2287:
1668:
76:
314:
3261:
4246:
138:
990:
35:
297:
5041:
1254:
was characterised for 30 million years by arid desert conditions and the erosion of the land that had uplifted in the
Variscan Orogeny, southwest England and adjacent areas of the present-day English Channel. Later, much of Great Britain was submerged in shallow waters as the polar ice sheets melted
687:
such as sand and gravel). "Drift" geology is often more important than "solid" geology when considering building works, drainage, siting water boreholes, sand and gravel resources and soil fertility. Although "drift" strictly refers to glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits, the term on geological maps
2305:
This cross section shows what would be seen in a deep cutting nearly E. and W. across
England and Wales. It shows also how, in consequence of the folding of the strata and the cutting off of the uplifted parts, old rocks which should be tens of thousands of feet down are found in borings in East
642:
or active volcanic region, nor are there other geological phenomena in the island group able to give rise to active volcanism. However, on a geological timescale, a considerable degree of active and large-scale volcanism occurred in Great
Britain, and many famous landmarks are formed of the
1005:. Sea levels varied considerably, with the coastline advancing and retreating from north to south across England. The uplifted region was gradually eroded down, resulting in the deposition of numerous sedimentary rock layers in lowlands and seas. The rocks of marine origin in the county of
5347:
1787:(29,000 years old), date from this time. It is thought that the country was eventually abandoned as the ice sheet reached its peak, being recolonised as it retreated. By 5,000 years ago, it is thought that Great Britain was warmer than it is at present.
666:
as having extremely large volcanic eruptions around 450 Ma (million years ago), Edinburgh Castle lying upon the remains of a volcano dating back 350 Ma, and some islands of western
Scotland as being remnants of volcanoes from around 60 Ma.
1641:
in the Peak
District. Evidence from the Brassington Formation suggests that, in the middle and late Miocene (12 to 7 million years ago) a diverse warm-temperate forest grew in the UK. The oldest Neogene sediments have been reported from
1592:. Much of the midlands and north of England may have been covered by Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits at the start of the Palaeogene, but these were lost through erosion. By 35 Ma, the landscape was colonised by trees such as
4515:
4597:
4317:
637:
Great
Britain does not have any active volcanoes now, but has had an active volcanic past. The last active volcanoes stopped erupting about 60 million years ago and the islands are no longer located upon any
621:
processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, while successive continental collisions have affected its
1900:
each month, and more occasional light to moderate ones. During the 20th century, 25 earthquakes with a moment magnitude of 4.5 to 6.1 were felt, many of them originating within the Isles themselves.
2531:
Pound, Matthew J.; Riding, James B.; Donders, Timme H.; Daskova, Jirina (June 2012). "The palynostratigraphy of the
Brassington Formation (Upper Miocene) of the southern Pennines, central England".
5522:
962:-style mountain range in much of north and west Great Britain. The continental collision was probably at an oblique angle rather than a head-on collision, and this probably led to movement along
4380:
4355:
1576:. Some of this uplift was along old lines of weakness left from the Caledonian and Variscan Orogenies long before. The uplifted areas were then eroded, and further sediments, such as the
4337:
4385:
1872:
At the present time, Scotland is continuing to rise as a result of the weight of
Devensian ice being lifted. Southern and eastern England is sinking, generally estimated at 1 mm (
4413:
1231:. Great Britain was located in the interior of Pangea, where it was again subject to a hot arid desert climate with frequent flash floods leaving deposits that formed beds of red
4904:
4869:
4859:
3928:
581:. These rocks are thought to underlie much of Great Britain (although boreholes have only penetrated the first few kilometres), but next appear extensively at the surface in
679:
geology ("solid geology" in the terminology of maps) is a varied distribution of unconsolidated material of more recent origin. It includes material deposited by glaciers (
5362:
4914:
4435:
688:
has traditionally included other materials including alluvium, river terraces, etc. Recent maps use the terms "bedrock" and "superficial" in place of "solid" and "drift".
4370:
5262:
4577:
1510:. The high sea levels left only small areas of land exposed, which accounts for the general lack of land-origin sand, mud or clay sediments found from around this time.
4864:
4425:
1893:
appear likely to make low-lying areas of land increasingly susceptible to flooding, while in some areas the coastline continues to erode at a geologically rapid rate.
1637:, further uplift and erosion occurred, particularly in Wales, the Pennines, and the Scottish Highlands. The only significant Miocene deposit in Great Britain is the
733:, with a few small outcrops elsewhere. Formed from rock originally deposited at the surface of the planet, the rocks were later buried deep in the Earth's crust and
4854:
4282:
2341:
5150:
4961:
4477:
2666:
4926:
4572:
4350:
5786:
2618:"Reconstructing Terrestrial Paleoclimates: A Comparison of the Co-Existence Approach, Bayesian and Probability Reconstruction Techniques Using the UK Neogene"
5257:
5036:
5202:
5013:
2902:
5212:
5155:
4687:
4630:
5551:
4445:
155:
48:
5197:
5056:
5008:
3755:
2366:
2361:
4418:
2447:"The fungal ecology of the Brassington Formation (Middle Miocene) of Derbyshire, United Kingdom, and a new method for palaeoclimate reconstruction"
4778:
4587:
3921:
2371:
5539:
5113:
4842:
4810:
4650:
4640:
4635:
4625:
4450:
4440:
4430:
4403:
2074:
617:
rocks have been intruded at different times. The complexity of Great
Britain's geology is due ultimately to its being subject to a variety of
5232:
4805:
2351:
1316:
to the south were eroded down, resulting in layers of the New Red
Sandstone being deposited across central England, and in faulted basins in
822:(mountain building period) caused the English and Welsh landscape to be transformed into a mountainous region, along with much of north west
623:
5099:
4921:
4582:
4555:
2346:
2189:
1216:
massif may originally have been some distance further east, then to be moved westwards. Lesser Variscan folding took place as far north as
843:
period, the volcanoes and mountains of England and Wales were eroded as the land became flooded by a rise in sea level, and new layers of
97:
2568:"Palaeoclimate reconstruction and age assessment of the Miocene flora from the Trwyn y Parc solution pipe complex of Anglesey, Wales, UK"
5272:
5217:
5160:
5079:
5023:
4991:
4825:
4510:
4275:
639:
1733:, between about 352,000 to 130,000 years ago, which is thought to have peaked around 150,000 years ago, was named after the village of
202:
5247:
5227:
5170:
5135:
4783:
4751:
4715:
3914:
3459:
818:
islands. The remains of these islands underlie much of central England with small outcrops visible in many places. Around 600 Ma, the
1490:
occurring in the Aptian-Albian. At the beginning of the Late Cretaceous, around 100 million years ago, deposition changed to that of
174:
5826:
5242:
5140:
4795:
4788:
4655:
4620:
4605:
4505:
2962:
2807:
2784:
2760:
2736:
2429:
239:
221:
119:
62:
1763:, which is thought to have started around 115,000 years ago, peaked around 20,000 years ago and ended a mere 10,000 years ago, the
1527:
period, between 63 and 52 Ma, the last volcanic rocks in Great Britain were formed. The major eruptions at this time produced the
5327:
4879:
4837:
4761:
4756:
4660:
4538:
2836:
4365:
181:
5390:
5207:
5145:
5071:
4766:
4615:
4562:
4525:
4490:
4464:
3800:
2895:
2316:
1714:
repeatedly opened and closed during this period, causing Great Britain to become an island from time to time. The oldest human
2445:
Pound, Matthew J.; Nuñez Otaño, Noelia B.; Romero, Ingrid C.; Lim, Michael; Riding, James B.; O’Keefe, Jennifer M. K. (2022).
