175:
1072:
925:
971:
884:
872:
467:
983:
1034:
959:
860:
1007:
25:
1060:
1048:
1084:
995:
1108:
1024:
947:
848:
1096:
896:
162:
The manufacturing of geomembranes begins with the production of the raw materials, which include the polymer resin, and various additives such as antioxidants, plasticizers, fillers, carbon black, and lubricants (as a processing aid). These raw materials (i.e., the "formulation") are then processed
438:
The fundamental mechanism of seaming polymeric geomembrane sheets together is to temporarily reorganize the polymer structure (by melting or softening) of the two opposing surfaces to be joined in a controlled manner that, after the application of pressure, results in the two sheets being bonded
360:, bond breaking, additive depletion, or extraction within the geomembrane must be considered as compromising to its long-term performance. There are a number of potential concerns in this regard. While each is material-specific, the general behavior trend is to cause the geomembrane to become
454:
across the two sheets, and the joined sheets should perform as one single geomembrane sheet. However, due to stress concentrations resulting from the seam geometry, current seaming techniques may result in minor tensile strength and/or elongation loss relative to the parent sheet. The
318:
There are a number of mechanical tests that have been developed to determine the strength of polymeric sheet materials. Many have been adopted for use in evaluating geomembranes. They represent both quality control and design, i.e., index versus performance tests.
182:
A 2010 estimate cited geomembranes as the largest geosynthetic material in dollar terms at US$ 1.8 billion per year worldwide, which is 35% of the market. The US market is currently divided between HDPE, LLDPE, fPP, PVC, CSPE-R, EPDM-R and others (such as EIA-R and
281:). Lastly, the Geosynthetic Research Institute (GRI) has developed test methods that are only for test methods not addressed by ASTM or ISO. Of course, individual countries and manufacturers often have specific (and sometimes) proprietary test methods.
133:
related material so as to control fluid (liquid or gas) migration in a human-made project, structure, or system. Geomembranes are made from relatively thin continuous polymeric sheets, but they can also be made from the impregnation of
368:, the increase (then decrease) in stress at failure (i.e., strength), and the general loss of ductility. Obviously, many of the physical and mechanical properties could be used to monitor the polymeric degradation process.
400:, either by high stress, elevated temperatures and/or aggressive liquids, is the only way to determine how the material will behave long-term. Lifetime prediction methods use the following means of interpreting the data:
364:
in its stress-strain behavior over time. There are several mechanical properties to track in monitoring such long term degradation: the decrease in elongation at failure, the increase in
253:
The above represents approximately $ 1.8 billion in worldwide sales. Projections for future geomembrane usage are strongly dependent on the application and geographical location.
796:
1761:
273:
The majority of generic geomembrane test methods that are referenced worldwide are by the ASTM International|American
Society of Testing and Materials (
789:
261:
5%), while in other parts of the world growth could be dramatic (10–15%). Perhaps the greatest increases will be seen in the containment of
277:) due to their long history in this activity. More recent are test method developed by the International Organization for Standardization (
474:
Geomembranes have been used in the following environmental, geotechnical, hydraulic, transportation, and private development applications:
814:
782:
629:
108:
201:
184:
151:
46:
1464:
1345:
887:
232:
126:
89:
61:
42:
174:
1932:
1777:
407:
A method by the HDPE pipe industry in the United States for determining the value of hydrostatic design basis stress.
419:
A method that utilizes biaxial stresses and stress relaxation for lifetime prediction and can include seams as well.
1377:
822:
68:
35:
1680:
1075:
191:
1756:
1746:
1618:
1608:
1438:
1176:
974:
805:
397:
130:
875:
455:
characteristics of the seamed area are a function of the type of geomembrane and the seaming technique used.
75:
1596:
1571:
1511:
1191:
1132:
986:
618:
962:
1927:
1859:
1670:
1484:
1320:
1295:
1216:
1146:
1125:
1017:
1546:
1355:
863:
365:
57:
1010:
1899:
1751:
1708:
1601:
1526:
1063:
909:
683:
447:
processes. These processes may involve the addition of additional polymer in the area to be bonded.
413:
Used in Europe for pipes and geomembranes, the method yields similar results as stress limit testing.
