potentially have three different kinds of ensemble, depending on the situation:
150:, contains a variety of pure gases. What distinguishes gases from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas
2303:
value is very close to unity. The compressibility factor image illustrates how Z varies over a range of very cold temperatures.
673:
3825:
2333:. The delta wing image clearly shows the boundary layer thickening as the gas flows from right to left along the leading edge.
1084:
of the system (temperature, pressure, energy, etc.). In order to do that, we must first count all microstates though use of a
3895:
3820:
3551:
2532:
1690:
1103:
Using the partition function to find the energy of a molecule, or system of molecules, can sometimes be approximated by the
1055:. This finite range of possible motions, along with the finite set of molecules in the system, leads to a finite number of
4007:
3835:
2563:
3890:
3635:
2864:
4017:
2421:
3513:
595:
38:
2813:
295:, the first known gas other than air. Van Helmont's word appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription of the
4063:
2431:
2350:
1829:
922:
508:
2263:
Gas particle identity played no role in determining final pressure (they behaved as if their size was negligible).
4073:
3544:
2447:
2346:
1276:
742:
684:
381:
3151:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character
1727:
the gaseous state. The term is relevant to ambient temperature storage and transport of gases at high pressure.
662:
of force exerted by the particles impacting the walls of the container divided by the surface area of the wall.
4042:
3941:
3571:
1696:
1077:
167:
3355:
1290:
away, then they would not experience attractive force of any significance. Additionally, if the molecules get
3936:
2277:
1993:
1268:
1255:
1238:
1181:
1069:
901:
767:
507:. This particle separation and size influences optical properties of gases as can be found in the following
420:
288:
88:
3696:
3961:
3951:
3701:
2286:
1670:
1586:
1483:
1247:
1044:
820:
599:
1785:) for a given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. Stated as a formula, thus is:
2383:
1644:
1259:
1104:
881:
713:
575:
459:
2311:
835:
of a gas and the change in density during any process is governed by the laws of thermodynamics. For a
62:
This article is about the state of matter. For liquified petroleum gas used as an automotive fuel, see
3880:
3640:
3158:
3039:
2789:
2589:
1272:
1177:
705:
71:
1608:. It may also be useful to keep the elementary reactions and chemical dissociations for calculating
1500:
3855:
3747:
3737:
3650:
3605:
2104:
1987:
1711:
1700:
1656:
1208:
1203:
1173:
1113:
1052:
574:
relationship). Furthermore, when Boyle multiplied the pressure and volume of each observation, the
547:
481:
424:
408:
2774:, where he mentions: "... Gas (meum scil. inventum) ..." (... gas (namely, my discovery) ...). On
631:
4002:
3931:
3765:
3193:
2738:
2720:
2694:
1198:
1073:
968:
571:
407:
Because most gases are difficult to observe directly, they are described through the use of four
3146:
1666:
Real gas effects include those adjustments made to account for a greater range of gas behavior:
1047:
due to the more complex structure of molecules, compared to single atoms which act similarly to
2426:
As the total number of degrees of freedom approaches infinity, the system will be found in the
712:
is related to the motions of the particles (molecules and atoms) which make up the system. In
4032:
4027:
3997:
3956:
3845:
3797:
3782:
3675:
3645:
3482:
3446:
3427:
3260:
3252:
3213:
3174:
3127:
3081:
2978:
2938:
2712:
2191:
2085:
2078:
1415:
1391:
953:
889:
877:
648:
567:
472:
444:
412:
309:
179:
135:
3107:
2974:
2968:
2775:
2771:
2763:
1428:
827:
together when constrained by pressure or volume. This variation of density is referred to as
431:) and temperature. These four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as
379:), which signifies a ghost or spirit". That story is given no credence by the editors of the
3987:
3610:
3419:
3244:
3205:
3166:
3119:
3073:
3047:
2704:
2515:
2458:
1898:
1640:
1263:
840:
659:
468:
335:
127:
111:
2765:
Ortus medicine, id est initial physicae inaudita... authore Joanne
Baptista Van Helmont,...
1582:, although the exact assumptions may vary depending on the author and/or field of science.
1545:
3977:
3830:
3567:
3194:"A child of prediction. On the History, Ontology, and Computation of the Lennard-Jonesium"
2890:
2395:
1904:
1791:
1687:
Van der Waals forces (related to compressibility, can substitute other equations of state)
1186:
Forces between two or more molecules or atoms, either attractive or repulsive, are called
1138:
949:
828:
801:
compared to gases. However, volume itself --- not specific --- is an extensive property.
754:
709:
652:
591:
448:
436:
99:
3499:
2893:
in 1833 when he noted that ice does not conduct a current. See page 45 of John
Tyndall's
2214:
3461:
3162:
3067:
3043:
2386:
image reveals that the gas particles stick to one another (see Boundary layer section).
4068:
3775:
3770:
3727:
3660:
3655:
3077:
2606:
2330:
2323:
1759:
1216:
1048:
961:
918:
868:
832:
798:
386:
321:
292:
284:
139:
3400:
2103:
Avogadro's law states that the volume occupied by an ideal gas is proportional to the
1358:
Accounting for the above stated effects which cause these attractions and repulsions,
851:
4057:
4012:
3992:
3915:
3875:
3810:
3742:
3665:
2626:
2611:
1715:
1708:
1681:
1625:
1593:
1574:
1419:
945:
836:
787:. Properties which depend on the amount of gas (either by mass or volume) are called
780:
625:
598:
that fully account for viscous effects. This advanced math, including statistics and
477:
296:
3233:"Thermophysical Properties of the Lennard-Jones Fluid: Database and Data Assessment"
3232:
3147:"On the determination of molecular fields. —II. From the equation of state of a gas"
2724:
1620:
1029:, kinetic energy is assumed to purely consist of linear translations according to a
4037:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3865:
3815:
3732:
3522:
2708:
2621:
2568:
2551:
2108:
2097:
1765:
1334:. However, if you were to isothermally compress this cold gas into a small volume,
1299:
1220:
1120:
1107:, which greatly-simplifies calculation. However, this method assumes all molecular
721:
530:
524:
432:
396:
1322:
closer. Therefore, the attractive forces are strongest when the molecules move at
1080:. Specific combinations of microstates within an ensemble are how we truly define
839:, the density is the same throughout the entire container. Density is therefore a
154:. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer.