5337:
5125:
5051:
4899:
4815:
4735:
4695:
4485:
4268:
2356:
159:
4946:
2567:
5779:
5546:
5352:
5282:
5252:
5222:
5187:
5089:
5061:
4979:
4887:
4771:
4550:
4300:
3552:
3331:
3203:
2982:
2684:
2219:
2131:
847:
were laid down. Much of central England formed a stable block of crust, which has remained largely undeformed ever since.
188:
54:
2061:
Great Britain's complex geology has provided it with a wide range of geological resources including abundant supplies of
5665:
5589:
5561:
5507:
5310:
5300:
5237:
5192:
5165:
5018:
5003:
4700:
4675:
4610:
4500:
4043:
3937:
3860:
3502:
3487:
3021:
2992:
2286:
2184:
2179:
2150:
2125:
2089:
1498:
continuing until the end of the Cretaceous. Chalk was deposited over much of Great Britain, now notably exposed at the
1391:. They also underlie younger strata to the east. In Southern England, the Jurassic rocks are subdivided upwards as the
5556:
5534:
5497:
5479:
5420:
5342:
5332:
5267:
5130:
5094:
4892:
4670:
4309:
3213:
1834:
deposits of Scotland, and of coastal and upland areas of England and Wales. Many of the lowland deposits, such as the
1227:
By the end of the Carboniferous period, the various continents of the Earth had fused to form the super-continent of
970:
being the best example (some of these fault zones may have been old lines of weakness from earlier earth movements).
170:
90:
84:
1667:
5616:
5517:
5357:
4226:
4023:
4018:
3248:
3116:
3111:
2888:
2869:
2145:
783:, separated by 7,000 km (4,300 mi) of ocean. The north of Scotland was located at about 20° south of the
1454:
Sedimentation would retreat from most of England beginning in the Cretaceous, with the deposition of the lagoonal
148:
5821:
5752:
5512:
5317:
5290:
4800:
4680:
4088:
4083:
3973:
3532:
2267:
2255:
2167:
1487:
1344:
655:
4093:
3968:
1861:. Large quantities of stone, gravel and clay are extracted each year, and by 2000 11% of England was covered by
851:
were deposited in the north of Scotland. The first animals with hard shells evolved at this time, consequently,
101:
5650:
5180:
4820:
4181:
4158:
4138:
4058:
4038:
3660:
3582:
3429:
3076:
1412:
1164:, which occurred around 280 Ma, caused major deformation in south west England. Towards the end of this period
4148:
4118:
4033:
4143:
3953:
5795:
5708:
5529:
5464:
5175:
4832:
4098:
4063:
3870:
3439:
1932:
3993:
1695:. This took place between about 478,000 to 424,000 years ago, and was responsible for the diversion of the
5645:
4710:
4153:
3958:
3444:
3376:
3188:
2136:
1937:
1562:
1471:
5800:
5640:
5596:
5459:
5045:
4108:
4073:
4053:
3988:
3963:
3612:
3158:
3106:
3086:
3061:
2947:
2489:
Pound, Matthew J.; O’Keefe, Jennifer M. K.; Nuñez Otaño, Noelia B.; Riding, James B. (5 December 2018).
2066:
2017:
1638:
1503:
1499:
1479:
1300:, Great Britain moved away from the equator until it was between 20° and 30° north. Red beds, including
1138:
872:
4133:
4008:
2850:
1478:
that flooded most areas of southern England, into shallow seas, with the successive deposition of the
195:
5660:
5601:
5454:
5427:
4938:
4163:
4028:
3713:
3708:
3371:
3228:
3126:
3081:
2772:
2629:
2207:
1883:
1784:
1760:
1601:
1475:
1029:
899:
1882: inch) per year, with the London area sinking at double the speed partly due to the continuing
5737:
5655:
5633:
5628:
5611:
5606:
5584:
5474:
5432:
4221:
4191:
4113:
3983:
3978:
3855:
3810:
3785:
3742:
3607:
3542:
3512:
3404:
3316:
3296:
3238:
3233:
3218:
3173:
3168:
3143:
3131:
3009:
2967:
2919:
2748:
2326:
2022:
1951:
1922:
1536:
1439:
1435:
1420:
1339:
appear to indicate that, in 214 Ma, Great Britain was showered with a fine layer of debris from an
792:
757:
that were originally 25 km thick, deposited over the gneiss on what was then the floor of the
445:
424:
1009:
gave the period its name, though deposits of this age are found in many other places, such as the
5732:
5688:
5469:
5447:
5442:
5410:
5322:
4495:
4203:
4123:
4103:
4078:
3945:
3880:
3760:
3602:
3414:
3409:
3341:
3306:
3208:
3198:
3148:
3096:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3026:
3004:
2999:
2987:
2972:
2957:
2952:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2647:
2616:
Gibson, M. E.; McCoy, J.; O’Keefe, J. M. K.; Otaño, N. B. Nuñez; Warny, S.; Pound, M. J. (2022).
2598:
2548:
2513:
2336:
2321:
2249:
2097:
1443:
1400:
1221:
1157:
955:
762:
746:
696:
This description of the geological history of Great Britain is based on that of P. Toghill.
1966:
2446:
5747:
5693:
5295:
4231:
4128:
4068:
4003:
3840:
3693:
3497:
3243:
3193:
3183:
3163:
3153:
3138:
3121:
3101:
3071:
3066:
3055:
3031:
3016:
2977:
2911:
2803:
2780:
2756:
2732:
2667:"We reconstructed Britain of millions of years ago to see what climate breakdown will involve"
2590:
2471:
2425:
2078:
1986:
1702:
There is extensive evidence in the form of stone tools that southern England was colonised by
1388:
1309:
1239:
1022:
684:
663:
3728:
1328:
occurred within and around Great Britain, prior to the breakup of the super-continent in the
5742:
5725:
5720:
5703:
5683:
5566:
5502:
5489:
4342:
4173:
4013:
3875:
3723:
3640:
3537:
3386:
3361:
3356:
3336:
3326:
3301:
3269:
3223:
3178:
3091:
3051:
2637:
2582:
2540:
2505:
2461:
2331:
2231:
2213:
2029:
intrusion in the South West of England, forming moors where exposed at the surface, such as
1955:
1947:
1942:
1927:
1795:
1730:
1372:
1161:
1150:
1127:
1014:
967:
819:
800:
754:
734:
578:
573:
is from 27 to 35 km (17 to 22 miles) thick. The oldest surface rocks are found in northwest
519:
353:
3850:
1830:
Epoch. Amongst the most significant geological features created during this period are the
1192:. The general region of Variscan folding was south of an east–west line roughly from south
313:
5415:
5305:
4996:
4956:
4048:
3750:
3645:
3592:
3557:
3522:
3381:
3366:
3351:
3321:
3286:
3260:
2840:
2490:
2280:
1997:
1961:
1835:
1803:
1711:
1581:
1573:
1507:
1408:
1396:
1376:
1205:
1141:. Coal can be found in many areas of Great Britain, as far north as the Midland Valley of
1059:
period, Great Britain was lying at the equator, covered by the warm shallow waters of the
998:
963:
880:
776:
710:
586:
562:
2633:
1156:
Throughout the period, southwest England in particular was affected by the collision of
17:
5028:
4909:
4847:
4408:
4291:
4250:
3805:
3795:
3780:
3650:
3635:
3627:
3622:
3562:
3477:
3454:
3396:
3346:
3311:
3291:
2243:
2113:
2049:
2035:
1915:
1890:
1723:
1719:
1551:
1544:
1431:
1404:
1384:
1368:
1111:
1018:
1010:
950:
at about 20° south between 425 and 400 Ma, joining the southern and northern halves of
618:
494:
394:
384:
374:
364:
2833:
2491:"Three new Miocene fungal palynomorphs from the Brassington Formation, Derbyshire, UK"
1036:
away by the end of the period during which the country would have experienced an arid
5815:
5084:
4645:
4543:
4533:
4332:
4327:
3895:
3835:
3820:
3790:
3765:
3665:
3655:
3572:
3527:
3469:
3434:
2651:
2602:
2552:
2517:
2261:
2237:
2119:
2085:
2070:
2039:
1909:
1854:
1799:
1776:
1707:
1684:
1528:
1459:
1455:
1260:
1193:
1130:
1092:
1088:
1068:
1056:
978:
951:
903:
868:
758:
714:
570:
414:
404:
257:
890:
activity. The remains of these volcanoes are still visible, one example of which is
4951:
4322:
4245:
3885:
3718:
3577:
3482:
3419:
2395:
2225:
2092:) while other minerals have been mined or quarried for the chemical industry (e.g.
