1764:
759:
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36:
44:
352:
681:
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220:; and instruments were developed to measure the Earth's shape, density and gravity field, as well as the components of the water cycle. In the 20th century, geophysical methods were developed for remote exploration of the solid Earth and the ocean, and geophysics played an essential role in the development of the theory of plate tectonics.
1637:
in 132 AD. This instrument was designed to drop a bronze ball from the mouth of a dragon into the mouth of a toad. By looking at which of eight toads had the ball, one could determine the direction of the earthquake. It was 1571 years before the first design for a seismoscope was published in Europe,
1536:
location. Signal processing involves the correction of time-series data for unwanted noise or errors introduced by the measurement platform, such as aircraft vibrations in gravity data. It also involves the reduction of sources of noise, such as diurnal corrections in magnetic data. In seismic data,
1347:
map variations in Earth's gravity field by making measurements of the distance between the two satellites using GPS and a microwave ranging system. Gravity variations detected by GRACE include those caused by changes in ocean currents; runoff and ground water depletion; melting ice sheets and
1505:
methods in order to gather the data. The remote sensing platforms used in exploration geophysics are not perfect and need adjustments done on them in order to accurately account for the effects that the platform itself may have on the collected data. For example, when gathering
438:
1174:
The seismic model of the Earth does not by itself determine the composition of the layers. For a complete model of the Earth, mineral physics is needed to interpret seismic velocities in terms of composition. The mineral properties are temperature-dependent, so the
1606:
as for navigation on land. It was not until good steel needles could be forged that compasses were used for navigation at sea; before that, they could not retain their magnetism long enough to be useful. The first mention of a compass in Europe was in 1190 AD.
1417:
Since geophysics is concerned with the shape of the Earth, and by extension the mapping of features around and in the planet, geophysical measurements include high accuracy GPS measurements. These measurements are processed to increase their accuracy through
1306:, combines astronomical coordinates and the local gravity vector to get geodetic coordinates. This method only provides the position in two coordinates and is more difficult to use than GPS. However, it is useful for measuring motions of the Earth such as
1456:
is a branch of applied geophysics that involves the development and utilization of different seismic or electromagnetic methods which the aim of investigating different energy, mineral and water resources. This is done through the uses of various
304:
The gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun gives rise to two high tides and two low tides every lunar day, or every 24 hours and 50 minutes. Therefore, there is a gap of 12 hours and 25 minutes between every high tide and between every low tide.
464:. If the waves come from a localized source such as an earthquake or explosion, measurements at more than one location can be used to locate the source. The locations of earthquakes provide information on plate tectonics and mantle convection.
475:
can provide a wealth of information on the structure of the earth up to several kilometers deep and are used to increase our understanding of the geology as well as to explore for oil and gas. Changes in the travel direction, called
267:
and how they relate to the Earth and its surroundings. Geophysicists also investigate the physical processes and properties of the Earth, its fluid layers, and magnetic field along with the near-Earth environment in the
1438:
such as the first-vertical derivative. Many geophysics companies have designed in-house geophysics programs that pre-date ArcGIS and GeoSoft in order to meet the visualization requirements of a geophysical dataset.
1326:
deployed either on the surface or in helicopter flyovers. Since the 1960s, the Earth's gravity field has been measured by analyzing the motion of satellites. Sea level can also be measured by satellites using
1135:
in the outer core. This indicates that the outer core is liquid, because liquids cannot support shear. The outer core is liquid, and the motion of this highly conductive fluid generates the Earth's field.
1321:
Gravity measurements became part of geodesy because they were needed to related measurements at the surface of the Earth to the reference coordinate system. Gravity measurements on land can be made using
336:
is one definition of the shape of the Earth. The geoid would be the global mean sea level if the oceans were in equilibrium and could be extended through the continents (such as with very narrow canals).
1510:
data (aircraft gathered magnetic data) using a conventional fixed-wing aircraft- the platform has to be adjusted to account for the electromagnetic currents that it may generate as it passes through
243:
data are used to analyze potential petroleum reservoirs and mineral deposits, locate groundwater, find archaeological relics, determine the thickness of glaciers and soils, and assess sites for
471:
from controlled sources provides information on the region that the waves travel through. If the density or composition of the rock changes, waves are reflected. Reflections recorded using
1124:
for a sphere of constant density). However, some of the density increase is compression under the enormous pressures inside the Earth. The effect of pressure can be calculated using the
2850:
1094:
is combined with the Earth's mass and moment of inertia to infer models of the Earth's interior – its composition, density, temperature, pressure. For example, the Earth's mean
554:
and motion of conducting bodies (such as seawater) across the Earth's permanent magnetic field. The distribution of telluric current density can be used to detect variations in
2080:
1713:
had gained so much success, that it resulted in changing the main objective of physics in that era to unravel natures fundamental forces, and their characterizations in laws.
1128:. The conclusion is that pressure alone cannot account for the increase in density. Instead, we know that the Earth's core is composed of an alloy of iron and other minerals.
1514:. There are also corrections related to changes in measured potential field intensity as the Earth rotates, as the Earth orbits the Sun, and as the moon orbits the Earth.
208:
Although geophysics was only recognized as a separate discipline in the 19th century, its origins date back to ancient times. The first magnetic compasses were made from
6042:
2468:
1275:
Geophysical measurements are generally at a particular time and place. Accurate measurements of position, along with earth deformation and gravity, are the province of
1210:
The mantle acts as a solid for seismic waves, but under high pressures and temperatures, it deforms so that over millions of years it acts like a liquid. This makes
1143:
Reconstruction of seismic reflections in the deep interior indicates some major discontinuities in seismic velocities that demarcate the major zones of the Earth:
6319:
4863:
1681:
1256:, hundreds of Earth radii downstream. Inside the magnetosphere, there are relatively dense regions of solar wind particles called the Van Allen radiation belts.
1032:
shape- which is a result of the centrifugal forces the planet generates due to its constant motion. These forces cause the planets diameter to bulge towards the
4633:
1777:
1288:
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3902:
673:
and has long been used for navigation. It originates in the fluid motions of the outer core. The magnetic field in the upper atmosphere gives rise to the
3009:
3841:
1672:' when it was pivoted on a horizontal axis. HIs findings led to the deduction that compasses point north due to the Earth itself being a giant magnet.
816:
can be used to map the concentration and distribution of radioisotopes near the Earth's surface, which is useful for mapping lithology and alteration.
708:, contain 184 polarity intervals in the last 83 million years, with change in frequency over time, with the most recent brief complete reversal of the
3224:
5155:
1710:
4985:
1340:
728:) and their signature can be seen as parallel linear magnetic anomaly stripes on the seafloor. These stripes provide quantitative information on
1422:
processing. Once the geophysical measurements have been processed and inverted, the interpreted results are plotted using GIS. Programs such as
1252:
towards the Sun. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles, streams out and around the terrestrial magnetic field, and continues behind the
212:, while more modern magnetic compasses played an important role in the history of navigation. The first seismic instrument was built in 132 AD.
4831:
624:
or the Earth's core. In the core, they probably have little observable effect on the Earth's magnetic field, but slower waves such as magnetic
1763:
612:
In the highly conductive liquid iron of the outer core, magnetic fields are generated by electric currents through electromagnetic induction.
6035:
3821:
3725:
3679:
3617:
3520:
3372:
3209:
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2286:
117:
and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. Geophysicists, who usually study geophysics,
5981:
3609:
3455:
Pollack, Henry N.; Hurter, Suzanne J.; Johnson, Jeffrey R. (1993). "Heat flow from the Earth's interior: Analysis of the global data set".