3946:
3840:
3752:
3620:
3209:
3052:
3027:
2650:
2616:
2220:
2206:
1609:
1579:
1409:
1377:
At high temperatures, and high pressures, the volume occupied by a real gas, is
725:
551:
539:
534:
440:
428:
244:
186:
158:
to very low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either
3506:
3885:
3860:
3787:
3757:
3691:
3670:
2575:
2427:
2379:
2357:
2341:
2315:
2202:
1764:
Boyle's law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state. In 1662
1605:
1370:
At low temperatures, and low pressures, the volume occupied by a real gas, is
1306:
than the attractions, so that any attraction due to proximity is disregarded.
488:
for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion.
480:
of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as
351:
347:
3256:
3248:
3178:
3131:
2372:
1750:
1601:
1232:
1212:
1125:
972:
738:
563:
559:
555:
512:
496:
241:
189:
163:
119:
3264:
3217:
3170:
3123:
2716:
3536:
2908:
2190:
is the amount of substance of gas (the number of molecules divided by the
1201:, one of the most prominent intermolecular forces throughout physics, are
892:, does not account for intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion.
515:
in order to homogeneously distribute themselves throughout any container.
4022:
3850:
2682:
2544:
2400:
In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces (
1736:
1633:
1228:
1149:
914:
860:
644:
640:
611:
554:
properties of pressure and volume of a gas. His experiment used a J-tube
500:
416:
233:
225:
221:
205:
197:
183:
159:
151:
67:
3231:
Stephan, Simon; Thol, Monika; Vrabec, Jadran; Hasse, Hans (2019-10-28).
581:
538:
within the region. In contrast, a smaller length scale corresponds to a
346:) – in which case Van Helmont simply was following the established
79:
3982:
3870:
3805:
3722:
3717:
2808:
2527:
1145:
810:
492:
389:
speculated that Van Helmont had borrowed the word from the German
371:
An alternative story is that Van Helmont's term was derived from "
260:
143:
63:
2260:
Unlike liquids, heavier gases did not drift to the bottom upon mixing.
550:
for a small portion of his career. One of his experiments related the
3591:
2505:
698:
529:
When observing gas, it is typical to specify a frame of reference or
248:
213:
131:
107:
17:
1282:
When two molecules are relatively distant (meaning they have a high
940:
For example: Imagine you have a sealed container of a fixed-size (a
166:. For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter, see
1628:, Alaska, illustrating real gases not in thermodynamic equilibrium.
944:
volume), containing a fixed-number of gas particles; starting from
819:(rho) with SI units of kilograms per cubic meter. This term is the
3600:
3586:
2699:
2500:
2340:
2310:
2276:
2201:
1749:
1619:
1237:
1119:
856:
850:
630:
580:
268:
264:
256:
115:
103:
84:
78:
2739:"Quantum Gas Microscope Offers Glimpse Of Quirky Ultracold Atoms"
1207:. Van der Waals forces play a key role in determining nearly all
1117:
this causes the molar heat capacity of the substance to increase.
888:, which makes the assumption that these collisions are perfectly
3192:
Lenhard, Johannes; Stephan, Simon; Hasse, Hans (February 2024).
2631:
2115:
is 22.4 dm/mol (liters per mole). The relation is given by
464:
329:
252:
123:
3540:
2349:
on 15 September 1999, shows a turbulent cloud pattern called a
2062:{\displaystyle {\frac {P_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {P_{2}}{T_{2}}}\,}
271:(Rn) – these gases are referred to as "elemental gases".
2179:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{n_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{n_{2}}},}
1351:
due to high speeds. At high temperatures, and high pressures,
1309:
As two molecules approach each other, from a distance that is
864:
729:
range (wider distribution of speeds) with a higher average or
147:
1971:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{T_{2}}}}
1092:
internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy, just to name a few. (
759:
The symbol used to represent specific volume in equations is
300:
3106:
Lenhard, Johannes; Stephan, Simon; Hasse, Hans (June 2024).
3028:"On the history of key empirical intermolecular potentials"
338:
3521:
3479:
Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion: Second Edition
2088:) is the number of atoms per mole of elemental carbon-12 (
1227:
gas". Ignoring these proximity-dependent forces allows a
884:, but it can be described by many different theories. The
2997:
For assumptions of kinetic theory see McPherson, pp.60–61
2866:
For Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life
1061:
within the system; we call the set of all microstates an
724:). Thermal (kinetic) energy added to a gas or liquid (an
1573:
The ideal gas law does not make an assumption about the
566:
gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column of
1271:, and a short-range repulsion due to electron-electron
1160:
Intermolecular forces - the primary difference between
679:
Air balloon shrinks after submersion in liquid nitrogen
491:
Compared to the other states of matter, gases have low
42:
3491:
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
2408:) which dominate a turbulent flow, to viscous forces (
1773:
between pressure and volume, the product of pressure (
1326:. This means that the attraction between molecules is
1258:, which is one of the most extensively studied of all
616:
The symbol used to represent pressure in equations is
2121:
2006:
1916:
1832:
1794:
1548:
1503:
1431:
1001:
Likewise, the macroscopically measurable quantity of
815:
The symbol used to represent density in equations is
3304:"14.11: Real and Ideal Gases - Chemistry LibreTexts"
2683:"—just right for forming a Bose-Einstein condensate"
772:
The symbol used to represent volume in equations is
3970:
3924:
3796:
3710:
3684:
3628:
3579:
1903:In 1787, the French physicist and balloon pioneer,
704:The speed of a gas particle is proportional to its
3026:Fischer, Johann; Wendland, Martin (October 2023).