1992:
1980:
1976:
1843:
1749:
1745:
1696:
1555:
1463:
1340:
1256:
1064:
974:
911:
891:
680:
2586:
2509:
725:
itself being about 4.6 billion years old. They are found in the far north west of
2544:
1087:
developed more recently in the limestone of some of these areas by the action of
5437:
5367:
3865:
3675:
3670:
3597:
3567:
2201:
2012:
2002:
1687:, with ice up to 1,000 m (3300 ft) thick that reached as far south as
1676:
1647:
1577:
1495:
1467:
1375:
were deposited and can now be found outcropping across much of England from the
1232:
1181:
1123:
1115:
1096:
1060:
779:
evidence indicates that 520 Ma, what is now Great Britain was split between two
610:
606:
523:
508:
504:
137:
3906:
2688:
1149:, although coal mining has largely been concentrated in the Scottish Midlands,
1063:, during which time the Carboniferous Limestone was deposited, as found in the
1001:, with continuing uplift, and more volcanic deposits such as those now forming
256:
is renowned for its diversity. As a result of its eventful geological history,
3845:
3825:
3547:
2026:
1897:
1524:
1392:
1301:
1217:
1107:
1076:
1072:
973:
Volcanic ashes and lavas deposited during the Silurian are still found in the
864:
811:
761:. The process started about 1,000 Ma, with a notable 7 km thick layer of
558:
470:
343:
302:
2860:
2594:
2475:
2466:
814:
zone. Both countries were largely submerged under a shallow sea studded with
5715:
5623:
3770:
3587:
3492:
2865:
2101:
2043:
1971:
1850:
1815:
1768:
1764:
1605:
1569:
1540:
1427:
1416:
1380:
1371:
to between 30° and 40° north. With much of Great Britain under water again,
1321:
1268:
1002:
947:
907:
887:
848:
788:
780:
770:
745:
South of the gneisses are a complex mixture of rocks forming the North West
659:
631:
544:
449:
324:
296:
261:
2823:
989:
795:, while the rest of the country was at about 60° south on the continent of
4260:
1021:. Most of these are of terrestrial origin and are informally known as the
5576:
3775:
3698:
2642:
2617:
2140:
2030:
1866:
1839:
1827:
1738:
1654:. The climate of the UK cooled and became drier throughout the Neogene
1651:
1630:
1585:
1558:
1360:
1329:
1317:
1305:
1297:
1280:
1236:
1213:
1201:
1177:
1173:
1142:
1080:
939:
936:
period, with mudstones and sandstones being laid down, notably in Wales.
933:
876:
844:
840:
796:
750:
730:
726:
582:
574:
484:
474:
460:
435:
332:
306:
273:
5402:
3890:
3830:
3815:
3703:
3685:
3449:
3278:
2299:
2295:
2291:
1858:
1780:
1772:
1734:
1692:
1680:
1634:
1626:
1364:
1336:
1251:
1228:
1165:
1044:
1040:
1033:
943:
918:
855:
become much more common in rocks formed during this and later periods.
815:
784:
766:
718:
676:
651:
647:
644:
627:
614:
602:
590:
534:
328:
281:
277:
265:
2855:
5698:
2797:
1919:
1811:
1715:
1688:
1532:
1424:
1348:
1313:
1272:
1185:
1133:
were formed, the source of the majority of Great Britain's extensive
1103:
1037:
852:
823:
2880:
1367:
began to break up, sea levels rose and Great Britain drifted on the
753:
Highlands in Scotland. These are essentially the remains of folded
5675:
3998:
2088:
has been worked for building and general construction needs (e.g.
2007:
1791:
1753:
1703:
1666:
1643:
1609:
1593:
1491:
1483:
1264:
1209:
1169:
1119:
1006:
921:
807:
722:
566:
269:
3424:
2828:
2093:
2062:
1862:
1831:
1807:
1671:
The Merton Stone, one of the largest glacial erratics in England
1589:
1325:
1276:
1197:
1146:
1134:
1084:
959:
895:
5388:
4264:
3910:
2884:
2845:
1718:
found to date in the British Isles, which include the skull of
1565:
to the south, the North Downs, South Downs and Chiltern Hills.
1204:
pressure was from the south or south-east, and there developed
2875:
1710:
that followed the Anglian Glaciation. It is possible that the
1597:
1189:
131:
69:
28:
1896:
Great Britain continues to be subject to several very minor
906:
and this can still be seen in the form of mountains such as
2711:
Oil Strike North Sea: A first-hand history of North Sea oil
634:
activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences.
2073:
and gas provided further energy supplies for the nation.
276:. Rocks of almost all geological ages are represented at
2779:. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 459 + x.
1741:
which is thought to mark the southern limit of the ice.
286:
1989:- the first thrust belt to be recognised by geologists.
1950:– columnar Tertiary basaltic formation (similar to the
966:
trending north-east to south-west across Scotland, the
626:
with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each
1554:, about 50 Ma, was responsible for the shaping of the
1279:, before finally receding to leave a flat desert with
997:
The collision between continents continued during the
1983:
provided early proof of the immense age of the Earth.
1889:
In addition, rises in sea level thought to be due to
1806:(blocks of rock) that have been transported from the
1118:
formed and the sediments deposited were colonised by
605:
geology consists of a complex mix of generally older
879:, which by 440 Ma had drifted (by the mechanisms of
5674:
5575:
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3268:
2918:
2566:Pound, Matthew J.; McCoy, Jessica (15 April 2021).
162:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1849:Since humans began clearing the forest during the
1790:Among the features left behind by the ice are the
1580:, were deposited over southern England, while the
875:broke away from Gondwana to form the continent of
867:period, southern Great Britain, the east coast of
717:, date from at least 2.7 billion years ago in the
630:(mountain-building period), often associated with
2128:were caused by either a tsunami or a storm surge.