452:
are vibrations that travel through the Earth's interior or along its surface. The entire Earth can also oscillate in forms that are called
1783:
2386:
3286:
644:
1575:
in 1834. However, many geophysical phenomena – such as the Earth's magnetic field and earthquakes – have been investigated since the
4626:
4154:
3796:
3771:
3748:
3702:
3594:
3445:
3422:
3395:
3263:
3240:
3089:
2998:
2975:
2162:
1315:
1279:. While geodesy and geophysics are separate fields, the two are so closely connected that many scientific organizations such as the
1192:
1044:(large ice sheets melting causing the Earth's crust to the rebound due to the release of the pressure), geological features such as
563:
6282:
1541:
which result in the final interpretation of the geophysical data into a geological interpretation of the geophysical measurements
6270:
6028:
988:
of water makes electrical and electromagnetic methods useful for tracking groundwater flow. Physical properties of water such as
3870:
5711:
5429:
5010:
3895:
3075:
1980:
Runcorn, S.K, (editor-in-chief), 1967, International dictionary of geophysics:. Pergamon, Oxford, 2 volumes, 1,728 pp., 730 fig
1168:
872:
and determines the basic circulation patterns of storms. In the ocean, they drive large-scale circulation patterns as well as
6246:
5540:
4779:
3364:
1380:
808:
cover several orders of magnitude, so radioactive decay can be used to accurately date both recent events and events in past
725:
308:
Gravitational forces make rocks press down on deeper rocks, increasing their density as the depth increases. Measurements of
1356:
Satellites in space have made it possible to collect data from not only the visible light region, but in other areas of the
1125:
169:
and rock formation. However, modern geophysics organizations and pure scientists use a broader definition that includes the
6314:
6128:
3127:
3104:
1298:(GPS). A three-dimensional position is calculated using messages from four or more visible satellites and referred to the
629:
582:
3363:. A new translation by I Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, preceded by "A Guide to Newton's Principia" by I Bernard Cohen.
5148:
4619:
3223:. In Geophysics Study Committee; Geophysics Research Forum; Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Resources;
2915:
700:, but at random intervals averaging 440,000 to a million years or so, the polarity of the Earth's field reverses. These
531:
over most of the Earth and back upwards through thunderstorms. The flow is manifested by lightning below the clouds and
6251:
6149:
5882:
5804:
4978:
4916:
4225:
3530:
Richards, M. A.; Duncan, R. A.; Courtillot, V. E. (1989). "Flood
Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails".
1651:
985:
961:
940:
Water is a very complex substance and its unique properties are essential for life. Its physical properties shape the
758:
263:. To provide a more clear idea on what constitutes geophysics, this section describes phenomena that are studied in
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4720:
3966:
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3788:
3717:
3437:
3255:
3201:
3131:
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2990:
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1284:
1280:
937:
of rocks is affected by temperature and pressure, and in turn, determines the rates at which tectonic plates move.
825:
636:
309:
174:
6095:
5814:
5121:
5005:
4192:
4024:
3956:
3851:
Commission on
Geophysical Risk and Sustainability (GeoRisk), International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)
1907:
1511:
1295:
656:
602:
547:
244:
217:
198:
138:
48:
396:
5616:
4853:
3021:
1538:
1357:
586:
232:
5530:
5289:
5284:
4019:
3099:
1367:
Measuring the changes in acceleration experienced by spacecraft as they orbit has allowed fine details of the
519:
per meter. Relative to the solid Earth, the ionization of the planet's atmosphere is a result of the galactic
3838:
2360:
905:
The physical properties of minerals must be understood to infer the composition of the Earth's interior from
6309:
6051:
5141:
5097:
3976:
3071:
2967:
2218:
1664:') and artificially magnetized iron. His experiments lead to observations involving a small compass needle (
1474:
606:
313:
182:
3850:
6231:
6133:
4971:
4937:
4799:
3813:
3232:
1818:
1615:
1453:
598:
555:
500:
236:
146:
4120:
1668:) which replicated magnetic behaviours when subjected to a spherical magnet, along with it experiencing '
6210:
6194:
6090:
5583:
5109:
5028:
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4695:
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4147:
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3157:
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1800:
1794:
1741:
1550:
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965:
857:
737:
701:
574:
539:
496:
492:
472:
142:
1228:
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1144:
1137:
834:
578:
125:
at the graduate level, complete investigations across a wide range of scientific disciplines. The term
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5696:
5477:
5204:
4901:
4725:
4685:
3541:
3466:
3307:
3166:
2681:
1871:
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1639:
1533:
1160:
1041:
914:
888:
846:
717:
705:
559:
52:
20:
4599:
3628:
1602:
The magnetic compass existed in China back as far as the fourth century BC. It was used as much for
255:
Geophysics is a highly interdisciplinary subject, and geophysicists contribute to every area of the
6304:
6075:
6070:
5887:
5844:
5678:
5621:
5472:
5464:
5422:
5395:
5023:
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4735:
4730:
4715:
4690:
4667:
4643:
4549:
4513:
4483:
4230:
4182:
4108:
4034:
2739:
1694:
1507:
1431:
930:
910:
733:
721:
660:
617:
481:
346:
130:
5104:
3052:. Fragments collected and translated, with commentary and additional material by Duane W. Roller.
1028:
Contrary to popular belief, the earth is not entirely spherical but instead generally exhibits an
6154:
6085:
5756:
5221:
5183:
5178:
5068:
4932:
4809:
4804:
4757:
4503:
4442:
4394:
4320:
4281:
4212:
4187:
4177:
3951:
3565:
3351:
3331:
3184:
2959:
2697:
2669:
2650:
2597:
1889:
1721:
1556:
1430:
were built to meet these needs and include many geophysical functions that are built-in, such as
1200:
1180:
1069:
922:
864:. The rotation of the Earth has profound effects on the Earth's fluid dynamics, often due to the
813:
794:
763:
753:
729:
674:
532:
477:
392:
356:
260:
240:
27:
6159:
1537:
electromagnetic data, and gravity data, processing continues after error corrections to include
853:. The mantle flow drives plate tectonics and the flow in the Earth's core drives the geodynamo.
3220:
1555:
Geophysics emerged as a separate discipline only in the 19th century, from the intersection of
880:
at the ocean surface. In the Earth's core, the circulation of the molten iron is structured by
558:
of underground structures. Geophysicists can also provide the electric current themselves (see
6118:
5986:
5968:
5872:
5839:
4947:
4896:
4841:
4821:
4707:
4493:
4447:
4409:
4096:
4091:
4044:
3817:
3792:
3782:
3767:
3763:
3744:
3721:
3698:
3675:
3649:
3613:
3590:
3557:
3532:
3516:
3495:
3441:
3418:
3391:
3368:
3323:
3298:
3282:
3259:
3236:
3205:
3085:
3057:
2994:
2971:
2944:
2494:
2282:
2158:
1812:
1755:
1749:
1523:
1195:(PREM). Some parts of this model have been updated by recent findings in mineral physics (see
1107:
770:
551:
420:
404:
388:
380:
360:
224:
110:
43:
2394:
1371:
of the planets to be mapped. For example, in the 1970s, the gravity field disturbances above
6215:
6184:
6123:
5899:
5766:
5751:
5628:
5608:
5550:
5454:
5449:
5383:
5309:
5299:
5231:
5216:
4886:
4826:
4752:
4587:
4508:
4478:
4404:
4389:
4299:
4140:
4049:
4039:
3666:
3549:
3486:
Renne, P.R.; Ludwig, K.R.; Karner, D.B. (2000). "Progress and challenges in geochronology".
3474:
3315:
3174:
2731:
2689:
2642:
1879:
1702:
1650:
The 17th century had major milestones that marked the beginning of modern science. In 1600,
1572:
1494:
1419:
1388:
1095:
1057:
693:
640:
590:
543:
408:
295:
289:
64:
2964:
Mathematical geophysics: an introduction to rotating fluids and the Navier-Stokes equations
1485:. These equipment are often used in conjunction with different geophysical methods such as
841:, flows like a fluid over long time intervals. This flow is reflected in phenomena such as
692:, but it changes over time (a phenomenon called geomagnetic secular variation). Mostly the
6236:
5894:
5877:
5834:
5824:
5716:
5304:
5274:
4906:
4816:
4762:
4662:
4528:
4330:
4304:
4251:
4009:
3971:
3845:
3694:
3512:
3414:
3030:
1706:
1576:
1328:
1311:
1211:
1196:
1156:
1131:
Reconstructions of seismic waves in the deep interior of the Earth show that there are no
1091:
1053:
1037:
973:
900:
865:
697:
325:
317:
228:
158:
106:
35:
2732:
1720:, an instrument capable of keeping a continuous record of seismic activity, was built by
1207:, and the boundaries between layers of the mantle are consistent with phase transitions.
3545:
3470:
3311:
3170:
2685:
1875:
6164:
6009:
5927:
5917:
5781:
5776:
5535:
5525:
5415:
5371:
5279:
5251:
5246:
5241:
4836:
4791:
4769:
4657:
4575:
4523:
4457:
4419:
4414:
4366:
4246:
4014:
3991:
3981:
3961:
3579:
3387:
3278:
1769:
1482:
1458:
1448:
1361:
1303:
1241:
1049:
918:
881:
830:
741:
713:
709:
664:
613:
542:, a potential that arises in the ground because of human-made or natural disturbances.