1675:
1665:
1206:
1166:
1139:
914:
904:
336:
950:
1626:
1335:
1118:
1037:
274:
211:
1937:
1723:
1469:
1360:
1181:
709:
331:
1773:
1660:
1551:
1516:
1491:
1350:
1171:
699:
691:
451:
396:
Geomembranes degrade slowly enough that their lifetime behavior is as yet uncharted. Thus,
1806:
1071:
924:
439:
together. This reorganization results from an input of energy that originates from either
1889:
1713:
1631:
1566:
1561:
1459:
1325:
1196:
1051:
970:
883:
466:
326:
301:
187:), and can be summarized as follows: (Note that M m refers to millions of square meters.)
470:
Geomembrane installation as part of the construction of a base liner system of a landfill
82:
871:
695:
687:
1836:
1728:
1645:
1449:
1211:
1201:
1087:
982:
704:
671:
517:
As liners for primary, secondary, and/or tertiary solid-waste landfills and waste piles
254:
1033:
958:
859:
1921:
1864:
1703:
1581:
1576:
1300:
1221:
426:
357:
222:
1884:
1879:
1869:
1849:
1536:
1479:
1310:
1027:
1894:
1474:
1413:
526:
As covers for aerobic and anaerobic manure digesters in the agriculture industry
242:
135:
24:
16:
Thin barrier used to control fluids; usually applied to structures or landscapes
1006:
289:
The main physical properties of geomembranes in the as-manufactured state are:
1718:
1698:
1586:
1398:
1393:
1315:
1305:
1186:
1059:
1047:
931:
851:
747:
Construction of
Linings for Reservoirs, Tanks and Pollution Control Foundation
604:
To aid in establishing uniformity of subsurface compressibility and subsidence
1874:
1854:
1740:
1556:
1541:
1157:
1099:
1083:
998:
899:
323:
tensile strength and elongation (index, wide width, axisymmetric, and seams)
164:
143:
994:
774:
713:
1107:
1023:
946:
1904:
1791:
1521:
1496:
1423:
1340:
1330:
168:
847:
450:
Ideally, seaming two geomembrane sheets should result in no net loss of
257:
and covers in North
America and Europe will probably see modest growth (
1844:
1816:
1501:
1428:
1418:
1408:
1403:
1111:
481:
As liners for reserve water (e.g., safe shutdown of nuclear facilities)
361:
296:
262:
147:
139:
1095:
895:
154:. Continuous polymer sheet geomembranes are, by far, the most common.
1826:
1821:
1811:
1801:
1733:
1531:
1506:
1454:
1264:
565:
To contain and transport potable water and other liquids in the ocean
571:
As a barrier to vapors (radon, hydrocarbons, etc.) beneath buildings
598:
Beneath and adjacent to highways to capture hazardous liquid spills
532:
As liners for vertical walls: single or double with leak detection
1279:
465:
173:
1766:
1274:
1269:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1234:
936:
502:
As liners for the aquiculture industry, such as fish/shrimp pond
490:
As liners for secondary containment of underground storage tanks
778:
429:) described in Koerner for both buried and exposed conditions.
278:
18:
508:
As liners for all types of decorative and architectural ponds
768:
Waste
Containment Systems, Waste Stabilization and Landfills
613:
As flexible forms where loss of material cannot be allowed.
610:
To contain seepage losses in existing above-ground tanks
595:
Beneath highways to prevent pollution from deicing salts
580:
To shield sinkhole-susceptible areas from flowing water
547:
As waterproof facing for roller compacted concrete dams
535:
As cutoffs within zoned earth dams for seepage control
505:
As liners for golf course water holes and sand bunkers
559:
As floating reservoir covers for preventing pollution
754:
541:
As waterproofing liners within tunnels and pipelines
1835:
1790:
1689:
1653:
1644:
1617:
1437:
1386:
1373:
1288:
1242:
1233:
1156:
834:
821:
589:
To face structural supports as temporary cofferdams
583:
To prevent infiltration of water in sensitive areas
378:
biological degradation (animals, fungi or bacteria)
293:
Thickness (smooth sheet, textured, asperity height)
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
601:As containment structures for temporary surcharges
550:As waterproof facing for masonry and concrete dams
265:and heap leach mining for precious metal capture.
129:synthetic membrane liner or barrier used with any
738:August, H., Holzlöhne, U. and Meggys, T. (1997),
607:Beneath asphalt overlays as a waterproofing layer
484:As liners for waste liquids (e.g., sewage sludge)
347:stress cracking (constant load and single point).
656:(6th ed.). Xlibris Publishing Co., 914 pgs.