1783:. The oldest human remains in Great Britain, the
1474:, occurring in eastern England. The Aptian saw a
894:dating from 510 Ma. Large quantities of volcanic
2824:British Geological Survey Publications Catalogue
2802:. Oxford: Blackwell Science. pp. viii+423.
1826:The last twelve thousand years are known as the
932:Deposition continued into the early part of the
2755:. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 161 + viii.
2396:"Why no volcanoes? - British Geological Survey"
2342:List of natural disasters in the United Kingdom
2069:. During the 20th century, the exploitation of
993:The Old Red Sandstone Continent in the Devonian
886:During this period, north Wales was subject to
2306:Anglia only 1000 feet or so below the surface.
2065:, the initial extraction of which powered the
4276:
3922:
2896:
2796:Woodcock, N.H. (2002). Strachan, R.A. (ed.).
2753:The Geological Evolution of the British Isles
2081:have also been exploited to a lesser extent.
1775:, with the icesheet itself reaching south to
917:The Ordovician also saw the formation of the
765:being deposited about 800 Ma, as well as the
8:
1320:and the Irish Sea. A basin developed in the
1160:. The mountain building period known as the
589:. The youngest rocks are found in southeast
2731:. London: Edward Arnold. pp. 406 + x.
2729:The Geological History of the British Isles
63:Learn how and when to remove these messages
5398:
5385:
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4305:
4283:
4269:
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1312:. The remnants of the Variscan uplands in
1168:was formed beneath the overlying rocks of
946:, and the combined landmass collided with
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2799:Geological History of Britain and Ireland
2641:
2465:
2270:1769–1839 the "Father of English geology"
1846:have recently been artificially drained.
1744:The Wolstonian Stage was followed by the
1470:basins, with marine units, including the
1184:, giving rise to mineralised deposits of
240:Learn how and when to remove this message
222:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
2367:Gravity Anomalies of Britain and Ireland
2362:List of earthquakes in the British Isles
2285:
2228:1726–1797 the "Father of modern geology"
2052:– line of closure of the Iapetus suture.
1752:are known to have lived as far north as
1722:from 400,000 years ago, and the earlier
1351:, although this is still being debated.
988:
289:
83:This article includes a list of general
2422:The Geology of Britain: An Introduction
2382:
2372:List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom
1646:and include fossil pollen that shows a
863:Five hundred million years ago, in the
609:rocks overlain by varying sequences of
1126:. It was in this environment that the
2777:The Stratigraphy of the British Isles
2727:Bennison, G.M.; Wright, A.E. (1969).
2622:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
2390:
2388:
2386:
2352:Rock formations in the United Kingdom
1679:were brought about by several recent
1462:groups being largely confined to the
1235:rock, somewhat similar to the later,
942:had now joined with the continent of
7:
2347:List of shear zones of Great Britain
2190:Royal Geological Society of Cornwall
1912:– the largest gorge in Great Britain
1857:, speeding the natural processes of
264:across the constituent countries of
160:adding citations to reliable sources
2866:The Geological Formation of Britain
2829:The BGS Lexicon of Named Rock Units
1794:of the west coast of Scotland, the
1102:These were followed by dark marine
1055:Around 360 Ma, at the start of the
2454:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution
2096:), the production of metals (e.g.
89:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
1415:groups. These rock units include
654:(mountain-building periods). The
44:This article has multiple issues.
4244:
3259:
2665:Gibson, Martha; Pound, Matthew.
2290:Geology of the UK: Section from
1853:, most of the land has now been
1067:, north and south Wales, in the
312:
295:
136:
74:
33:
5391:Countries of the United Kingdom
4491:Countries of the United Kingdom
2424:. Shrewsbury: Swan Hill Press.
2317:Coastline of the United Kingdom
1308:form the main sediments of the
1110:, and coarse sandstones of the
1043:as it was located close to the
147:needs additional citations for
52:or discuss these issues on the
4486:Counties of the United Kingdom
2357:Tsunamis in the United Kingdom
1814:and deposited on the coast of
1726:, also date from this period.
1296:As Pangaea drifted during the
1153:, northern England and Wales.
1047:at between 10° and 15° south.
1:
3553:European Cenozoic Rift System
2834:BGS Geology of Britain Viewer
2587:10.1080/01916122.2021.1916636
2510:10.1080/01916122.2018.1473300
2132:1580 Dover Straits earthquake
2116:, caused a tsunami c. 6100 BC
1886:of the recent clay deposits.
1675:The major changes during the
1572:formed and Great Britain was
1494:, with the deposition of the
5258:Universal basic income (UBI)
3938:Geology of the British Isles
2545:10.1080/01916122.2011.643066
2185:Edinburgh Geological Society
2180:Geological Society of London
2151:2008 Lincolnshire earthquake
2126:Bristol Channel floods, 1607
1706:populations during the warm
5263:Water supply and sanitation
4962:Weapons of mass destruction
4947:His Majesty's Naval Service
3743:UNESCO World Heritage Sites
2856:UK Geology/Fossil locations
2196:Pioneers of British geology
1621:Miocene and Pliocene epochs
5843:
5358:Stereotypes of the British
2146:1884 Colchester earthquake
2139:caused a tsunami that hit
1943:Midland Valley of Scotland
1683:. The most severe was the
1650:mixed forest once grew on
1539:and the lavas and igneous
1335:Rock fragments found near
1137:reserves that powered the
650:rocks formed during these
597:Bedrock and past volcanism
577:and are more than half as
311:
171:"Geology of Great Britain"
5773:
5523:First Minister and deputy
5397:
5384:
5380:
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4987:
4747:
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3257:
2168:British Geological Survey
1699:onto its present course.
1458:and primarily freshwater
1345:Manicouagan Impact Crater
1324:region around this time.
806:In Gondwana, England and
737:into crystalline gneiss.
656:British Geological Survey
613:rocks into both of which
301:
290:Geology of Great Britain
5827:Geology of Great Britain
5151:Environmental inequality
3661:Jan Mayen Microcontinent
2851:UK Peak District Geology
2467:10.3389/fevo.2022.947623
1083:and southeast Scotland.
954:together. The resulting
924:deposits around 500 Ma.
561:research shows that the
260:shows a rich variety of
254:geology of Great Britain
18:Geology of Wolverhampton
3603:Peri-Caspian Depression
3332:Hallandian-Danopolonian
2709:Shepherd, Mike (2015).
2420:Toghill, Peter (2000).
1933:Highland Boundary Fault
1759:During the most recent
1568:During the period, the
104:more precise citations.
5037:Science and technology
3445:Scandinavian Mountains
2963:Bosnia and Herzegovina
2307:
2250:Sir Roderick Murchison
2137:1755 Lisbon earthquake
2100:) or other uses (e.g.
2038:– a piece of obducted
1938:Southern Uplands Fault
1672:
1563:Weald-Artois Anticline
1550:An early phase of the
994:
883:) to about 30° south.