2869:. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 199.
2178:
2061:
1970:
1882:
1809:
1561:
1531:
1455:
1242:Isothermal curves depicting the non-ideality of a
867:) move around freely in the absence of an applied
2345:Satellite view of weather pattern in vicinity of
70:. For the uses of gases, and other meanings, see
3532:. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). p. 481–493.
3279:"Lennard-Jones Potential - Chemistry LibreTexts"
2937:. Mineola: Dover Publications. pp. 319–20.
3460:McPherson, William; Henderson, William (1917).
3108:"On the History of the Lennard-Jones Potential"
1005:, is a quantification of the overall amount of
562:in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped an
831:. Like pressure and temperature, density is a
745:for the system of particles being considered.
3552:
2473:
1883:{\displaystyle \qquad P_{1}V_{1}=P_{2}V_{2}.}
647:of the particle. During a collision only the
639:When describing a container of gas, the term
635:Diagram showing particles' movement as lines.
385:. In contrast, the French-American historian
138:molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g.
8:
3237:Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
3198:Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
2669:The Journal of Physical Chemistry, Volume 11
1355:is the dominant intermolecular interaction.
1343:is the dominant intermolecular interaction.
763:with SI units of cubic meters per kilogram.
390:
2957:See pages 137–8 of Society, Cornell (1907).
1098:Partition function Meaning and significance
655:from all of these gas particle collisions.
130:molecules made from one type of atom (e.g.
26:
3559:
3545:
3537:
2480:
2466:
1381:the volume predicted by the ideal gas law.
1374:the volume predicted by the ideal gas law.
1124:Random motion of gas particles results in
452:
114:. A pure gas may be made up of individual
3520:Lewes, Vivian Byam; Lunge, Georg (1911).
3051:
2834:. New York: Harper and Sons. p. 178.
2698:
2165:
2155:
2149:
2138:
2128:
2122:
2120:
2058:
2050:
2040:
2034:
2023:
2013:
2007:
2005:
1960:
1950:
1944:
1933:
1923:
1917:
1915:
1871:
1861:
1848:
1838:
1831:
1793:
1741:Timeline of fluid and continuum mechanics
1553:
1547:
1517:
1502:
1430:
1294:then they will collide, and experience a
533:. A larger length scale corresponds to a
511:. Finally, gas particles spread apart or
354:. According to Paracelsus's terminology,
283:was first used by the early 17th-century
2910:Concept Development Studies in Chemistry
2456:
1997:gas is proportional to its temperature.
1235:, which greatly simplifies calculation.
1021:Thermal motion and statistical mechanics
669:
32:This is an accepted version of this page
2642:
1824:, they can be related by the equation:
1366:model by the following generalization:
28:
2849:. Oxford University Press. June 2021.
2107:in the volume. This gives rise to the
1684:(specific heats vary with temperature)
1246:The changes in volume (depicted by Z,
1148:). These events are also described by
1691:Non-equilibrium thermodynamic effects
1655:through different values such as the
350:usage first attested in the works of
7:
3007:Jeschke, Gunnar (26 November 2020).
783:analysis, it is typical to speak of
91:the movement of the surrounding gas.
2973:(3 ed.). McGraw-Hill. p.
2291:Thermodynamicists use this factor (
1418:for an ideal or perfect gas is the
737:. Use of this distribution implies
395:, meaning the froth resulting from
3078:10.1016/b978-0-12-391927-4.10024-6
2084:constant that bears his name (the
1647:by adjusting the equation to read
1486:, 8.314 J/(mol K), and
785:intensive and extensive properties
57:
3069:Intermolecular and Surface Forces
2762:Helmont, Jan Baptist Van (1652).
2363:Islands illustrates one example.
1478:is amount of gas (in mol units),
880:view of gas is well-described by
585:Shuttle imagery of re-entry phase
3619:
3463:An Elementary study of chemistry
3426:. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
3072:, Elsevier, 2011, pp. iii,
3015:from the original on 2021-05-20.
2770:The word "gas" first appears on
2681:Zelevinsky, Tanya (2009-11-09).
2430:that corresponds to the highest
2281:Compressibility factors for air.
1012:
334:
3477:Philip Hill and Carl Peterson.
2768:(in Latin). apud L. Elzevirium.
1833:
982:scopic, measurable quantity of
776:with SI units of cubic meters.
658:Pressure is the sum of all the
98:is one of the four fundamental
3512:Northwestern Michigan College
2790:"The Re-Designed Solar System"
2709:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.200401
1532:{\displaystyle P=\rho R_{s}T,}
986:is the direct result of these
906:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
735:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
332:" (voiceless velar fricative,
1:
4008:Macroscopic quantum phenomena
3145:Jones, J. E. (October 1924).
2828:Draper, John William (1861).
1298:repulsive force (modelled by
1009:that the particles exhibit. (
993:
689:The symbol used to represent
4018:Order and disorder (physics)
3424:Fundamentals of Aerodynamics
3306:. 2021-02-06. Archived from
3281:. 2020-08-22. Archived from
2422:Principle of maximum entropy
1494:. It can also be written as
453:§ Ideal and perfect gas
289:Jan Baptist van Helmont
66:. For gasoline ("gas"), see
3399:John P. Millington (1906).
3210:10.1016/j.shpsa.2023.11.007
3053:10.1016/j.fluid.2023.113876
2907:John S. Hutchinson (2008).
2814:Online Etymology Dictionary
1037:in the system. However, in
542:or particle point of view.
4090:
3498:Georgia State University.
2445:
2419:
2393:
2370:
2355:
2321:
2284:
2212:
2076:
1985:
1896:
1757:
1734:
1703:with variable composition.