256:
122:
2523:
1248:
mapped out the gross dimensions of the Earth's magnetic field, which extends about 10
1074:
6298:
5937:
5867:
5819:
5786:
5658:
5648:
5638:
5598:
5593:
5294:
5256:
4994:
4554:
4335:
4271:
4220:
4029:
3740:
3586:
3407:
3188:
2701:
2670:"Common roots of modern seismology and of earth tide research. A historical overview"
2654:
2393:. Department of Agriculture and Food, Government of Western Australia. Archived from
1828:
1396:
1368:
1223:
1188:
877:
809:
798:
774:
684:
Earth's dipole axis (pink line) is tilted away from the rotational axis (blue line).
621:
512:
412:
384:
364:
194:
134:
3335:
2937:
Earthquake
Engineering: From Engineering Seismology to Performance-Based Engineering
1971:
Gutenberg, B., 1929, Lehrbuch der
Geophysik. Leipzig. Berlin (Gebruder Borntraeger).
1893:
1791: – Scientific study of the Earth's spheres and their natural integrated systems
523:
penetrating it, which leaves it with a net positive charge. A current of about 1800
39:
Age of the sea floor. Much of the dating information comes from magnetic anomalies.
6241:
5991:
5942:
5932:
5922:
5862:
5643:
5497:
5487:
5073:
5063:
4871:
4570:
4437:
4361:
4294:
4289:
4256:
4202:
4054:
3569:
3221:"Telluric currents: the natural environment and interactions with man-made systems"
1858:
Müller, R. Dietmar; Sdrolias, Maria; Gaina, Carmen; Roest, Walter R. (April 2008).
1676:
1669:
1611:
1400:
1392:
1384:
1244:
is strong enough, its interaction with the solar wind forms a magnetosphere. Early
969:
873:
869:
850:
468:
457:
453:
449:
442:
351:
329:
269:
213:
3807:
2127:
1660:(1600) where he conducted series of experiments on both natural magnets (called
1587:
316:
at the Earth's surface and above it can be used to look for mineral deposits (see
3553:
3319:
2795:
441:
Illustration of the deformations of a block by body waves and surface waves (see
6080:
5739:
5545:
5482:
5345:
5209:
5199:
5078:
5058:
4518:
4384:
4340:
4325:
3946:
3645:
2727:
1833:
1806:
1717:
1698:
1630:
1529:
1372:
1323:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1152:
1106:), implying that the deeper material is denser. This is also implied by its low
981:
977:
953:
945:
941:
861:
625:
520:
491:. Understanding their mechanisms, which depend on the type of earthquake (e.g.,
488:
461:
400:
170:
154:
3135:
804:
Unstable isotopes decay at predictable rates, and the decay rates of different
515:, there is always a downward electric field near the surface that averages 120
5829:
5771:
5573:
5492:
5236:
5048:
4881:
4498:
4473:
4452:
4356:
4261:
3986:
3275:
The
Magnetic Field of the Earth: Paleomagnetism, the Core, and the Deep Mantle
2693:
2646:
1859:
1731:
1656:
1634:
1596:
1592:
1498:
1490:
1435:
1233:
1191:. The main model for the radial structure of the interior of the Earth is the
1184:
1087:
1012:
996:
957:
906:
670:
528:
432:
321:
299:
190:
178:
3296:
Muller, Paul; Sjogren, William (1968). "Mascons: lunar mass concentrations".
2919:
6189:
5761:
5706:
5691:
5663:
5633:
5560:
5502:
5330:
5226:
5053:
4742:
4611:
4544:
4399:
4266:
2940:
2493:
US Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
1686:
1665:
1661:
1623:
1603:
1564:
1502:
1486:
1462:
1360:. The planets can be characterized by their force fields: gravity and their
1344:
1204:
1029:
1000:
934:
838:
782:
594:
376:
372:
209:
186:
166:
3561:
3499:
3327:
1407:
Global positioning systems (GPS) and geographical information systems (GIS)
1102:) is far higher than the typical specific gravity of rocks at the surface (
680:
538:
A variety of electric methods are used in geophysical survey. Some measure
383:. The main sources of heat are: primordial heat due to Earth's cooling and
324:). The surface gravitational field provides information on the dynamics of
280:
6020:
3839:
A reference manual for near-surface geophysics techniques and applications
3604:
Sadava, David; Heller, H. Craig; Hillis, David M.; Berenbaum, May (2009).
1860:"Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world's ocean crust"
3860:
3179:
3152:
1884:
1685:
which was pivotal in the development of modern scientific fields such as
1619:
1478:
1466:
1307:
1176:
1045:
989:
933:
make flow possible, although over short times the rocks are brittle. The
926:
842:
778:
585:
is believed to be caused by high-energy electrons that get caught in the
3273:
Merrill, Ronald T.; McElhinny, Michael W.; McFadden, Phillip L. (1998).
1040:. Earth's shape is constantly changing, and different factors including
5854:
5731:
5701:
5517:
5507:
5350:
5335:
5164:
5038:
5033:
4376:
4163:
4075:
2128:"Seismic wave | Earth's Interior Structure & Movement | Britannica"
1838:
1823:
1690:
1629:
Perhaps the earliest contribution to seismology was the invention of a
1560:
1427:
1276:
1270:
1132:
1033:
1008:
1004:
949:
805:
790:
786:
499:), can lead to better estimates of earthquake risk and improvements in
284:
A map of deviations in gravity from a perfectly smooth, idealized Earth
264:
118:
3478:
3035:(Technical report). National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. TR 80-003
777:, powering the geodynamo and plate tectonics. The main heat-producing
5721:
5588:
5568:
4846:
2831:(Winter 2008 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1423:
1299:
837:, ocean, mantle and core. Even the mantle, though it has an enormous
689:
635:
Electromagnetic methods that are used for geophysical survey include
524:
3712:
Telford, William Murray; Geldart, L. P.; Sheriff, Robert E. (1990).
2880:
887:
Waves and other phenomena in the magnetosphere can be modeled using
3110:
1701:, as well as explained different geophysical phenomena such as the
1314:. Relative positions of two or more points can be determined using
437:
5909:
5686:
5668:
5653:
5438:
2279:
Electromagnetic seabed logging : a new tool for geoscientists
1586:
1332:
1227:
1079:
1073:
757:
679:
436:
387:
in the planets upper crust. There is also some contributions from
350:
333:
279:
162:
150:
114:
42:
34:
1914:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 29 December 2003
5958:
5578:
5314:
4963:
4059:
3629:"Radioactive potassium may be major heat source in Earth's core"
1470:
1336:
868:. In the atmosphere, it gives rise to large-scale patterns like
797:, the primary method for establishing an absolute time scale in
516:
202:
6024:
5411:
5137:
4967:
4615:
4136:
3884:
3691:
An introduction to seismology, earthquakes, and earth structure
3343:
National
Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Geodesy (1985).
913:
and other sources of information. Mineral physicists study the
460:. Ground motions from waves or normal modes are measured using
1989:
Geophysics, 1970, Encyclopaedia
Britannica, Vol.10, p. 202-202
1412:
669:
The Earth's magnetic field protects the Earth from the deadly
73:
3880:
2966:. Oxford lecture series in mathematics and its applications.
2899:
3855:
3646:"Cloud Physics: Collision/Coalescence; The Bergeron Process"
3361:
The
Principia, Mathematical principles of natural philosophy
1614:
of Cyrene deduced that the Earth was round and measured the
1567:, meteorology, and physics. The first known use of the word
1294:
Absolute positions are most frequently determined using the
929:
of rocks, or their ability to flow. Deformation of rocks by
3865:
2524:
National
Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Geodesy 1985
2429:
1803: – Topics in the physics of the Earth and its vicinity
1179:
must also be determined. This requires physical theory for
76:
5133:
4132:
1364:, which are studied through geophysics and space physics.
70:
1078:
Seismic velocities and boundaries in the interior of the
91:
85:
5407:
2265:
1379:, which led to the discovery of concentrations of mass,
577:
occur in the ionosphere and magnetosphere as well as in
527:
flows in the global circuit. It flows downward from the
129:
classically refers to solid earth applications: Earth's
3856:
Study of the Earth's Deep Interior, a Committee of IUGG
3509:
An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics
3436:. Cambridge Topics in Mineral Physics & Chemistry.