713:, the oldest rocks in
5014:Free trade agreements
3613:White Sea Rift System
2861:Geology map of Europe
2685:"British earthquakes"
2289:
2067:Industrial Revolution
2018:London-Brabant Massif
1731:Wolstonian Glaciation
1670:
1639:Brassington Formation
1584:was characterised by
1500:White Cliffs of Dover
1407:(interfingering with
1139:Industrial Revolution
1017:of Scotland, and the
992:
898:and ash known as the
5363:World Heritage Sites
5156:Environmental issues
4860:Female party leaders
4501:Overseas territories
3719:Fennoscandian Craton
3714:East European Craton
2643:10.1029/2021PA004358
2628:(2): e2021PA004358.
2208:Thomas George Bonney
2057:Geological resources
1785:Red Lady of Paviland
1761:Devensian glaciation
1588:and river-deposited
1476:marine transgression
1051:Carboniferous period
1030:Caledonian mountains
900:Borrowdale Volcanics
787:on the continent of
671:Superficial deposits
624:geological structure
436:middle Carboniferous
156:improve this article
4192:Geology of Scotland
3608:Timan-Pechora Basin
3543:Dnieper–Donets Rift
3460:Western Carpathians
2634:2022PaPa...37.4358G
2327:Geology of Scotland
2298:showing underlying
2162:Government agencies
2023:Cornubian batholith
1923:World Heritage Site
1904:Geological features
1506:, and also forming
1440:Vale of White Horse
1436:corallian limestone
1263:formed, depositing
1206:dextral strike-slip
793:Tropic of Capricorn
683:and other forms of
446:lower Carboniferous
425:upper Carboniferous
5057:Telecommunications
5009:Economic geography
4865:Political scandals
4496:Crown Dependencies
4251:Geology portal
4215:Crown Dependencies
4204:Geology of Ireland
4024:Greater Manchester
3946:Geology of England
3761:Calanques de Piana
3515:basins and grabens
2839:2016-12-02 at the
2337:Geologic timescale
2322:Geology of England
2308:
2084:A wide variety of
1685:Anglian Glaciation
1673:
1222:Berwick-upon-Tweed
1158:continental plates
1145:, as far south as
995:
964:strike-slip faults
956:Caledonian Orogeny
763:Torridon Sandstone
692:Geological history
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4436:Mass surveillance
4414:Foreign relations
4347:Second World War
4258:
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3904:
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3841:Monte San Giorgio
3737:
3736:
3694:Armorican terrane
3498:Mediterranean Sea
2912:Geology of Europe
2238:Sir Charles Lyell
2220:William Conybeare
2174:Learned societies
2075:Geothermal energy
1663:Pleistocene epoch
1658:Quaternary period
1519:Palaeogene period
1450:Cretaceous period
1373:sedimentary rocks
1310:New Red Sandstone
1240:New Red Sandstone
1176:, now exposed at
1095:in rainwater and
1032:had largely been
1023:Old Red Sandstone
859:Ordovician period
755:sedimentary rocks
675:Overlain on this
664:the Lake District
640:tectonic boundary
579:old as the planet
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4636:hydroelectricity
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4174:Geology of Wales
4084:Northamptonshire
3931:
3924:
3917:
3908:
3801:Jungfrau-Aletsch
3786:Giant's Causeway
3724:Sarmatian Craton
3641:Aegean Sea Plate
3538:Central Lowlands
3533:Baltic Sea Basin
3513:Intracontinental
3275:
3270:Geologic regions
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3214:Northern Ireland
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2687:. Archived from
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2671:The Conversation
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2332:Geology of Wales
2232:Charles Lapworth
2214:William Buckland
1956:Northern Ireland
1952:Giant's Causeway
1928:Great Glen Fault
1881:
1880:
1876:
1796:U-shaped valleys
1746:Ipswichian Stage
1537:Giant's Causeway
1444:Isle of Portland
1162:Variscan orogeny
1151:English Midlands
968:Great Glen Fault
820:Cadomian Orogeny
801:Antarctic Circle
769:deposited by an
427:(Coal Measures)
354:Lower Cretaceous
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4997:Bank of England
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4957:Royal Air Force
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4631:hydraulic frac.
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4573:Lakes and lochs
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4338:First World War
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3751:Aeolian Islands
3733:
3680:
3646:Anatolian Plate
3628:microcontinents
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3623:Tectonic plates
3617:
3593:Pannonian Basin
3583:North Sea Basin
3558:Hellenic Trench
3523:Aquitaine Basin
3514:
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3397:Mountain ranges
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2841:Wayback Machine
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2721:Further reading
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2258:1800–1874
2252:1792–1871
2234:1842–1920
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2122:5,500 years ago
2114:Storegga Slides
2110:
2090:sand and gravel
2059:
1998:Hampshire Basin
1962:Salisbury Plain
1906:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1836:Somerset Levels
1824:
1771:were eroded by
1748:, during which
1712:English Channel
1665:
1660:
1623:
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1582:English Channel
1535:columns of the
1521:
1516:
1508:Salisbury Plain
1488:Upper Greensand
1480:Lower Greensand
1452:
1397:Inferior Oolite
1377:Cleveland Hills
1357:
1355:Jurassic period
1341:asteroid impact
1294:
1292:Triassic period
1289:
1248:
1079:, the northern
1053:
999:Devonian period
987:
985:Devonian period
930:
928:Silurian period
881:plate tectonics
871:and south-east
861:
837:
835:Cambrian period
832:
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741:Proterozoic eon
711:Lewisian gneiss
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4478:Administrative
4467:
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4428:
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4368:
4360:
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4335:
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4292:United Kingdom
4290:
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4265:
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4188:
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4159:Worcestershire
4156:
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4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
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4089:Northumberland
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4059:Leicestershire
4056:
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4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3974:Cambridgeshire
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3950:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3926:
3919:
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3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3806:Jurassic Coast
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3781:Geirangerfjord
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3747:
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3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3651:Eurasian Plate
3648:
3643:
3638:
3636:Adriatic Plate
3632:
3630:
3619:
3618:
3616:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3563:Limagne Graben
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3519:
3517:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3478:Atlantic Ocean
3474:
3472:
3470:Oceanic basins
3466:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3430:Massif Central
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3401:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3377:Sveconorwegian
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
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3258:
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3253:
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3246:
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3226:
3221:
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3204:United Kingdom
3201:
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3176:
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3034:
3029:
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3019:
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2997:
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2985:
2983:Czech Republic
2980:
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2846:UK Earthquakes
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2818:External links
2816:
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2785:
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2713:. Luath Press.
2701:
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2581:(4): 697–703.
2558:
2523:
2504:(4): 596–607.