1631:
1624:21 April 1990 eruption of
1407:
1389:
1197:Arising from the study of
1171:
1136:
899:
808:
765:
752:
682:
609:
522:
509:list of refractive indices
301:
61:
3617:
3516:. Accessed February 2008.
3509:. Accessed February 2008.
3502:. Accessed February 2008.
3495:. Accessed February 2008.
3362:. Oxford University Press
2933:J. Clerk Maxwell (1904).
2448:Thermodynamic equilibrium
2442:Thermodynamic equilibrium
2416:Maximum entropy principle
1677:allowed to vary from 1.0)
1330:when gas temperatures is
1277:Pauli exclusion principle
1275:(which is related to the
1007:motion, or kinetic energy
847:Microscopic view of gases
743:thermodynamic equilibrium
685:Thermodynamic temperature
594:for inviscid flow to the
519:Macroscopic view of gases
471:. Gaseous compounds with
382:Oxford English Dictionary
240:). When grouped with the
4043:Thermo-dielectric effect
3942:Enthalpy of vaporization
3636:Bose–Einstein condensate
3249:10.1021/acs.jcim.9b00620
2863:Barzun, Jacques (2000).
2792:. For Your Information.
2788:Ley, Willy (June 1966).
1078:grand canonical ensemble
923:conservation of momentum
720:of the molecule itself (
427:(chemists group them by
403:Physical characteristics
168:list of states of matter
39:latest accepted revision
3937:Enthalpy of sublimation
3529:Encyclopædia Britannica
3360:www.oxfordreference.com
2895:Faraday as a Discoverer
2845:""gas, n.1 and adj."".
2831:A textbook on chemistry
2347:Robinson Crusoe Islands
1994:Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
1671:Compressibility effects
1645:thermodynamic processes
1456:{\displaystyle PV=nRT,}
1269:London dispersion force
1256:Lennard-Jones potential
1182:Lennard-Jones potential
1070:microcanonical ensemble
1027:kinetic theory of gases
931:kinetic theory of gases
902:Kinetic theory of gases
896:Kinetic theory of gases
886:kinetic theory of gases
768:Volume (thermodynamics)
596:Navier–Stokes equations
3952:Latent internal energy
3702:Color-glass condensate
3481:Addison-Wesley, 1992.
3171:10.1098/rspa.1924.0082
3124:10.1002/andp.202400115
3032:Fluid Phase Equilibria
2794:Galaxy Science Fiction
2353:
2319:
2287:Compressibility factor
2282:
2210:
2180:
2063:
1972:
1884:
1811:
1755:
1695:Issues with molecular
1629:
1587:compressibility factor
1563:
1533:
1484:universal gas constant
1457:
1260:interatomic potentials
1251:
1248:compressibility factor
1231:to be treated like an
1129:
960:energy (also known as
872:
680:
636:
600:multivariable calculus
586:
391:
324:being pronounced like
92:
3762:Magnetically ordered
3405:. pp. 72, 77–78.
3327:Anderson, pp. 289–291
2967:Kenneth Wark (1977).
2344:
2314:
2280:
2205:
2181:
2064:
1973:
1885:
1812:
1753:
1651:and then varying the
1623:
1564:
1562:{\displaystyle R_{s}}
1534:
1458:
1404:Ideal and perfect gas
1362:, delineate from the
1241:
1188:intermolecular forces
1123:
1105:Equipartition theorem
882:statistical mechanics
855:Gas-phase particles (
854:
714:statistical mechanics
678:
634:
584:
460:intermolecular forces
358:meant something like
82:
3641:Fermionic condensate
3441:John, James (1984).
3009:"Canonical Ensemble"
2351:Kármán vortex street
2119:
2004:
1914:
1830:
1810:{\displaystyle PV=k}
1792:
1701:elementary reactions
1546:
1501:
1429:
1273:exchange interaction
1204:van der Waals forces
1178:Intermolecular force
823:of specific volume.
706:absolute temperature
482:Van der Waals forces
363:ultra-rarefied water
72:Gas (disambiguation)
3856:Chemical ionization
3748:Programmable matter
3738:Quantum spin liquid
3606:Supercritical fluid
3445:. Allyn and Bacon.
3389:McPherson, pp.55–60
3380:McPherson, pp.52–55
3163:1924RSPSA.106..463J
3044:2023FlPEq.57313876F
2488:
2197:
2111:of a gas, which at
2105:amount of substance
2072:
1981:
1892:
1745:
1731:Historical research
1657:specific heat ratio
1386:Mathematical models
1304:much stronger force
1209:physical properties
1174:van der Waals force
558:which looks like a
548:pneumatic chemistry
425:number of particles
409:physical properties
29:Page version status
4003:Leidenfrost effect
3932:Enthalpy of fusion
3697:Quark–gluon plasma
3112:Annalen der Physik
2796:. pp. 94–106.
2457:
2354:
2320:
2283:
2211:
2176:
2059:
1968:
1880:
1807:
1756:
1630:
1602:combustion chamber
1559:
1529:
1453:
1252:
1211:of fluids such as
1199:physical chemistry
1130:
1109:degrees of freedom
1087:partition function
1074:canonical ensemble
1031:speed distribution
1013:§ Temperature
921:, one can use the
873:
779:When performing a
718:degrees of freedom
681:
637:
587:
93:
35:
4064:Phase transitions
4051:
4050:
4033:Superheated vapor
4028:Superconductivity
3998:Equation of state
3846:Flash evaporation
3798:Phase transitions
3783:String-net liquid
3676:Photonic molecule
3646:Degenerate matter
3514:The Gaseous State
3452:978-0-205-08014-4
3433:978-0-07-001656-9
3420:Anderson, John D.
3243:(10): 4248–4265.
3087:978-0-12-391927-4
2984:978-0-07-068280-1
2944:978-0-486-41735-6
2807:Harper, Douglas.