3196:
Kivelson, Margaret G.; Russell, Christopher T. (1995).
2825:"Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica"
2157:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
395:, although there are two thermal boundary layers – the
3875:
2534:
1140:, however, is solid because of the enormous pressure.
3153:"Ion-aerosol-cloud processes in the lower atmosphere"
3077:
The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global Geophysics
2041:
216:
applied his theory of mechanics to the tides and the
97:
94:
88:
82:
67:
2115:
740:
to construct geologic time scales. In addition, the
546:
flow in Earth and the oceans. They have two causes:
6224:
6203:
6177:
6142:
6111:
6104:
6058:
5967:
5951:
5908:
5853:
5795:
5730:
5677:
5607:
5559:
5516:
5463:
5323:
5265:
5192:
5171:
4925:
4862:
4790:
4706:
4678:
4650:
4537:
4466:
4428:
4375:
4349:
4313:
4280:
4239:
4211:
4170:
4068:
4000:
3939:
3918:
3434:
Introduction to the Physics of the Earth's Interior
3219:Lanzerotti, Louis J.; Gregori, Giovanni P. (1986).
2987:
Dynamic Earth: Plates, Plumes and Mantle Convection
1595:'s seismoscope, possibly the first contribution to
732:, a part of plate tectonics. They are the basis of
259:, while some geophysicists conduct research in the
79:
3781:Turcotte, Donald Lawson; Schubert, Gerald (2002).
3665:
3578:
3406:
980:, and groundwater flow includes phenomena such as
3672:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics
3277:. International Geophysics Series. Vol. 63.
2348:
2245:
992:have a large effect on its motion in the oceans.
744:can be used to measure the motion of continents.
736:, which correlates magnetic reversals with other
407:. Some heat is carried up from the bottom of the
375:generates the Earth's magnetic field through the
223:Geophysics is applied to societal needs, such as
3100:"GRACE: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment"
3014:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
2326:
2191:
1815: – Science of planets and planetary systems
856:Geophysical fluid dynamics is a primary tool in
812:. Radiometric mapping using ground and airborne
605:waves may also be generated by earthquakes (see
415:. The heat flow at the Earth's surface is about
2935:Bozorgnia, Yousef; Bertero, Vitelmo V. (2004).
2304:
2205:
1618:with great precision. He developed a system of
1528:Geophysical measurements are often recorded as
1167:layer. Between the crust and the mantle is the
964:involve a complex mixture of processes such as
2633:Schröder, W. (2010). "History of geophysics".
2315:
2180:
1693:. In it, Newton both laid the foundations for
1011:, freshwater ice, snow, and frozen ground (or
6036:
5423:
5149:
4979:
4627:
4148:
3896:
2567:
1931:
1929:
1778:International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
1289:International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
511:Although we mainly notice electricity during
201:; and analogous problems associated with the
8:
3382:Opdyke, Neil D.; Channell, James T. (1996).
3128:"Web resources in the history of geophysics"
3010:"The Early History of Seismometry (to 1900)"
2752:
2621:
917:properties of minerals; their high-pressure
2778:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2414:
2412:
2300:
2298:
2201:
2199:
1705:(the orbit of whole star patterns along an
688:The Earth's field is roughly like a tilted
391:. Heat is mostly carried to the surface by
6108:
6043:
6029:
6021:
5430:
5416:
5408:
5156:
5142:
5134:
4986:
4972:
4964:
4634:
4620:
4612:
4155:
4141:
4133:
3903:
3889:
3881:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
762:Example of a radioactive decay chain (see
109:concerned with the physical processes and
3178:
3126:Hardy, Shaun J.; Goodman, Roy E. (2005).
2849:Institute of Physics (18 February 2024).
2053:
2051:
2049:
1883:
1434:, and the calculation of the measurement
952:. Its thermodynamic properties determine
272:, which includes other planetary bodies.
3689:Stein, Seth; Wysession, Michael (2003).
3674:(3rd ed.). Society of Exploration.
3151:Harrison, R. G.; Carslaw, K. S. (2003).
2774:
2772:
2585:
2440:
2418:
2367:. Commonwealth of Australia. 15 May 2014
2176:
2174:
1232:Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The
1159:. The mantle itself is divided into the
1060:can further distort the planet's shape.
371:The Earth is cooling, and the resulting
2958:Chemin, Jean-Yves; Desjardins, Benoit;
2829:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2635:Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica Hungarica
2495:"What is glacial isostatic adjustment?"
2337:
2017:
1935:
1850:
1341:Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
51:in a period of normal polarity between
4832:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
2818:
2816:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2763:
2714:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2266:Merrill, McElhinny & McFadden 1998
2104:
2068:
2057:
1945:
1943:
1809: – Study of dynamics of the Earth
773:accounts for about 80% of the Earth's
712:occurring 41,000 years ago during the
6320:Applied and interdisciplinary physics
2545:
2463:
2461:
2459:
550:by the time-varying, external-origin
16:Physics of the Earth and its vicinity
7:
6277:
5982:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
5390:
5116:
4115:
3876:Society of Exploration Geophysicists
3627:Sanders, Robert (10 December 2003).
3008:Dewey, James; Byerly, Perry (1969).
1998:
1949:
1864:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1163:, transition zone, lower mantle and
793:. Radioactive elements are used for
647:and electromagnetic seabed logging.
4594:
2556:
2451:
2042:Telford, Geldart & Sheriff 1990
1960:
1908:"Earth's Inconstant Magnetic Field"
1203:. The mantle is mainly composed of
3229:The Earth's electrical environment
2116:Pollack, Hurter & Johnson 1993
1331:, contributing to a more accurate
976:. Some precipitated water becomes
645:surface nuclear magnetic resonance
419:, and it is a potential source of
403:– in which heat is transported by
14:
1784:Sociedade Brasileira de Geofísica
1316:very-long-baseline interferometry
1193:preliminary reference Earth model
944:and are an essential part of the
564:electrical resistivity tomography
6276:
6265:
6264:
6005:
6004:
5389:
5378:
5377:
5365:
5115:
5103:
5092:
5091:
4593:
4582:
4581:
4569:
4201:
4114:
4103:
4102:
4090:
3029:Defense Mapping Agency (1984) .
1762:
1748:
1734:
1090:, heat flow at the surface, and
995:The many phases of ice form the
956:and the thermal gradient in the
157:and their surface expression in
63:
5712:Human impact on the environment
4953:Timeline of physics discoveries
3871:Career crate: Seismic processor
2349:Renne, Ludwig & Karner 2000
1571:was in German ("Geophysik") by
722:magnetostratigraphy correlation
706:Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale
5541:Climate variability and change
3365:University of California Press
1300:1980 Geodetic Reference System
726:natural remanent magnetization
458:free oscillations of the Earth
1:
5977:Evolution of the Solar System
3345:Geodesy: a look to the future
3198:Introduction to Space Physics
3105:University of Texas at Austin
2916:"AGUs Cryosphere Focus Group"
2851:"Precession of the equinoxes"
2827:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
2602:Jackson School of Geosciences
2246:Lanzerotti & Gregori 1986
2219:"Earth's electric atmosphere"
1654:release a publication titled
1187:and the heat contribution of
718:geomagnetic reversal recorded
630:geomagnetic secular variation
5717:Evolutionary history of life
3606:Life: The Science of Biology
3581:Introduction to Oceanography
3554:10.1126/science.246.4926.103
3320:10.1126/science.161.3842.680
3020:(1): 183–227. Archived from
2985:Davies, Geoffrey F. (2001).
2962:; Grenier, Emmanuel (2006).
2738:. Berlin: Springer. p.
2327:Turcotte & Schubert 2002
2192:Bozorgnia & Bertero 2004
1797: – Famous geophysicists
1646:Beginnings of modern science
833:occur in the magnetosphere,
379:and plate tectonics through
6252:Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
6150:Upper-atmospheric lightning
5310:Precession of the equinoxes
4917:Quantum information science
4226:Geological history of Earth
4050:Precession of the equinoxes
3664:Sheriff, Robert E. (1991).
3432:Poirier, Jean-Paul (2000).