2481:
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2244:Gideon Mantell
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2123:
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2109:
2106:
2098:copper and tin
2058:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2050:Iapetus Suture
2047:
2036:Lizard Complex
2033:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1984:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1916:Jurassic Coast
1913:
1905:
1902:
1891:global warming
1823:
1822:Holocene epoch
1820:
1724:Clactonian Man
1720:Swanscombe Man
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1633:epochs of the
1622:
1619:
1617:
1616:Neogene period
1614:
1552:Alpine Orogeny
1545:Inner Hebrides
1529:Antrim Plateau
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1451:
1448:
1432:Cotswold Hills
1385:Jurassic Coast
1369:Eurasian Plate
1363:period began,
1356:
1353:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1247:
1246:Permian period
1244:
1208:faulting. The
1112:Millstone Grit
1052:
1049:
1019:Orkney Islands
1015:Midland Valley
1011:Brecon Beacons
986:
983:
929:
926:
860:
857:
836:
833:
831:
830:Palaeozoic era
828:
777:Palaeomagnetic
742:
739:
706:
703:
701:
698:
693:
690:
672:
669:
619:plate tectonic
598:
595:
555:
552:
549:
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542:
538:
537:
532:
528:
527:
517:
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512:
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495:Neoproterozoic
492:
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482:
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468:
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458:
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438:
433:
429:
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412:
408:
407:
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398:
397:
395:lower Triassic
392:
388:
387:
385:upper Triassic
382:
378:
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375:lower Jurassic
372:
368:
367:
365:upper Jurassic
361:
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347:
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322:
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292:
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230:
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144:
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82:
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73:
68:
42:
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32:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5839:
5828:
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5802:
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5273:Welfare state
5271:
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5218:Mental health
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5161:Ethnic groups
5159:
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5149:
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5085:Bus transport
5083:
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5080:Air transport
5078:
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5069:
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5055:
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5024:Manufacturing
5022:
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5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
4998:
4995:
4994:
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4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4900:Civil service
4898:
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4886:
4885:
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4853:
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4831:
4827:
4826:republicanism
4824:
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4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
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4777:
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4755:
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4709:
4708:
4706:
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4697:
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4689:
4686:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4668:
4666:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4646:North Sea oil
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4552:
4549:
4545:
4544:Great Britain
4542:
4540:
4537:
4536:
4535:
4534:British Isles
4532:
4531:
4529:
4527:
4523:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
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4489:
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4468:
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4452:
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4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4420:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4378:
4376:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4363:
4361:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4348:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4333:Edwardian era
4331:
4329:
4328:Victorian era
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4293:
4286:
4281:
4279:
4274:
4272:
4267:
4266:
4263:
4253:
4252:
4247:
4239:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4219:
4217:
4213:
4207:
4205:
4201:
4195:
4193:
4189:
4183:
4182:Monmouthshire
4180:
4179:
4177:
4175:
4171:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4149:West Midlands
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4139:Tyne and Wear
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4119:Staffordshire
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4044:Isle of Wight
4042:
4040:
4039:Hertfordshire
4037:
4035:
4034:Herefordshire
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3932:
3927:
3925:
3920:
3918:
3913:
3912:
3909:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3836:Monte Perdido
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3766:Curonian Spit
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3740:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3687:
3683:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3666:Moesian Plate
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3656:Iberian Plate
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3629:
3624:
3620:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3573:Molasse Basin
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3528:Barents Basin
3526:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3518:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3503:Norwegian Sea
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3488:Bay of Biscay
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3467:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3435:Ore Mountains
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3398:
3394:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3262:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3077:Liechtenstein
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3011:
3010:Åland Islands
3008:
3007:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2993:Faroe Islands
2991:
2990:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
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2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2906:
2901:
2899:
2894:
2892:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2877:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2817:
2811:
2809:0-632-03656-7
2805:
2801:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2786:0-521-06047-8
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2769:
2764:
2762:0-08-020461-9
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2738:0-7131-2226-9
2734:
2730:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2712:
2705:
2702:
2691:on 2005-04-07
2690:
2686:
2680:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2661:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2562:
2559:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2485:
2482:
2477:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2448:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2431:1-85310-890-1
2427:
2423:
2416:
2413:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2268:William Smith
2266:
2263:
2262:Adam Sedgwick
2260:
2257:
2256:John Phillips
2254:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2120:Garth tsunami
2118:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2071:North Sea oil
2068:
2064:
2056:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2040:oceanic crust
2037:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2027:Early Permian
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1967:Tees–Exe line
1965:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1948:Fingal's Cave
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1910:Cheddar Gorge
1908:
1907:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1894:
1892:
1887:
1885:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1851:New Stone Age
1847:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1800:Lake District
1797:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1777:Wolverhampton
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1740:
1737:southeast of
1736:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1708:Hoxnian Stage
1705:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1669:
1662:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1620:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1608:, along with
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1547:of Scotland.
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1523:In the early
1518:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1504:Seven Sisters
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1291:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1261:Zechstein Sea
1258:
1253:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1194:Pembrokeshire
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1131:Coal Measures
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1093:organic acids
1090:
1089:carbonic acid
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1069:Peak District
1066:
1062:
1058:
1057:Carboniferous
1050:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
991:
984:
982:
980:
979:Pembrokeshire
976:
971:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
952:Great Britain
949:
945:
941:
937:
935:
927:
925:
923:
920:
915:
913:
909:
905:
904:Lake District
901:
897:
893:
889:
884:
882:
878:
874:
870:
869:North America
866:
858:
856:
854:
850:
846:
842:
839:In the early
834:
829:
827:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
804:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
772:
768:
764:
760:
759:Iapetus Ocean
756:
752:
748:
740:
738:
736:
735:metamorphosed
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
715:Great Britain
712:
704:
699:
697:
691:
689:
686:
685:glacial drift
682:
678:
670:
668:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
646:
641:
635:
633:
629:
625:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
596:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
571:Great Britain
568:
564:
560:
559:Seismographic
553:
546:
543:
539:
536:
533:
529:
525:
521:
518:
514:
510:
506:
503:
499:
496:
493:
489:
486:
483:
479:
476:
472:
469:
465:
462:
459:
455:
451:
447:
444:
440:
437:
434:
430:
426:
423:
419:
416:
415:lower Permian
413:
409:
406:
405:upper Permian
403:
399:
396:
393:
389:
386:
383:
379:
376:
373:
369:
366:
362:
358:
355:
352:
348:
345:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
323:
319:
315:
308:
304:
298:
293:
288:
285:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:Great Britain
255:
244:
241:
226:
223:
215:
204:
201:
197:
194:
190:
187:
183:
180:
176:
173: –
172:
168:
167:Find sources:
161:
157:
151:
150:
145:This article
143:
139:
134:
133:
124:
121:
113:
110:November 2018
103:
99:
93:
92:
86:
81:
72:
71:
66:
64:
57:
56:
51:
50:
45:
40:
31:
30:
27:
19:
5651:Homelessness
5465:Homelessness
5248:Social class
5228:Prostitution
5171:Homelessness
4952:British Army
4784:Human rights
4772:By-elections
4752:Constitution
4567:
4323:Georgian era
4242:
4144:Warwickshire
4064:Lincolnshire
3954:Bedfordshire
3886:Stevns Klint
3729:Volgo–Uralia
3578:Moscow Basin
3483:Arctic Ocean
3420:Dinaric Alps
3372:Svecofennian
2870:
2798:
2776:
2773:Rayner, D.H.
2752:
2728:
2710:
2704:
2693:. Retrieved
2689:the original
2679:
2670:
2660:
2625:
2621:
2611:
2578:
2574:
2561:
2539:(1): 26–37.