2597:
2596:
2459:Phase transitions
2192:Avogadro constant
2171:
2144:
2086:Avogadro constant
2056:
2029:
1966:
1939:
1781:) is a constant (
1754:Boyle's equipment
1470:is the pressure,
1416:equation of state
1398:equation of state
1392:Equation of state
1349:high temperatures
954:zero-point energy
697:with SI units of
676:
660:normal components
624:with SI units of
445:Joseph Gay-Lussac
415:characteristics:
180:chemical elements
102:. The others are
16:(Redirected from
4081:
4074:Phases of matter
3988:Compressed fluid
3623:
3568:States of matter
3561:
3554:
3547:
3538:
3533:
3525:
3493:Animated Gas Lab
3467:
3456:
3437:
3407:
3406:
3396:
3390:
3387:
3381:
3378:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3352:
3346:
3345:John, pp. 247–56
3343:
3337:
3334:
3328:
3325:
3319:
3318:
3316:
3315:
3300:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3290:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3189:
3183:
3182:
3157:(738): 463–477.
3142:
3136:
3135:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3064:
3058:
3057:
3055:
3023:
3017:
3016:
3004:
2998:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2964:
2958:
2955:
2949:
2948:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2915:
2914:
2904:
2898:
2887:
2881:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2860:
2854:
2853:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2785:
2779:
2769:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2749:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2702:
2678:
2672:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2657:. 7 August 2023.
2647:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2468:
2331:stalling airfoil
2245:+ ... + Pressure
2185:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2160:
2159:
2150:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2133:
2132:
2123:
2095:
2093:
2068:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2054:
2045:
2044:
2035:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2018:
2017:
2008:
1988:Gay-Lussac's law
1982:Gay-Lussac's law
1977:
1975:
1974:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1964:
1955:
1954:
1945:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1928:
1927:
1918:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1875:
1866:
1865:
1853:
1852:
1843:
1842:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1538:
1536:
1535:
1530:
1522:
1521:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1454:
1264:potential energy
956:, meaning their
693:in equations is
677:
455:section below).
394:
367:
364:
361:
345:
344:
341:
340:
315:
312:
307:
304:
303:
291:. He identified
182:that are stable
100:states of matter
47:7 September 2024
21:
4089:
4088:
4084:
4083:
4082:
4080:
4079:
4078:
4054:
4053:
4052:
4047:
3978:Baryonic matter
3966:
3920:
3891:Saturated fluid
3831:Crystallization
3792:
3766:Antiferromagnet
3706:
3680:
3624:
3615:
3575:
3565:
3519:
3474:
3472:Further reading
3459:
3453:
3440:
3434:
3418:
3415:
3410:
3398:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3365:
3363:
3356:"Permanent gas"
3354:
3353:
3349:
3344:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3326:
3322:
3313:
3311:
3302:
3301:
3297:
3288:
3286:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3191:
3190:
3186:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3105:
3104:
3100:
3092:
3090:
3088:
3066:
3065:
3061:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3006:
3005:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2985:
2966:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2945:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2923:Anderson, p.501
2922:
2918:
2906:
2905:
2901:
2891:Michael Faraday
2888:
2884:
2878:
2874:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2827:
2826:
2822:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2787:
2786:
2782:
2761:
2760:
2756:
2747:
2745:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2671:Cornell (1907).
2666:
2662:
2655:Merriam-Webster
2649:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2603:
2598:
2497:
2494:
2486:
2450:
2444:
2424:
2418:
2405:
2398:
2396:Reynolds number
2392:
2390:Reynolds number
2375:
2369:
2360:
2339:
2326:
2309:
2289:
2275:
2273:Compressibility
2270:
2250:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2217:
2200:
2161:
2151:
2134:
2124:
2117:
2116:
2091:
2089:
2081:
2075:
2046:
2036:
2019:
2009:
2002:
2001:
1990:
1984:
1956:
1946:
1929:
1919:
1912:
1911:
1905:Jacques Charles
1901:
1895:
1867:
1857:
1844:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1790:
1789:
1762:
1748:
1743:
1733:
1724:
1636:
1618:
1549:
1544:
1543:
1513:
1499:
1498:
1474:is the volume,
1427:
1426:
1412:
1406:
1394:
1388:
1262:describing the
1184:
1172:Main articles:
1170:
1150:particle theory
1141:
1139:Brownian motion
1135:
1133:Brownian motion
1023:
994:§ Pressure
950:internal energy
908:
900:Main articles:
898:
849:
841:scalar quantity
829:compressibility
813:
807:
770:
757:
755:Specific volume
751:
749:Specific volume
710:physical system
687:
670:
668:
653:linear momentum
614:
608:
592:Euler equations
527:
521:
505:compressibility
449:Amedeo Avogadro
437:Jacques Charles
405:
365:
362:
359:
337:
333:
313:
308:
305:
277:
239:
231:
219:
211:
203:
176:
174:Elemental gases
75:
60:
59:State of matter
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4087:
4085:
4077:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4056:
4055:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3974:
3972:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3964:
3959:
3957:Trouton's rule
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3928:
3926:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3826:Critical point
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3802:
3800:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3728:Liquid crystal
3725:
3720:
3714:
3712:
3708:
3707:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3661:Strange matter
3658:
3656:Rydberg matter
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3632:
3630:
3626:
3625:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3594:
3589:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3576:
3566:
3564:
3563:
3556:
3549:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3496:
3489:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3457:
3451:
3438:
3432:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3408:
3391:
3382:
3373:
3347:
3338:
3329:
3320:
3295:
3270:
3223:
3184:
3137:
3098:
3086:
3059:
3018:
2999:
2990:
2983:
2970:Thermodynamics
2959:
2950:
2943:
2935:Theory of Heat
2925:
2916:
2899:
2882:
2872:
2855:
2837:
2820:
2799:
2780:
2754:
2730:
2673:
2660:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2607:Greenhouse gas
2602:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2573:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2549:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2485:
2484:
2477:
2470:
2462:
2455:
2446:Main article:
2443:
2440:
2420:Main article:
2417:
2414:
2403:
2394:Main article:
2391:
2388:
2371:Main article:
2368:
2365:
2356:Main article:
2338:
2335:
2324:Boundary layer
2322:Main article:
2308:
2307:Boundary layer
2305:
2285:Main article:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2268:Special topics
2266:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2253:
2252:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2213:Main article:
2199:
2196:
2175:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2141:
2137:
2131:
2127:
2079:Avogadro's law
2077:Main article:
2074:
2073:Avogadro's law
2071:
2070:
2069:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2039:
2033:
2026:
2022:
2016:
2012:
1986:Main article:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1978:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1936:
1932:
1926:
1922:
1897:Main article:
1894:
1891:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1837:
1818:
1817:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1777:) and volume (
1758:Main article:
1747:
1744:
1732:
1729:
1723:
1720:
1705:
1704:
1693:
1688:
1685:
1678:
1632:Main article:
1617:
1614:
1556:
1552:
1540:
1539:
1528:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1464:
1463:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1408:Main article:
1405:
1402:
1390:Main article:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1375:
1169:
1158:
1137:Main article:
1134:
1131:
1022:
1019:
935:kinetic energy
919:kinetic energy
911:Kinetic theory
897:
894:
869:electric field
848:
845:
833:state variable
809:Main article:
806:
803:
799:incompressible
753:Main article:
750:
747:
683:Main article:
667:
664:
610:Main article:
607:
604:
520:
517:
486:boiling points
478:covalent bonds
473:polar covalent
404:
401:
387:Jacques Barzun
293:carbon dioxide
276:
273:
237:
229:
217:
209:
201:
175:
172:
140:carbon dioxide
58:
56:
36:
30:
27:
25:
24:
23:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4086:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4013:Mpemba effect
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3993:Cooling curve
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3975:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3923:
3917:
3916:Vitrification
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3881:Recombination
3879:
3877:
3876:Melting point
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3821:Critical line
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3811:Boiling point
3809:
3807:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3795:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3743:Exotic matter
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3683:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3627:
3622:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3582:
3578:
3573:
3569:
3562:
3557:
3555:
3550:
3548:
3543:
3542:
3539:
3531:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3515:
3511:
3508:
3505:Antony Lewis
3504:
3501:
3497:
3494:
3490:
3488:
3487:0-201-14659-2
3484:
3480:
3476:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3464:
3458:
3454:
3448:
3444:
3439:
3435:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3416:
3412:
3404:
3403:
3395:
3392:
3386:
3383:
3377:
3374:
3361:
3357:
3351:
3348:
3342:
3339:
3333:
3330:
3324:
3321:
3310:on 2021-02-06
3309:
3305:
3299:
3296:
3285:on 2020-08-22
3284:
3280:
3274:
3271:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3188:
3185:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3102:
3099:
3089:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3070:
3063:
3060:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3022:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3003:
3000:
2994:
2991:
2986:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2963:
2960:
2954:
2951:
2946:
2940:
2936:
2929:
2926:
2920:
2917:
2913:. p. 67.
2912:
2911:
2903:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2886:
2883:
2876:
2873:
2868:
2867:
2859:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2838:
2833:
2832:
2824:
2821:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2803:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2784:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2758:
2755:
2744:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2674:
2670:
2664:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2637:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2627:Breathing gas
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2612:List of gases
2610:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2593:
2591:
2590:Recombination
2588:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2491:
2490:
2483:
2478:
2476:
2471:
2469:
2464:
2463:
2460:
2454:
2449:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2423:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2407:
2397:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2374:
2366:
2364:
2359:
2352:
2348:
2343:
2336:
2334:
2332:
2325:
2317:
2313:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2288:
2279:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2251:
2249:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2227:
2222:
2216:
2208:
2204:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2173:
2166:
2162:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2125:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2087:
2080:
2051:
2047:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2010:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1989:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1947:
1941:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1920:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1900:
1899:Charles's law
1893:Charles's law
1890:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1835:
1825:
1823:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1788:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1770:
1767:
1761:
1752:
1742:
1738:
1730:
1728:
1722:Permanent gas
1721:
1719:
1717:
1716:Mount Redoubt
1713:
1710:
1709:Space Shuttle
1702:
1698:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1682:heat capacity
1679:
1676:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1649:pV = constant
1646:
1642:
1635:
1627:
1626:Mount Redoubt
1622:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1597:
1595:
1594:ideal gas law
1591:
1588:
1583:
1581:
1576:
1575:heat capacity
1571:
1554:
1550:
1526:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1497:
1496:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1420:ideal gas law
1417:
1411:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1393:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1344:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1305:
1302:) which is a
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1140:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1115:
1114:heat capacity
1110:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1065:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1008:
1004:
999:
997:
995:
989:
985:
981:
976:
974:
970:
966:
964:
959:
955:
951:
947:
946:absolute zero
943:
938:
936:
932:
927:
924:
920:
916:
912:
907:
903:
895:
893:
891:
887:
883:
879:
870:
866:
862:
858:
853:
846:
844:
842:
838:
834:
830:
824:
822:
818:
812:
804:
802:
800:
795:
790:
786:
782:
781:thermodynamic
777:
775:
769:
764:
762:
756:
748:
746:
744:
740:
736:
732:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
702:
700:
696:
692:
686:
665:
663:
661:
656:
654:
650:
646:
642:
633:
629:
627:
623:
619:
613:
605:
603:
601:
597:
593:
583:
579:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
543:
541:
536:
532:
526:
518:
516:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
489:
487:
483:
479:
474:
470:
467:are known as
466:
461:
456:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
402:
400:
398:
393:
388:
384:
383:
378:
374:
369:
357:
353:
349:
343:
331:
327:
323:
319:
311:
298:
297:Ancient Greek
294:
290:
286:
282:
274:
272:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
243:
235:
227:
223:
215:
207:
199:
195:
191:
188:
185:
181:
173:
171:
169:
165:
161:
155:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
90:
86:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
4038:Superheating
3911:Vaporization
3906:Triple point
3901:Supercooling
3866:Lambda point
3816:Condensation
3733:Time crystal
3711:Other states
3651:Quantum Hall
3596:
3527:
3500:HyperPhysics
3478:
3462:
3443:Gas Dynamics
3442:
3423:
3401:
3394:
3385:
3376:
3364:. Retrieved
3359:
3350:
3341:
3332:
3323:
3312:. Retrieved
3308:the original
3298:
3287:. Retrieved
3283:the original
3273:
3240:
3236:
3226:
3201:
3197:
3187:
3154:
3150:
3140:
3115:
3111:
3101:
3091:, retrieved
3068:
3062:
3035:
3031:
3021:
3002:
2993:
2969:
2962:
2953:
2934:
2928:
2919:
2909:
2902:
2894:
2885:
2875:
2865:
2858:
2850:
2846:
2840:
2830:
2823:
2812:
2802:
2793:
2783:
2764:
2757:
2746:. Retrieved
2743:ScienceDaily
2742:
2733:
2690:
2686:
2676:
2668:
2663:
2654:
2645:
2622:Volcanic gas
2569:Condensation
2552:Vaporization
2510:
2451:
2432:multiplicity
2425:
2409:
2401:
2399:
2376:
2361:
2327:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2290:
2254:
2247:
2232:
2228:species as:
2225:
2218:
2215:Dalton's law
2209:'s notation.