2535:Defense Mapping Agency 1984
2391:Natural Resource Management
2387:"Interpreting radiometrics"
2305:Kivelson & Russell 1995
2217:Nicoll, Keri (April 2016).
2206:Harrison & Carslaw 2003
1352:Satellites and space probes
720:in volcanic rocks, through
482:deep structure of the Earth
480:, can be used to infer the
363:. The thin red columns are
47:Computer simulation of the
6338:
4748:Classical electromagnetism
4199:
3967:Geophysical fluid dynamics
3789:Cambridge University Press
3718:Cambridge University Press
3507:Reynolds, John M. (2011).
3438:Cambridge University Press
3409:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
3256:Cambridge University Press
3252:Fundamentals of Geophysics
3202:Cambridge University Press
3132:American Geophysical Union
3082:Cambridge University Press
3054:Princeton University Press
2991:Cambridge University Press
2877:American Geophysical Union
2316:Opdyke & Channell 1996
2277:Stéphane, Sainson (2017).
2181:Stein & Wysession 2003
2155:Introduction to seismology
2153:Shearer, Peter M. (2009).
1711:Newton's theory of gravity
1679:published his work titled
1583:Ancient and classical eras
1548:
1521:
1446:
1410:
1343:(GRACE), wherein two twin
1285:Canadian Geophysical Union
1281:American Geophysical Union
1268:
1236:flows from left to right.
1221:
1067:
1024:Size and form of the Earth
925:at high pressure; and the
898:
826:Geophysical fluid dynamics
823:
751:
654:
637:transient electromagnetics
601:may be generated by both.
430:
344:
310:gravitational acceleration
293:
287:
25:
18:
6260:
6000:
5445:
5359:
5087:
5019:
5001:
4563:
4240:Composition and structure
4193:Index of geology articles
4084:
3866:USGS Geomagnetism Program
3405:Pedlosky, Joseph (1987).
3225:National Research Council
3107:Center for Space Research
3050:Eratosthenes' "Geography"
2694:10.1016/j.jog.2009.09.032
2647:10.1556/AGeod.45.2010.2.9
2568:Muller & Sjogren 1968
1703:precession of the equinox
1633:by the prolific inventor
1296:global positioning system
1169:Mohorovičić discontinuity
1126:Adams–Williamson equation
1082:sampled by seismic waves
1064:Structure of the interior
1042:glacial isostatic rebound
548:electromagnetic induction
245:environmental remediation
218:precession of the equinox
199:solar-terrestrial physics
5987:Location in the Universe
5918:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
5617:List of sovereign states
4854:Condensed matter physics
3861:Union Commissions (IUGG)
3844:18 February 2021 at the
3806:Verhoogen, John (1980).
3250:Lowrie, William (2004).
2796:"Review of "De Magnete""
2734:The Forgotten Revolution
2622:Hardy & Goodman 2005
1539:computational geophysics
1358:electromagnetic spectrum
587:Van Allen radiation belt
233:environmental protection
173:including snow and ice;
26:Not to be confused with
6052:Atmospheric electricity
3977:Near-surface geophysics
3809:Energetics of the Earth
3735:Temple, Robert (2006).
3644:Sirvatka, Paul (2003).
2968:Oxford University Press
2779:Dewey & Byerly 1969
1640:Jean de la Hautefeuille
999:and come in forms like
607:seismo-electromagnetics
314:gravitational potential
6232:Georg Wilhelm Richmann
6211:Electrodynamic tethers
6096:Earth's magnetic field
4938:Nobel Prize in Physics
4800:Relativistic mechanics
4025:Earth's magnetic field
3814:National Academy Press
3359:Newton, Isaac (1999).
3233:National Academy Press
3109:. 2011. Archived from
3032:Geodesy for the Layman
2918:. 2011. Archived from
2823:Smith, George (2008),
2674:Journal of Geodynamics
2081:"What is "Heat Flow"?"
1819:Geological Engineering
1642:. It was never built.
1616:circumference of Earth
1599:
1512:Earth's magnetic field
1481:sensing equipment and
1454:Exploration geophysics
1375:were measured through
1237:
1199:) and supplemented by
1083:
927:rheological properties
767:
742:magnetization in rocks
716:. Geologists observed
685:
657:Earth's magnetic field
556:electrical resistivity
501:earthquake engineering
446:
368:
285:
237:exploration geophysics
177:of the oceans and the
143:electromagnetic fields
55:
49:Earth's magnetic field
40:
6195:Equatorial electrojet
6091:Atmospheric chemistry
5697:Biogeochemical cycles
5622:dependent territories
5290:Earth's gravity field
5285:Earth's energy budget
5029:Environmental science
4943:Philosophy of physics
4489:Environmental geology
4097:Geophysics portal
4020:Earth's energy budget
3458:Reviews of Geophysics
3384:Magnetic Stratigraphy
3158:Reviews of Geophysics
3048:Eratosthenes (2010).
2499:oceanservice.noaa.gov
2473:oceanservice.noaa.gov
2469:"Is the Earth round?"
1801:Outline of geophysics
1795:List of geophysicists
1742:Earth sciences portal
1590:
1551:History of geophysics
1411:Further information:
1231:
1077:
921:, melting points and
858:physical oceanography
761:
752:Further information:
702:geomagnetic reversals
683:
655:Further information:
628:may be one source of
575:Electromagnetic waves
570:Electromagnetic waves
540:spontaneous potential
473:Reflection Seismology
440:
354:
294:Further information:
283:
46:
38:
19:For the journal, see
6315:Subfields of geology
6081:Atmospheric dynamics
5745:Computer cartography
5478:Prebiotic atmosphere
5205:Computer cartography
4902:Mathematical physics
4448:Planetary geophysics
3235:. pp. 232–258.
3180:10.1029/2002RG000114
3024:on 23 November 2011.
2598:"Energy Geosciences"
2365:Geoscience Australia
1885:10.1029/2007GC001743
1789:Earth system science
1189:radioactive elements
1019:Regions of the Earth
960:. The many types of
889:magnetohydrodynamics
847:post-glacial rebound
704:, analyzed within a
560:induced polarization
397:core–mantle boundary
161:, the generation of
21:Geophysics (journal)
6076:Atmospheric physics
6071:Atmospheric science
5888:Geologic time scale
5609:Culture and society
5473:Atmosphere of Earth
5324:Related disciplines
5024:Atmospheric science
4877:Atmospheric physics
4716:Classical mechanics
4644:branches of physics
4550:Petroleum geologist
4514:Forensic geophysics
4484:Engineering geology
4231:Timeline of geology
4183:Glossary of geology
4069:Related disciplines
4035:Geothermal gradient
3737:The Genius of China
3577:Ross, D.A. (1995).
3546:1989Sci...246..103R
3471:1993RvGeo..31..267P
3413:(Second ed.).
3312:1968Sci...161..680M
3171:2003RvGeo..41.1012H
2960:Gallagher, Isabelle
2922:on 16 November 2011
2686:2009JGeo...48..241V
1876:2008GGG.....9.4006M
1695:classical mechanics
1461:platforms such as;
1432:upward continuation
1036:and results in the
911:geothermal gradient
789:, uranium-235, and
734:magnetostratigraphy
714:last glacial period
661:Aeromagnetic survey
618:magnetohydrodynamic
487:Earthquakes pose a
347:Geothermal gradient
332:surface called the
205:and other planets.
111:physical properties
6119:Radio atmospherics
6086:Atmospheric dynamo
5883:Geological history
5757:Geodetic astronomy
5372:Geodesy portal
5222:Geodetic astronomy
5069:Physical geography
4933:History of physics
4576:Geology portal
4504:Geologic modelling
4443:Geophysical survey
4395:Geodetic astronomy
4321:Structural geology
4282:Historical geology
4213:History of geology
4188:History of geology
4178:Outline of geology
3952:Geophysical survey
3758:Torge, W. (2001).
3714:Applied geophysics
3631:. UC Berkeley News
3352:National Academies
3113:on 1 December 2009
2766:, pp. 177–181
2717:, pp. 162–166
2668:Varga, P. (2009).