487:Liners for radioactive or hazardous waste liquid
372:ultraviolet light exposure (laboratory of field)
672:"Geosynthetics in geoenvironmental engineering"
544:As waterproof facing of earth and rockfill dams
163:into sheets of various widths and thickness by
178:Three methods used to manufacture geomembranes
790:
514:As liners for various waste conveyance canals
425:A method for testing geomembranes (and other
8:
676:Science and Technology of Advanced Materials
770:, J. Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, 586 pgs.
749:, J. Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, 379 pgs.
356:Any phenomenon that causes polymeric chain
1650:
1383:
1239:
831:
797:
783:
775:
756:, Chapman and Hall Publ., London, 355 pgs.
592:To conduct water flow into preferred paths
562:To contain and transport liquids in trucks
556:As floating reservoirs for seepage control
523:As covers (caps) for solid-waste landfills
763:, Springer-Verlag Publ., Berlin, 485 pgs.
703:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
742:, Thomas Telford Publ., London, 389 pgs.
647:
645:
766:Sharma, H. D. and Lewis, S. P. (1994),
641:
309:Vapor transmission (water and solvent).
499:As liners for the agriculture industry
665:
663:
553:Within cofferdams for seepage control
511:As liners for water conveyance canals
7:
733:Geomembrane Sealing Systems for Dams
670:Müller, W. W.; Saathoff, F. (2015).
568:As a barrier to odors from landfills
47:adding citations to reliable sources
752:Rollin, A. and Rigo, J. M. (1991),
243:ethylene propylene diene terpolymer
577:To control frost-susceptible soils
538:As linings for emergency spillways
529:As covers for power plant coal ash
152:multilayered bitumen geocomposites
14:
815:Offshore geotechnical engineering
630:Electrical liner integrity survey
1106:
1094:
1082:
1070:
1058:
1046:
1032:
1022:
1005:
993:
981:
969:
957:
945:
923:
894:
882:
870:
858:
846:
761:HDPE Geomembranes in Geotechnics
417:Hoechst multiparameter approach:
23:
740:Advanced Landfill Liner Systems
735:, 2010, Paris, France, 464 pgs.
202:linear low-density polyethylene
34:needs additional citations for
384:thermal behavior (hot or cold)
1:
1465:Mechanically stabilized earth
696:10.1088/1468-6996/16/3/034605
586:To form barrier tubes as dams
520:As liners for heap leach pads
496:As liners for brine solutions
233:chlorosulfonated polyethylene
1217:Hydraulic conductivity tests
654:Designing With Geosynthetics
1778:Stress distribution in soil
478:As liners for potable water
306:Mass per unit area (weight)
1954:
928:Pore pressure measurement
616:
574:To control expansive soils
1681:Preconsolidation pressure
1076:Standard penetration test
812:
493:As liners for solar ponds
192:high-density polyethylene
171:, and/or spread coating.
1177:California bearing ratio
975:Rotary-pressure sounding
806:Geotechnical engineering
341:interface shear strength
131:geotechnical engineering
1597:Geosynthetic clay liner
1572:Expanded clay aggregate
1192:Proctor compaction test
1133:Crosshole sonic logging
1119:Nuclear densometer test
876:Geo-electrical sounding
652:Koerner, R. M. (2012).
619:Fabricated geomembranes
375:radioactive degradation
1860:Earthquake engineering
1671:Lateral earth pressure
1296:Hydraulic conductivity
1147:Wave equation analysis
1126:Exploration geophysics
1018:Deformation monitoring
987:Rotary weight sounding
471:
387:oxidative degradation.