2536:
2532:
2526:
2501:
2497:
2484:
2457:
2453:
2440:
2421:
2415:
2403:. Retrieved
2399:
2226:James Hutton
2157:Institutions
2083:
2060:
1993:London Basin
1987:Moine Thrust
1981:Berwickshire
1977:Siccar Point
1895:
1888:
1871:
1848:
1844:Romney Marsh
1825:
1789:
1758:
1750:hippopotamus
1743:
1728:
1701:
1697:River Thames
1674:
1624:
1567:
1556:London Basin
1549:
1522:
1514:Cenozoic era
1472:Speeton Clay
1453:
1401:Great Oolite
1358:
1334:
1295:
1287:Mesozoic era
1257:Tethys Ocean
1249:
1226:
1155:
1116:river deltas
1101:
1065:Mendip Hills
1054:
1027:
996:
975:Mendip Hills
972:
958:produced an
938:
931:
916:
912:Scafell Pike
902:covered the
892:Rhobell Fawr
885:
873:Newfoundland
862:
838:
810:were near a
805:
775:
744:
708:
705:Archaean eon
695:
681:boulder clay
674:
636:
600:
557:
522:(lower
507:(upper
253:
251:
236:
218:
212:October 2009
209:
199:
192:
185:
178:
166:
154:Please help
149:verification
146:
116:
107:
88:
60:
53:
47:
46:Please help
43:
26:
5738:Health care
5646:Health care
5552:Health care
5460:Health care
5368:Anglosphere
5243:Social care
5198:Immigration
5141:Drug policy
4905:Departments
4833:Nationality
4606:Agriculture
4539:terminology
4506:City status
4377:Since 1979
4227:Isle of Man
4099:Oxfordshire
3896:Thingvellir
3866:Rhine Gorge
3676:Tisza Plate
3671:Pelso Plate
3598:Paris Basin
3568:Mezen Basin
3317:Dalslandian
3249:Isle of Man
3189:Switzerland
3112:Netherlands
2871:In Our Time
2202:Mary Anning
2079:onshore oil
2042:, (i.e. an
2013:South Downs
2003:North Downs
1898:earthquakes
1677:Pleistocene
1648:subtropical
1578:London Clay
1496:Chalk Group
1233:sedimentary
1200:. The main
1182:Bodmin Moor
1124:rain forest
1097:groundwater
1061:Rheic Ocean
729:and in the
700:Precambrian
611:sedimentary
607:metamorphic
524:Precambrian
509:Precambrian
505:Proterozoic
280:, from the
102:introducing
5816:Categories
5704:Government
5612:Government
5607:Parliament
5323:Literature
5203:Innovation
5136:Demography
5031:(currency)
4880:Government
4838:Parliament
4762:Devolution
4757:Corruption
4692:Materials
4626:geothermal
4310:Chronology
4109:Shropshire
4074:Merseyside
4054:Lancashire
3994:Derbyshire
3851:Nærøyfjord
3846:Mount Etna
3826:Messel Pit
3796:High Coast
3548:Ebro Basin
3342:Laxfordian
3312:Carpathian
3307:Caledonian
3297:Belomorian
3159:San Marino
3107:Montenegro
3087:Luxembourg
3062:Kazakhstan
2948:Azerbaijan
2749:Owen, T.R.
2695:2004-05-20
2575:Palynology
2533:Palynology
2498:Palynology
2405:3 November
2378:References
2102:china clay
1884:compaction
1855:deforested
1810:region of
1769:Wye valley
1765:Usk valley
1541:intrusions
1525:Palaeogene
1421:greensands
1417:sandstones
1302:sandstones
1218:Derbyshire
1108:siltstones
1091:and other
1077:Lancashire
1073:Derbyshire
865:Ordovician
849:Sandstones
812:subduction
781:continents
547:volcanics
471:Ordovician
344:Cretaceous
303:Quaternary
262:landscapes
182:newspapers
85:references
49:improve it
5733:Education
5689:Geography
5641:Education
5597:Geography
5547:Education
5518:Executive
5503:Geography
5455:Education
5428:Geography
5208:Languages
5146:Education
5072:Transport
4910:Ministers
4796:Judiciary
4767:Elections
4707:Wildlife
4616:biodiesel
4598:Resources
4588:Volcanoes
4578:Mountains
4563:Coastline
4465:Geography
4419:1814–1919
4381:political
4366:political
4318:Formation
4164:Yorkshire
4154:Wiltshire
4029:Hampshire
3959:Berkshire
3771:Dolomites
3588:Oslo Rift
3493:Black Sea
3410:Apennines
3229:Gibraltar
3127:Jan Mayen
3082:Lithuania
2920:Countries
2652:245937316
2603:234861204
2595:0191-6122
2553:129857989
2518:134737967
2476:2296-701X
2400:Bgs.ac.uk
2264:1785–1873
2246:1790–1852
2240:1797–1875
2222:1787–1857
2216:1784–1856
2210:1833–1923
2204:1799–1847
2044:Ophiolite
1972:Whin Sill
1867:buildings
1816:Yorkshire
1586:mud flats
1570:North Sea
1428:limestone
1409:Corallian
1381:Yorkshire
1322:Hampshire
1306:mudstones
1281:salt pans
1269:limestone
1114:. Later,
1003:Ben Nevis
948:Laurentia
908:Helvellyn
799:near the
791:near the
789:Laurentia
771:ice sheet
747:Highlands
721:eon, the
660:Snowdonia
652:orogenies
545:Paleogene
450:limestone
325:Paleogene
284:onwards.
55:talk page
5796:Category
5748:Religion
5694:Politics
5661:Religion
5602:Politics
5590:timeline
5577:Scotland
5562:Religion
5513:Assembly
5508:Politics
5475:Religion
5433:Politics
5421:timeline
5338:Religion
5318:Identity
5181:Scotland
5126:Cannabis
5052:Taxation
4939:Military
4821:monarchs
4816:Monarchy
4736:Politics
4696:forestry
4676:Scottish
4667:Fishing
4526:Physical
4446:Taxation
4441:Military
4431:Maritime
4404:Economic
4397:By topic
4362:Postwar
4356:military
4351:civilian
4343:Interwar
4222:Guernsey
4114:Somerset
3984:Cornwall
3979:Cheshire
3881:St Kilda
3871:Scandola
3861:Plitvice
3776:Durmitor
3756:Aggtelek
3709:Cimmeria
3699:Avalonia
3686:Terranes
3440:Pyrenees
3415:Caucasus
3387:Variscan
3367:Timanide
3362:Scourian
3357:Scandian
3337:Hellenic
3327:Grampian
3302:Cadomian
3239:Guernsey
3234:Alderney
3219:Scotland
3174:Slovenia
3169:Slovakia
3144:Portugal
3132:Svalbard
2968:Bulgaria
2837:Archived
2775:(1967).
2751:(1976).
2311:See also
2141:Cornwall
2031:Dartmoor
1840:The Fens
1828:Holocene
1804:erratics
1773:glaciers
1739:Coventry
1681:ice ages
1652:Anglesey
1631:Pliocene
1574:uplifted
1559:syncline
1533:basaltic
1502:and the
1442:and the
1413:Portland
1405:Ancholme
1361:Jurassic
1332:period.
1330:Jurassic
1318:Cheshire
1304:and red
1298:Triassic
1255:and the
1237:Triassic
1214:Cornwall
1202:tectonic
1178:Dartmoor
1174:Cornwall
1143:Scotland
1081:Pennines
1075:, north
940:Avalonia
934:Silurian
888:volcanic
877:Avalonia
845:sediment
841:Cambrian
816:volcanic
797:Gondwana
773:670 Ma.