2430:Sadava et al. 2009
2132:www.britannica.com
2001:, pp. 236–242
1600:
1557:physical geography
1302:. An alternative,
1238:
1201:seismic tomography
1181:thermal conduction
1138:Earth's inner core
1084:
1070:Structure of Earth
923:equations of state
814:gamma spectrometry
795:radiometric dating
768:
764:Radiometric dating
754:Radiometric dating
730:seafloor spreading
686:
579:Earth's outer core
447:
393:thermal convection
369:
357:thermal convection
286:
261:planetary sciences
251:Physical phenomena
241:geophysical survey
147:internal structure
105:) is a subject of
56:
41:
28:Physical geography
6292:
6291:
6173:
6172:
6143:Optical emissions
6112:ELF/VLF emissions
6018:
6017:
5969:Planetary science
5952:Natural satellite
5873:Extremes on Earth
5840:Signal processing
5405:
5404:
5131:
5130:
4961:
4960:
4948:Physics education
4897:Materials science
4864:Interdisciplinary
4822:Quantum mechanics
4609:
4608:
4494:Planetary geology
4410:Planetary geodesy
4130:
4129:
4045:Mantle convection
3823:978-0-309-03076-2
3764:Walter de Gruyter
3727:978-0-521-33938-4
3681:978-1-56080-018-7
3650:College of DuPage
3619:978-1-4292-1962-4
3540:(4926): 103–107.
3522:978-0-471-48535-3
3479:10.1029/93RG01249
3374:978-0-520-08816-0
3306:(3842): 680–684.
3211:978-0-521-45714-9
3063:978-0-691-14267-8
2950:978-0-8493-1439-1
2800:pwg.gsfc.nasa.gov
2753:Eratosthenes 2010
2288:978-3-319-45355-2
2134:. 12 January 2024
1813:Planetary science
1756:Geophysics portal
1610:In circa 240 BC,
1524:Signal processing
1518:Signal processing
1483:seismic receivers
1304:optical astronomy
1108:moment of inertia
1058:natural disasters
771:Radioactive decay
552:geomagnetic field
544:Telluric currents
389:phase transitions
381:mantle convection
225:mineral resources
6327:
6280:
6279:
6268:
6267:
6216:Magnetotellurics
6185:Solar irradiance
6109:
6105:Electromagnetism
6045:
6038:
6031:
6022:
6008:
6007:
5900:History of Earth
5551:Paleoclimatology
5432:
5425:
5418:
5409:
5393:
5392:
5381:
5380:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5300:Gravity of Earth
5232:Gravity of Earth
5158:
5151:
5144:
5135:
5119:
5118:
5107:
5095:
5094:
4988:
4981:
4974:
4965:
4887:Chemical physics
4827:Particle physics
4753:Classical optics
4636:
4629:
4622:
4613:
4597:
4596:
4585:
4584:
4574:
4573:
4509:Forensic geology
4479:Economic geology
4405:Gravity of Earth
4300:Paleoclimatology
4205:
4157:
4150:
4143:
4134:
4118:
4117:
4106:
4105:
4095:
4094:
4040:Gravity of Earth
3905:
3898:
3891:
3882:
3827:
3802:
3787:(2nd ed.).
3777:
3762:(3rd ed.).
3754:
3731:
3708:
3685:
3669:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3640:
3638:
3636:
3623:
3600:
3584:
3573:
3526:
3503:
3488:Science Progress
3482:
3451:
3428:
3412:
3401:
3378:
3355:
3349:
3339:
3292:
3269:
3246:
3215:
3192:
3182:
3147:
3145:
3143:
3138:on 27 April 2013
3134:. Archived from
3122:
3120:
3118:
3095:
3067:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3025:
3004:
2981:
2954:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2846:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2820:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2792:
2781:
2776:
2767:
2761:
2755:
2750:
2744:
2743:
2737:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2680:(3–5): 241–246.
2665:
2659:
2658:
2630:
2624:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2594:
2588:
2583:
2570:
2565:
2559:
2554:
2548:
2543:
2537:
2532:
2526:
2521:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2465:
2454:
2449:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2416:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2402:
2397:on 21 March 2012
2383:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2357:
2351:
2346:
2340:
2335:
2329:
2324:
2318:
2313:
2307:
2302:
2293:
2292:
2274:
2268:
2263:
2248:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2223:
2214:
2208:
2203:
2194:
2189:
2183:
2178:
2169:
2168:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2124:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2077:
2071:
2066:
2060:
2055:
2044:
2039:
2020:
2015:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1963:
1958:
1952:
1947:
1938:
1933:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1887:
1855:
1772:
1767:
1766:
1758:
1753:
1752:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1420:differential GPS
1291:encompass both.
1123:
1116:
1105:
1101:
1096:specific gravity
694:geomagnetic pole
641:magnetotellurics
593:are produced by
418:
296:Physical geodesy
290:Gravity of Earth
227:, mitigation of
121:, or one of the
104:
103:
100:
99:
96:
93:
90:
87:
84:
81:
78:
75:
72:
69:
6337:
6336:
6330:
6329:
6328:
6326:
6325:
6324:
6295:
6294:
6293:
6288:
6256:
6237:Egon Schweidler
6220:
6199:
6169:
6160:St. Elmo's fire
6138:
6100:
6054:
6049:
6019:
6014:
5996:
5963:
5947:
5904:
5895:Geologic record
5849:
5835:Plate tectonics
5825:Mineral physics
5805:Earth structure
5791:
5726:
5673:
5603:
5555:
5512:
5459:
5441:
5436:
5406:
5401:
5366:
5364:
5355:
5319:
5305:Plate tectonics
5280:Coriolis effect
5275:Chandler wobble
5267:
5261:
5188:
5167:
5162:
5132:
5127:
5083:
5015:
4997:
4992:
4962:
4957:
4921:
4907:Medical physics
4858:
4817:Nuclear physics
4786:
4780:Non-equilibrium
4702:
4674:
4646:
4640:
4610:
4605:
4568:
4559:
4533:
4529:Mineral physics
4462:
4424:
4371:
4345:
4331:Plate tectonics
4309:
4305:Palaeogeography
4276:
4252:Crystallography
4235:
4207:
4206:
4197:
4166:
4161:
4131:
4126:
4089:
4080:
4064:
4015:Coriolis effect
4010:Chandler wobble
4002:
3996:
3972:Mineral physics
3935:
3914:
3909:
3846:Wayback Machine
3835:
3830:
3824:
3805:
3799:
3780:
3774:
3757:
3751:
3734:
3728:
3711:
3705:
3695:Wiley-Blackwell
3688:
3682:
3663:
3654:
3652:
3643:
3634:
3632:
3626:
3620:
3603:
3597:
3576:
3529:
3523:
3513:Wiley-Blackwell
3506:
3485:
3454:
3448:
3431:
3425:
3415:Springer-Verlag
3404:
3398:
3381:
3375:
3358:
3347:
3342:
3295:
3289:
3272:
3266:
3249:
3243:
3218:
3212:
3195:
3150:
3141:
3139:
3125:
3116:
3114:
3098:
3092:
3070:
3064:
3047:
3038:
3036:
3028:
3007:
3001:
2984:
2978:
2957:
2951:
2934:
2925:
2923:
2914:
2905:
2903:
2898:
2889:
2887:
2875:
2871:
2866:
2865:
2855:
2853:
2848:
2847:
2843:
2834:
2832:
2822:
2821:
2814:
2804:
2802:
2794:
2793:
2784:
2777:
2770:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2747:
2726:
2725:
2721:
2713:
2709:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2620:
2616:
2606:
2604:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2584:
2573:
2566:
2562:
2555:
2551:
2544:
2540:
2533:
2529:
2522:
2513:
2503:
2501:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2477:
2475:
2467:
2466:
2457:
2450:
2446:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2410:
2400:
2398:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2370:
2368:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2296:
2289:
2276:
2275:
2271:
2264:
2251:
2244:
2240:
2230:
2228:
2221:
2216:
2215:
2211:
2204:
2197:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2172:
2165:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2137:
2135:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2099:
2089:
2087:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2047:
2040:
2023:
2016:
2005:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1941:
1934:
1927:
1917:
1915:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1768:
1761:
1754:
1747:
1740:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1652:William Gilbert
1648:
1585:
1553:
1547:
1526:
1520:
1495:electromagnetic
1451:
1445:
1415:
1409:
1362:magnetic fields
1354:
1329:radar altimetry
1312:Chandler wobble
1273:
1267:
1262:
1226:
1220:
1212:plate tectonics
1197:post-perovskite
1122:
1118:
1115:
1111:
1103:
1099:
1092:mineral physics
1072:
1066:
1038:ellipsoid shape
1026:
1021:
974:supersaturation
903:
901:Mineral physics
897:
895:Mineral physics
866:Coriolis effect
828:
822:
756:
750:
698:geographic pole
696:stays near the
667:
653:
603:Electromagnetic
572:
509:
435:
429:
416:
349:
343:
326:tectonic plates
318:gravity anomaly
302:
292:
278:
253:
229:natural hazards
159:plate tectonics
139:magnetic fields
107:natural science
66:
62:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6335:
6334:
6331:
6323:
6322:
6317:
6312:
6310:Earth sciences
6307:
6297:
6296:
6290:
6289:
6287:
6286:
6274:
6261:
6258:
6257:
6255:
6254:
6249:
6247:George Simpson
6244:
6239:
6234:
6228:
6226:
6222:
6221:
6219:
6218:
6213:
6207:
6205:
6201:
6200:
6198:
6197:
6192:
6187:
6181:
6179:
6175:
6174:
6171:
6170:
6168:
6167:
6165:Ball lightning
6162:
6157:
6152:
6146:
6144:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6115:
6113:
6106:
6102:
6101:
6099:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6068:
6062:
6060:
6056:
6055:
6050:
6048:
6047:
6040:
6033:
6025:
6016:
6015:
6013:
6012:
6001:
5998:
5997:
5995:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5973:
5971:
5965:
5964:
5962:
5961:
5955:
5953:
5949:
5948:
5946:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5930:
5928:Atlantic Ocean
5925:
5920:
5914:
5912:
5906:
5905:
5903:
5902:
5897:
5892:
5891:
5890:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5859:
5857:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5810:Fluid dynamics
5807:
5801:
5799:
5793:
5792:
5790:
5789:
5784:
5782:Geopositioning
5779:
5777:Remote Sensing
5774:
5769:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5748:
5747:
5736:
5734:
5728:
5727:
5725:
5724:
5719:
5714:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5683:
5681:
5675:
5674:
5672:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5651:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5626:
5625:
5624:
5613:
5611:
5605:
5604:
5602:
5601:
5596:
5591:
5586:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5565:
5563:
5557:
5556:
5554:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5536:Climate change
5533:
5531:Energy balance
5528:
5526:Climate system
5522:
5520:
5514:
5513:
5511:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5469:
5467:
5461:
5460:
5458:
5457:
5452:
5446:
5443:
5442:
5437:
5435:
5434:
5427:
5420:
5412:
5403:
5402:
5400:
5399:
5387:
5375:
5360:
5357:
5356:
5354:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5327:
5325:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5271:
5269:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5259:
5254:
5252:Geopositioning
5249:
5247:Remote Sensing
5244:
5242:Photogrammetry
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5213:
5212:
5207:
5196:
5194:
5190:
5189:
5187:
5186:
5181:
5175:
5173:
5169:
5168:
5163:
5161:
5160:
5153:
5146:
5138:
5129:
5128:
5126:
5125:
5113:
5101:
5088:
5085:
5084:
5082:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5013:
5008:
5002:
4999:
4998:
4993:
4991:
4990:
4983:
4976:
4968:
4959:
4958:
4956:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4929:
4927:
4923:
4922:
4920:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4868:
4866:
4860:
4859:
4857:
4856:
4851:
4850:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4813:
4812:
4807:
4796:
4794:
4788:
4787:
4785:
4784:
4783:
4782:
4777:
4770:Thermodynamics
4767:
4766:
4765:
4760:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4739:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4712:
4710:
4704:
4703:
4701:
4700:
4699:
4698:
4688:
4682:
4680:
4676:
4675:
4673:
4672:
4671:
4670:
4660:
4654:
4652:
4648:
4647:
4641:
4639:
4638:
4631:
4624:
4616:
4607:
4606:
4604:
4603:
4591:
4579:
4564:
4561:
4560:
4558:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4541:
4539:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4531:
4526:
4524:Mining geology
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4470:
4468:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4460:
4458:Tectonophysics
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4434:
4432:
4426:
4425:
4423:
4422:
4420:Geopositioning
4417:
4415:Remote sensing
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4381:
4379:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4369:
4367:Marine geology
4364:
4359:
4353:
4351:
4347:
4346:
4344:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4317:
4315:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4286:
4284:
4278:
4277:
4275:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4247:Cosmochemistry
4243:
4241:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4217:
4215:
4209:
4208:
4200:
4198:
4196:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4174:
4172:
4168:
4167:
4162:
4160:
4159:
4152:
4145:
4137:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4124:
4112:
4100:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4078:
4072:
4070:
4066:
4065:
4063:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4006:
4004:
3998:
3997:
3995:
3994:
3992:Tectonophysics
3989:
3984:
3982:Paleomagnetism
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3962:Geomathematics
3959:
3954:
3949:
3943:
3941:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3922:
3920:
3916:
3915:
3910:
3908:
3907:
3900:
3893:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3834:
3833:External links
3831:
3829:
3828:
3822:
3803:
3797:
3778:
3772:
3755:
3749:
3732:
3726:
3709:
3703:
3686:
3680:
3661:
3641:
3624:
3618:
3601:
3595:
3574:
3527:
3521:
3504:
3483:
3465:(3): 267–280.
3452:
3446:
3429:
3423:
3402:
3396:
3388:Academic Press
3379:
3373:
3356:
3340:
3293:
3288:978-0124912458
3287:
3279:Academic Press
3270:
3264:
3247:
3241:
3216:
3210:
3193:
3148:
3123:
3096:
3090:
3080:(2 ed.).
3072:Fowler, C.M.R.
3068:
3062:
3045:
3026:
3005:
2999:
2982:
2976:
2955:
2949:
2932:
2912:
2896:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2841:
2812:
2782:
2768:
2756:
2745:
2719:
2707:
2660:
2641:(2): 253–261.
2625:
2614:
2589:
2571:
2560:
2549:
2538:
2527:
2511:
2485:
2455:
2444:
2433:
2422:
2408:
2378:
2361:"Radiometrics"
2352:
2341:
2330:
2319:
2308:
2294:
2287:
2269:
2249:
2238:
2209:
2195:
2184:
2170:
2163:
2145:
2119:
2108:
2097:
2072:
2061:
2045:
2021:
2003:
1991:
1982:
1973:
1964:
1953:
1939:
1925:
1899:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1781:
1774:
1773:
1770:Physics portal
1759:
1745:
1729:
1726:
1647:
1644:
1584:
1581:
1549:Main article:
1546:
1543:
1522:Main article:
1519:
1516:
1459:remote sensing
1449:Remote sensing
1447:Main article:
1444:
1443:Remote sensing
1441:
1408:
1405:
1383:, beneath the
1377:lunar orbiters
1369:gravity fields
1353:
1350:
1269:Main article:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1242:magnetic field
1240:If a planet's
1222:Main article:
1219:
1216:
1120:
1117:, compared to
1113:
1086:Evidence from
1068:Main article:
1065:
1062:
1056:dynamics, and
1054:tectonic plate
1050:ocean trenches
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
919:phase diagrams
899:Main article:
896:
893:
882:Taylor columns
824:Main article:
821:
820:Fluid dynamics
818:
749:
746:
738:stratigraphies
710:Laschamp event
665:Paleomagnetism
652:
649:
571:
568:
508:
505:
489:risk to humans
431:Main article:
428:
425:
361:Earth's mantle
345:Main article:
342:
339:
288:Main article:
277:
274:
257:Earth sciences
252:
249:
175:fluid dynamics
123:Earth sciences
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6333:
6332:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6303:
6302:
6300:
6285:
6284:
6275:
6273:
6272:
6263:
6262:
6259:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6245:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6223:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
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6206:
6202:
6196:
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6180:
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6135:
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6127:
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6120:
6117:
6116:
6114:
6110:
6107:
6103:
6097:
6094:
6092:
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6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6063:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6046:
6041:
6039:
6034:
6032:
6027:
6026:
6023:
6011:
6003:
6002:
5999:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5974:
5972:
5970:
5966:
5960:
5957:
5956:
5954:
5950:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5938:Pacific Ocean
5936:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5919:
5916:
5915:
5913:
5911:
5907:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5889:
5886:
5885:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5868:Earth science
5866:
5864:
5861:
5860:
5858:
5856:
5852:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5820:Magnetosphere
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5800:
5798:
5794:
5788:
5787:Virtual globe
5785:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5752:Earth's orbit
5750:
5746:
5743:
5742:
5741:
5738:
5737:
5735:
5733:
5729:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5684:
5682:
5680:
5676:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5659:World history
5657:
5655:
5652:
5650:
5649:World economy
5647:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5623:
5620:
5619:
5618:
5615:
5614:
5612:
5610:
5606:
5600:
5599:South America
5597:
5595:
5594:North America
5592:
5590:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5566:
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5491:
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5471:
5470:
5468:
5466:
5462:
5456:
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5448:
5447:
5444:
5440:
5433:
5428:
5426:
5421:
5419:
5414:
5413:
5410:
5398:
5397:
5388:
5386:
5385:
5376:
5374:
5373:
5362:
5361:
5358:
5352:
5349:
5347:
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5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
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5328:
5326:
5322:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5272:
5270:
5264:
5258:
5257:Virtual globe
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5217:Earth's orbit
5215:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5202:
5201:
5198:
5197:
5195:
5191:
5185:
5182:
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5177:
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5170:
5166:
5159:
5154:
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5140:
5139:
5136:
5124:
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5114:
5112:
5111:
5106:
5102:
5100:
5099:
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5080:
5077:
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5067:
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5050:
5047:
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5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5021:
5018:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5003:
5000:
4996:
4995:Earth science
4989:
4984:
4982:
4977:
4975:
4970:
4969:
4966:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4928:
4924:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4912:Ocean physics
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4869:
4867:
4865:
4861:
4855:
4852:
4848:
4847:Modern optics
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4801:
4798:
4797:
4795:
4793:
4789:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4768:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4755:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4718:
4717:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4709:
4705:
4697:
4696:Computational
4694:
4693:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4683:
4681:
4677:
4669:
4666:
4665:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4637:
4632:
4630:
4625:
4623:
4618:
4617:
4614:
4602:
4601:
4592:
4590:
4589:
4580:
4578:
4577:
4572:
4566:
4565:
4562:
4556:
4555:Volcanologist