2198:Dalton's law
2187:
2109:molar volume
2102:
2098:molar volume
2082:
1991:
1902:
1826:
1821:
1819:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1771:
1766:Robert Boyle
1763:
1725:
1706:
1697:dissociation
1674:
1665:
1660:
1652:
1648:
1637:
1598:
1589:
1584:
1572:
1541:
1491:
1487:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1465:
1413:
1397:
1395:
1379:greater than
1378:
1371:
1363:
1359:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1308:
1303:
1300:Hard spheres
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1281:
1253:
1243:
1224:
1221:gas dynamics
1202:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1185:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1142:
1102:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1062:
1056:
1049:point-masses
1039:
1038:
1034:
1026:
1024:
1010:
1006:
1002:
1000:
991:
987:
983:
979:
977:
962:
957:
941:
939:
934:
930:
928:
910:
909:
885:
874:
825:
816:
814:
794:unit of mass
793:
788:
778:
773:
771:
760:
758:
730:
722:energy modes
703:
694:
690:
688:
657:
638:
621:
617:
615:
588:
544:
531:length scale
528:
525:Gas kinetics
504:
490:
485:
457:
433:Robert Boyle
406:
397:fermentation
380:
376:
372:
370:
355:
325:
317:
316: – the
280:
278:
177:
156:
95:
94:
76:
46:
37:This is the
31:
3947:Latent heat
3896:Sublimation
3841:Evaporation
3776:Ferromagnet
3771:Ferrimagnet
3753:Dark matter
3685:High energy
3523:"Gas"
3402:John Dalton
3336:John, p.205
3204:: 105–113.
2617:Natural gas
2533:Sublimation
2461:of matter (
2221:John Dalton
2094:10 mol
1760:Boyle's law
1746:Boyle's law
1580:perfect gas
1410:Perfect gas
1328:significant
1318:physically
1058:microstates
1045:translation
1003:temperature
878:microscopic
739:ideal gases
726:endothermic
691:temperature
666:Temperature
552:macroscopic
540:microscopic
535:macroscopic
441:John Dalton
413:macroscopic
245:noble gases
220:), and two
187:homonuclear
164:Fermi gases
4058:Categories
3962:Volatility
3925:Quantities
3886:Regelation
3861:Ionization
3836:Deposition
3788:Superglass
3758:Antimatter
3692:QCD matter
3671:Supersolid
3666:Superfluid
3629:Low energy
3413:References
3314:2021-05-20
3289:2021-05-20
3093:2024-07-01
3038:: 113876.
2847:OED Online
2748:2023-02-06
2693:(20): 94.
2576:Ionization
2564:Deposition
2436:microstate
2428:macrostate
2380:delta wing
2358:Turbulence
2337:Turbulence
2316:Delta wing
2241:+ Pressure
2237:= Pressure
1735:See also:
1606:jet engine
1422:and reads
1360:real gases
1341:attraction
1324:low speeds
1082:macrostate
1040:real gases
973:collisions
837:static gas
821:reciprocal
766:See also:
523:See also:
352:Paracelsus
348:alchemical
267:(Xe), and
160:Bose gases
146:, such as
87:particles
3257:1549-9596
3179:0950-1207
3132:0003-3804
2700:0910.0634
2384:Schlieren
2373:Viscosity
2367:Viscosity
2219:In 1801,
1992:In 1802,
1680:Variable
1610:emissions
1511:ρ
1372:less than
1364:ideal gas
1353:repulsion
1313:too-far,
1296:very high
1292:too close
1284:potential
1244:real gas.
1233:ideal gas
1217:flow rate
1213:viscosity
1126:diffusion
1053:vibration
1035:particles
984:pressure,
971:at which
952:is above
861:molecules
789:extensive
560:test tube
556:manometer
497:viscosity
279:The word
275:Etymology
242:monatomic
192:gases at
190:molecular
178:The only
152:particles
142:). A gas
128:elemental
120:noble gas
83:Drifting
4023:Spinodal
3971:Concepts
3851:Freezing
3422:(1984).