179:
1038:Settlement recordings
963:Rock control drilling
864:Cone penetration test
617:Further information:
469:
405:Stress limit testing:
366:modulus of elasticity
314:Mechanical properties
177:
1900:Agricultural science
1602:Cellular confinement
745:Kays, W. B. (1987),
731:ICOLD Bulletin 135,
411:Rate process method:
381:chemical degradation
43:improve this article
1792:Numerical analysis
1676:Overburden pressure
1666:Pore water pressure
1446:Shoring structures
1321:Reynolds' dilatancy
1222:Water content tests
1207:Triaxial shear test
1167:Soil classification
1140:Pile integrity test
759:Müller, W. (2007),
688:2015STAdM..16c4605M
423:Arrhenius modeling:
398:accelerated testing
337:puncture resistance
285:Physical properties
1933:Building materials
1767:Slab stabilisation
1747:Stability analysis
472:
344:anchorage strength
212:polyvinyl chloride
180:
1915:
1914:
1786:
1785:
1762:Sliding criterion
1724:Response spectrum
1640:
1639:
1470:Pressure grouting
1369:
1368:
1229:
1228:
1182:Direct shear test
888:Permeability test
332:impact resistance
119:
118:
111:
93:
1945:
1774:Bearing capacity
1661:Effective stress
1651:
1552:Land reclamation
1492:Land development
1387:Natural features
1384:
1351:Specific storage
1240:
1172:Atterberg limits
1110:
1098:
1086:
1074:
1062:
1050:
1036:
1026:
1011:Screw plate test
1009:
997:
985:
973:
961:
949:
927:
898:
886:
874:
862:
850:
832:
799:
792:
785:
776:
718:
717:
707:
667:
658:
657:
649:
452:tensile strength
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
1953:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1890:Earth materials
1831:
1793:
1782:
1691:
1685:
1636:
1613:
1567:Earth structure
1562:Erosion control
1460:Ground freezing
1450:Retaining walls
1433:
1375:
1365:
1326:Angle of repose
1284:
1225:
1159:
1152:
1151:
1112:Visible bedrock
1064:Simple sounding
1052:Shear vane test
828:instrumentation
827:
825:
817:
808:
803:
773:
727:
725:Further reading
722:
721:
669:
668:
661:
651:
650:
643:
638:
626:
621:
464:
458:
436:
394:
354:
327:tear resistance
316:
302:Melt flow index
287:
271:
255:Landfill liners
160:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1951:
1949:
1941:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1920:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1907:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1841:
1839:
1837:Related fields
1833:
1832:
1830:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1798:
1796:
1788:
1787:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1757:Classification
1754:
1749:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1729:Seismic hazard
1726:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1695:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1657:
1655:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1634:
1629:
1623:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1443:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1390:
1388:
1381:
1371:
1370:
1367:
1366:
1364:
1363:
1358:
1356:Shear strength
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1331:Friction angle
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1212:Oedometer test
1209:
1204:
1202:Sieve analysis
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1162:
1154:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1103:
1102:
1091:
1090:
1088:Total sounding
1079:
1078:
1067:
1066:
1055:
1054:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1030:
1014:
1013:
1002:
1001:
990:
989:
978:
977:
966:
965:
954:
953:
942:
941:
940:
939:
934:
920:
919:
918:
917:
912:
907:
891:
890:
879:
878:
867:
866:
855:
854:
843:
842:
840:
829:
819:
818:
813:
810:
809:
804:
802:
801:
794:
787:
779:
772:
771:
764:
757:
750:
743:
736:
728:
726:
723:
720:
719:
659:
640:
639:
637:
634:
633:
632:
625:
622:
615:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
575:
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
554:
551:
548:
545:
542:
539:
536:
533:
530:
527:
524:
521:
518:
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
500:
497:
494:
491:
488:
485:
482:
479:
463:
460:
435:
432:
431:
430:
420:
414:
408:
393:
390:
389:
388:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
353:
350:
349:
348:
345:
342:
339:
334:
329:
324:
315:
312:
311:
310:
307:
304:
299:
294:
286:
283:
270:
267:
251:
250:
240:
230:
219:
209:
199:
198:35% or 105 M m
159:
156:
148:polymer sprays
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1950:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1928:Geosynthetics
1926:
1925:
1923:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1865:Geomorphology
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1789:
1779:
1775:
1772:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1709:Consolidation
1707:
1705:
1704:Frost heaving
1702:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1688:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1610:
1607:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1584:
1583:
1582:Geosynthetics
1580:
1578:
1577:Crushed stone
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1532:Cut-and-cover
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1372:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1301:Water content
1299:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
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1248:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1155:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1003:
1000:
999:Sample series
996:
992:
991:
988:
984:
980:
979:
976:
972:
968:
967:
964:
960:
956:
955:
952:
948:
944:
943:
938:
935:
933:
930:
929:
926:
922:
921:
916:
913:
911:
908:
906:
903:
902:
901:
897:
893:
892:
889:
885:
881:
880:
877:
873:
869:
868:
865:
861:
857:
856:
853:
849:
845:
844:
841:
838:
833:
830:
824:
823:Investigation
820:
816:
811:
807:
800:
795:
793:
788:
786:
781:
780:
777:
769:
765:
762:
758:
755:
751:
748:
744:
741:
737:
734:
730:
729:
724:
715:
711:
706:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
682:(3): 034605.