751:Grampian
731:Hebrides
727:Scotland
719:Archaean
632:volcanic
585:and the
583:Brittany
575:Scotland
554:Overview
520:Lewisian
485:Cambrian
475:Silurian
461:Devonian
333:Tertiary
307:Alluvium
282:Archaean
274:Scotland
5780:Outline
5753:Symbols
5743:Culture
5726:tourism
5721:Economy
5684:History
5666:Symbols
5656:Culture
5634:tourism
5629:Economy
5585:History
5567:Symbols
5557:Culture
5540:tourism
5535:Economy
5498:History
5480:Symbols
5470:Culture
5448:tourism
5443:Economy
5411:History
5403:England
5353:Theatre
5348:Symbols
5306:Cuisine
5283:Culture
5253:Suicide
5223:Poverty
5188:Housing
5176:England
5114:Society
5090:Driving
5062:Tourism
4980:Economy
4888:Cabinet
4688:Hunting
4671:English
4568:Geology
4551:Climate
4301:History
4124:Suffolk
4104:Rutland
4079:Norfolk
3989:Cumbria
3964:Bristol
3891:Surtsey
3876:Škocjan
3831:Meteora
3821:Laponia
3816:Kvarken
3704:Baltica
3450:Sudetes
3382:Uralian
3352:Saamian
3322:Gothian
3287:Acadian
3279:Orogens
3209:England
3199:Ukraine
3149:Romania
3097:Moldova
3047:Ireland
3042:Iceland
3037:Hungary
3027:Germany
3022:Georgia
3005:Finland
3000:Estonia
2988:Denmark
2973:Croatia
2958:Belgium
2953:Belarus
2943:Austria
2938:Armenia
2933:Andorra
2928:Albania
2874:at the
2630:Bibcode
2296:Harwich
2292:Snowdon
1877:⁄
1859:erosion
1798:of the
1781:Cardiff
1735:Wolston
1716:fossils
1693:Bristol
1635:Neogene
1627:Miocene
1625:In the
1610:grasses
1602:redwood
1543:of the
1460:Wealden
1456:Purbeck
1438:of the
1430:of the
1425:oolitic
1383:to the
1365:Pangaea
1359:As the
1343:at the
1337:Bristol
1326:Rifting
1252:Permian
1229:Pangaea
1166:granite
1045:equator
1041:climate
977:and in
944:Baltica
919:Skiddaw
853:fossils
785:equator
677:bedrock
648:igneous
628:orogeny
615:igneous
603:bedrock
591:England
565:of the
535:granite
363:middle/
329:Neogene
278:outcrop
266:England
196:scholar
98:improve
5801:Portal
5699:Senedd
5416:social
5301:Cinema
5296:Anthem
5238:Racism
5193:Hunger
5166:Health
5019:Income
5004:Budget
4701:mining
4641:marine
4611:Energy
4583:Rivers
4556:change
4409:Empire
4386:social
4371:social
4232:Jersey
4209:
4197:
4134:Sussex
4129:Surrey
4069:London
4009:Durham
4004:Dorset
3791:Glarus
3347:Lopian
3292:Alpine
3244:Jersey
3194:Turkey
3184:Sweden
3164:Serbia
3154:Russia
3139:Poland
3122:Norway
3102:Monaco
3072:Latvia
3067:Kosovo
3056:Sicily
3032:Greece
3017:France
2978:Cyprus
2806:
2783:
2759:
2735:
2650:
2601:
2593:
2551:
2516:
2474:
2428:
2300:strata
2275:Awards
2108:Events
1920:UNESCO
1812:Norway
1792:fjords
1689:London
1561:, the
1531:, the
1464:Wessex
1411:) and
1389:Dorset
1349:Canada
1314:France
1275:, and
1273:gravel
1186:copper
1128:cyclic
1120:swamps
1104:shales
1038:desert
1034:eroded
1013:, the
960:Alpine
824:Europe
767:debris
658:lists
645:eroded
569:below
541:
531:
516:
501:
491:
481:
467:
457:
442:
432:
421:
411:
401:
391:
381:
371:
360:
350:
340:
321:
198:
191:
184:
177:
169:
87:, but
5787:Index
5676:Wales
5343:Sport
5333:Music
5328:Media
5268:Waste
5131:Crime
5095:Roads
4992:Banks
4716:flora
4711:fauna
4681:Welsh
4656:solar
4511:Towns
4014:Essex
3999:Devon
3856:Pirin
3455:Urals
3224:Wales
3179:Spain
3092:Malta
3052:Italy
2648:S2CID
2599:S2CID
2571:(PDF)
2549:S2CID
2514:S2CID
2494:(PDF)
2450:(PDF)
2086:stone
2008:Weald
1863:roads
1754:Leeds
1704:human
1644:Wales
1594:beech
1590:sands
1492:chalk
1484:Gault
1468:Weald
1265:shale
1210:Devon
1170:Devon
1085:Caves
1007:Devon
922:slate
808:Wales
723:Earth
567:Earth
563:crust
270:Wales
203:JSTOR
189:books
5311:Wine
4927:list
4915:list
4893:list
4789:LGBT
4661:wind
4621:coal
4049:Kent
3811:Komi
3425:Harz
3405:Alps
2804:ISBN
2781:ISBN
2757:ISBN
2733:ISBN
2591:ISSN
2472:ISSN
2426:ISBN
2407:2018
2094:salt
2077:and
2063:coal
1918:– a
1842:and
1832:peat
1808:Oslo
1802:and
1779:and
1767:and
1729:The
1691:and
1629:and
1606:palm
1604:and
1486:and
1482:and
1466:and
1393:Lias
1277:marl
1259:and
1250:The
1220:and
1198:Kent
1188:and
1180:and
1172:and
1147:Kent
1135:coal
1122:and
1028:The
910:and
896:lava
749:and
709:The
662:and
601:The
272:and
252:The
175:news
5716:Law
5624:Law
5530:Law
5438:Law
5291:Art
4801:Law
3625:and
2876:BBC
2868:on
2638:doi
2583:doi
2541:doi
2506:doi
2462:doi
2294:to
2104:).
1979:in
1954:in
1865:or
1598:oak
1387:in
1379:of
1347:in
1196:to
1190:tin
1071:of
158:by
5818::
2669:.
2646:.
2636:.
2626:37
2624:.
2620:.
2597:.
2589:.
2579:45
2577:.
2573:.
2547:.
2537:36
2535:.
2512:.
2502:43
2500:.
2496:.
2470:.
2460:.
2458:10
2456:.
2452:.
2398:.
2385:^
2046:).
2025:–
1879:25
1869:.
1838:,
1818:.
1756:.
1612:.
1600:,
1596:,
1446:.
1434:,
1423:,
1419:,
1403:,
1399:,
1395:,
1283:.
1271:,
1267:,
1242:.
1224:.
1106:,
1099:.
1025:.
981:.
914:.
826:.
803:.
593:.
526:)
511:)
473:/
452:)
335:)
327:/
268:,
58:.
5048:)
5044:(
4284:e
4277:t
4270:v
3930:e
3923:t
3916:v
3058:)
3054:(
2904:e
2897:t
2890:v
2812:.
2789:.
2765:.
2741:.
2698:.
2673:.
2654:.
2640::
2632::
2605:.
2585::
2555:.
2543::
2520:.
2508::
2478:.
2464::
2434:.
2409:.
2302:.
1958:)
1875:1
1212:-
448:(
331:(
309:)
305:(
243:)
237:(
225:)
219:(
214:)
210:(
200:·
193:·
186:·
179:·
152:.
123:)
117:(
112:)
108:(
94:.
65:)
61:(
20:)
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