3265:31609113
3218:38128443
3013:Archived
2725:14321276
2717:20365964
2601:See also
2545:Freezing
2233:Pressure
1737:Gas laws
1712:re-entry
1634:Real gas
1616:Real gas
1229:real gas
1064:ensemble
942:constant
915:momentum
645:momentum
641:pressure
612:Pressure
606:Pressure
501:Pressure
417:pressure
287:chemist
247:–
234:chlorine
226:fluorine
222:halogens
206:nitrogen
198:hydrogen
184:diatomic
136:compound
118:(e.g. a
89:indicate
68:gasoline
43:reviewed
3983:Binodal
3871:Melting
3806:Boiling
3723:Crystal
3718:Colloid
3507:WordWeb
3366:3 April
3159:Bibcode
3040:Bibcode
2897:(1868).
2776:page 59
2772:page 58
2687:Physics
2582:Plasma
2541:Liquid
2528:Melting
2382:in the
2297:Usually
1482:is the
1336:forcing
1311:neither
1288:too far
1146:entropy
1025:In the
963:thermal
958:kinetic
890:elastic
811:Density
805:Density
699:kelvins
626:pascals
576:product
572:inverse
568:mercury
513:diffuse
493:density
469:plasmas
285:Flemish
261:krypton
144:mixture
64:autogas
3611:Plasma
3592:Liquid
3485:
3449:
3430:
3263:
3255:
3216:
3177:
3130:
3084:
2981:
2941:
2880:164–5.
2723:
2715:
2522:Solid
2516:Plasma
2506:Liquid
2207:Dalton
2186:where
1641:plasma
1542:where
1466:where
1219:, and
1180:, and
965:energy
649:normal
421:volume
392:Gäscht
263:(Kr),
259:(Ar),
255:(Ne),
251:(He),
249:helium
232:) and
214:oxygen
134:), or
132:oxygen
112:plasma
110:, and
108:liquid
4069:Gases
3601:Vapor
3587:Solid
3580:State
3118:(6).
2809:"gas"
2721:S2CID
2695:arXiv
2651:"Gas"
2638:Notes
2501:Solid
2299:this
2235:total
2090:6.022
1604:of a
1225:ideal
1168:gases
1166:Ideal
1076:, or
1011:Read
992:Read
988:micro
980:macro
863:, or
857:atoms
741:near
564:inert
429:moles
377:geist
373:gahst
356:chaos
322:Dutch
310:chaos
299:word
269:radon
265:xenon
257:argon
122:like
116:atoms
104:solid
85:smoke
18:Gases
3572:list
3483:ISBN
3447:ISBN
3428:ISBN
3368:2021
3261:PMID
3253:ISSN
3214:PMID
3175:ISSN
3128:ISSN
3082:ISBN
2979:ISBN
2939:ISBN
2713:PMID
2632:Wind
2560:Gas
2496:From
1739:and
1699:and
1414:The
1320:move
1164:and
1162:Real
1094:Read
978:The
969:rate
929:The
917:and
904:and
865:ions
731:mean
495:and
465:ions
447:and
375:(or
330:loch
328:in "
302:χάος
253:neon
196:are
124:neon
3597:Gas
3245:doi
3206:doi
3202:103
3167:doi
3155:106
3120:doi
3116:536
3074:doi
3048:doi
3036:573
2705:doi
2511:Gas
2410:μ/L
2194:).
2113:STP
1396:An
1332:low
1315:nor
1279:).
1192:any
1033:of
774:"V"
761:"v"
622:"P"
620:or
618:"p"
411:or
320:in
281:gas
236:(Cl
212:),
204:),
194:STP
162:or
148:air
126:),
96:Gas
45:on
4060::
3599:/
3526:.
3358:.
3259:.
3251:.
3241:59
3239:.
3235:.
3212:.
3200:.
3196:.
3173:.
3165:.
3153:.
3149:.
3126:.
3114:.
3110:.
3080:,
3046:.
3034:.
3030:.
3011:.
2977:.
2975:12
2811:.
2741:.
2719:.
2711:.
2703:.
2689:.
2685:.
2653:.
2493:To
2487:)
2100:.
1718:.
1663:.
1659:,
1612:.
1596:.
1215:,
1176:,
1152:.
1100:)
1096::
1072:,
1017:)
998:)
937:.
859:,
701:.
628:.
499:.
443:,
439:,
435:,
423:,
419:,
399:.
368:.
326:ch
228:(F
224::
216:(O
208:(N
200:(H
170:.
106:,
41:,
3574:)
3570:(
3560:e
3553:t
3546:v
3466:.
3455:.
3436:.
3370:.
3317:.
3292:.
3267:.
3247::
3220:.
3208::
3181:.
3169::
3161::
3134:.
3122::
3076::
3056:.
3050::
3042::
2987:.
2947:.
2817:.
2751:.
2727:.
2707::
2697::
2691:2
2481:e
2474:t
2467:v
2406:ρ
2404:s
2402:v
2301:Z
2293:Z
2248:n
2243:2
2239:1
2226:n
2188:n
2174:,
2167:2
2163:n
2157:2
2153:V
2147:=
2140:1
2136:n
2130:1
2126:V
2092:×
2052:2
2048:T
2042:2
2038:P
2032:=
2025:1
2021:T
2015:1
2011:P
1962:2
1958:T
1952:2
1948:V
1942:=
1935:1
1931:T
1925:1
1921:V
1878:.
1873:2
1869:V
1863:2
1859:P
1855:=
1850:1
1846:V
1840:1
1836:P
1822:k
1805:k
1802:=
1799:V
1796:P
1783:k
1779:V
1775:P
1675:Z
1673:(
1661:γ
1653:n
1590:Z
1555:s
1551:R
1527:,
1524:T
1519:s
1515:R
1508:=
1505:P
1492:n
1488:T
1480:R
1476:n
1472:V
1468:P
1451:,
1448:T
1445:R
1442:n
1439:=
1436:V
1433:P
1144:(
1128:.
1089:.
1066:.
1015:.
996:.
871:.
817:ρ
695:T
366:'
360:'
342:/
339:x
336:/
318:g
314:'
306:'
238:2
230:2
218:2
210:2
202:2
74:.
49:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