681:
677:
673:
666:
664:
660:
655:
648:
646:
642:
635:
631:
628:
627:
623:
620:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
555:
552:
549:
546:
543:
540:
537:
534:
531:
528:
525:
522:
519:
516:
513:
510:
507:
504:
501:
498:
495:
492:
489:
486:
483:
480:
477:
476:
475:
468:
461:
459:
456:
453:
448:
446:
442:
433:
428:
427:geosynthetics
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
402:
401:
399:
391:
386:
383:
380:
377:
374:
371:
370:
369:
367:
363:
359:
351:
346:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
322:
321:
320:
313:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
292:
291:
290:
284:
282:
280:
276:
268:
266:
264:
260:
256:
248:
244:
241:
238:
234:
231:
229:10% or 30 M m
228:
224:
223:polypropylene
220:
218:25% or 75 M m
217:
213:
210:
208:25% or 75 M m
207:
203:
200:
197:
193:
190:
189:
188:
186:
176:
172:
170:
166:
158:Manufacturing
157:
155:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
132:
128:
125:is very low
124:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
58:"Geomembrane"
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
1885:Biogeography
1880:Hydrogeology
1870:Soil science
1850:Geochemistry
1609:Infiltration
1591:
1537:Cut and fill
1480:Soil nailing
1346:Permeability
1311:Bulk density
1028:Inclinometer
951:Ram sounding
836:
767:
760:
753:
746:
739:
732:
679:
675:
653:
473:
462:Applications
457:
449:
444:
440:
437:
422:
416:
410:
404:
395:
355:
317:
288:
272:
258:
252:
246:
236:
226:
215:
205:
195:
181:
161:
127:permeability
122:
120:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1895:Archaeology
1619:Foundations
1592:Geomembrane
1475:Slurry wall
1414:Water table
1378:Interaction
1374:Structures
1361:Sensitivity
1158:Laboratory
249:3% or 9 M m
239:2% or 6 M m
169:calendering
136:geotextiles
123:geomembrane
1922:Categories
1752:Mitigation
1734:Shear wave
1719:Earthquake
1714:Compaction
1699:Permafrost
1690:Phenomena/
1587:Geotextile
1512:Embankment
1502:Excavation
1439:Earthworks
1399:Vegetation
1394:Topography
1316:Thixotropy
1306:Void ratio
1289:Properties
1187:Hydrometer
932:Piezometer
852:Core drill
636:References
269:Properties
99:March 2019
69:newspapers
1875:Hydrology
1855:Petrology
1743:analysis
1741:Landslide
1646:Mechanics
1557:Track bed
1542:Fill dirt
1527:Terracing
1100:Trial pit
915:Statnamic
900:Load test
352:Endurance
221:flexible
165:extrusion
144:elastomer
1938:Landfill
1905:Agrology
1794:software
1692:problems
1522:Causeway
1497:Landfill
1424:Subgrade
1341:Porosity
1336:Cohesion
714:27877792
624:See also
445:chemical
392:Lifetime
358:scission
263:coal ash
204:(LLDPE)
150:, or as
1845:Geology
1817:SVSlope
1627:Shallow
1547:Grading
1485:Tieback
1429:Subsoil
1419:Bedrock
1409:Topsoil
1404:Terrain
1197:R-value
1160:testing
910:Dynamic
837:in situ
835:Field (
705:5099829
684:Bibcode
441:thermal
434:Seaming
362:brittle
297:Density
245:(EPDM)
235:(CSPE)
194:(HDPE)
140:asphalt
83:scholar
1827:Plaxis
1822:UTEXAS
1812:SVFlux
1802:SEEP2D
1654:Forces
1507:Trench
1455:Gabion
1265:Gravel
905:Static
712:
702:
225:(fPP)
214:(PVC)
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
1807:STABL
1280:Loess
1243:Types
138:with
90:JSTOR
76:books
1632:Deep
1275:Loam
1270:Peat
1260:Sand
1255:Silt
1250:Clay
1235:Soil
937:Well
710:PMID
275:ASTM
185:BGMs
62:news
1517:Cut
826:and
700:PMC
692:doi
443:or
279:ISO
146:or
45:by
1924::
1776:*
708:.
698:.
690:.
680:16
678:.
674:.
662:^
644:^
167:,
142:,
121:A
1380:)
1376:(
839:)
798:e
791:t
784:v
716:.
694::
686::
259:~
247:~
237:~
227:~
216:~
206:~
196:~
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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