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4536:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4471:
4469:
4465:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4431:
4427:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4390:Earth's orbit
4388:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4354:
4352:
4348:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4336:Geomorphology
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4314:Dynamic Earth
4312:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4279:
4273:
4272:Sedimentology
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4221:Geochronology
4219:
4218:
4216:
4214:
4210:
4204:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4158:
4153:
4151:
4146:
4144:
4139:
4138:
4135:
4123:
4122:
4113:
4111:
4110:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4093:
4087:
4086:
4083:
4077:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4067:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4005:
3999:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3944:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3931:Geophysicists
3929:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3906:
3901:
3899:
3894:
3892:
3887:
3886:
3883:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3843:
3840:
3837:
3836:
3832:
3825:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3810:
3804:
3800:
3798:0-521-66624-4
3794:
3790:
3786:
3785:
3779:
3775:
3773:0-89925-680-5
3769:
3765:
3761:
3756:
3752:
3750:0-671-62028-2
3746:
3742:
3741:Andre Deutsch
3738:
3733:
3729:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3710:
3706:
3704:0-86542-078-5
3700:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3677:
3673:
3668:
3662:
3651:
3647:
3642:
3630:
3625:
3621:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3602:
3598:
3596:0-13-491408-2
3592:
3588:
3587:HarperCollins
3583:
3582:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3534:
3528:
3524:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3459:
3453:
3449:
3447:0-521-66313-X
3443:
3439:
3435:
3430:
3426:
3424:0-387-96387-1
3420:
3416:
3411:
3410:
3403:
3399:
3397:0-12-527470-X
3393:
3389:
3385:
3380:
3376:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3357:
3353:
3346:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3300:
3294:
3290:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3271:
3267:
3265:0-521-46164-2
3261:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3242:0-309-03680-1
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3124:
3112:
3108:
3106:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3091:0-521-89307-0
3087:
3083:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3046:
3034:
3033:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3006:
3002:
3000:0-521-59067-1
2996:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2979:
2977:0-19-857133-X
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2933:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2901:
2897:
2886:
2882:
2881:"Our Science"
2878:
2874:
2873:
2868:
2852:
2845:
2842:
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2826:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2801:
2797:
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2775:
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2769:
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2757:
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2735:
2729:
2723:
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2716:
2711:
2708:
2703:
2699:
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2679:
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2671:
2664:
2661:
2656:
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2648:
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2640:
2636:
2629:
2626:
2623:
2618:
2615:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2586:Reynolds 2011
2582:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2486:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2453:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2441:Sirvatka 2003
2437:
2434:
2431:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2419:Pedlosky 1987
2415:
2413:
2409:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2382:
2379:
2366:
2362:
2356:
2353:
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2328:
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2301:
2299:
2295:
2290:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2242:
2239:
2227:
2220:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2193:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2164:9780521708425
2160:
2156:
2149:
2146:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2101:
2098:
2086:
2082:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1992:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1962:
1957:
1954:
1951:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1913:
1909:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1870:(4): Q04006.
1869:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1844:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1829:Space physics
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1785:
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1779:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1765:
1760:
1757:
1751:
1746:
1743:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1707:ecliptic axis
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1671:
1670:magnetic dips
1667:
1663:
1659:
1658:
1653:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1608:
1605:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1573:Julius Fröbel
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1552:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1414:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1363:
1359:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1342:
1339:launched the
1338:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1264:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1254:magnetic tail
1251:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1224:Magnetosphere
1218:Magnetosphere
1217:
1215:
1213:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1127:
1109:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1023:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
993:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
962:precipitation
959:
955:
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928:
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920:
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912:
908:
902:
894:
892:
890:
885:
883:
879:
878:Ekman spirals
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
854:
852:
851:mantle plumes
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
831:Fluid motions
827:
819:
817:
815:
811:
810:geologic eras
807:
802:
800:
799:geochronology
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
775:internal heat
772:
765:
760:
755:
748:Radioactivity
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745:
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622:magnetosphere
620:waves in the
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513:thunderstorms
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470:
469:seismic waves
467:Recording of
465:
463:
459:
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451:
450:Seismic waves
444:
439:
434:
426:
424:
422:
414:
413:mantle plumes
410:
406:
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394:
390:
386:
385:radioactivity
382:
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365:mantle plumes
362:
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195:magnetosphere
192:
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135:gravitational
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6269:
6242:Nikola Tesla
6204:Applications
6065:
5992:Solar System
5943:Oceanography
5933:Indian Ocean
5923:Arctic Ocean
5863:Age of Earth
5815:Geomagnetism
5796:
5498:Thermosphere
5488:Stratosphere
5394:
5382:
5363:
5340:
5120:
5108:
5096:
5074:Soil science
5064:Oceanography
5043:
4891:
4872:Astrophysics
4686:Experimental
4598:
4586:
4567:
4467:Applications
4438:Geomagnetism
4429:
4362:Hydrogeology
4295:Paleontology
4290:Stratigraphy
4257:Geochemistry
4119:
4107:
4088:
4055:Seismic wave
3957:Geomagnetism
3911:
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3759:
3736:
3713:
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3671:
3667:"Geophysics"
3653:. Retrieved
3633:. Retrieved
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3142:30 September
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3117:30 September
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3111:the original
3103:
3076:
3049:
3039:30 September
3037:. Retrieved
3031:
3022:the original
3017:
3013:
2986:
2963:
2936:
2926:30 September
2924:. Retrieved
2920:the original
2906:30 September
2904:. Retrieved
2900:"About IUGG"
2890:30 September
2888:. Retrieved
2884:
2854:. Retrieved
2844:
2833:, retrieved
2828:
2803:. Retrieved
2799:
2759:
2748:
2733:
2728:Russo, Lucio
2722:
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2395:the original
2390:
2381:
2369:. Retrieved
2364:
2355:
2344:
2338:Sanders 2003
2333:
2322:
2311:
2281:. Springer.
2278:
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2241:
2229:. Retrieved
2225:
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2136:. Retrieved
2131:
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2100:
2088:. Retrieved
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2075:
2064:
2018:Poirier 2000
1994:
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1976:
1967:
1956:
1936:Sheriff 1991
1916:. Retrieved
1912:science@nasa
1911:
1902:
1867:
1863:
1853:
1722:James Forbes
1715:
1680:
1677:Isaac Newton
1674:
1655:
1649:
1628:
1612:Eratosthenes
1609:
1601:
1568:
1554:
1527:
1508:aeromagnetic
1452:
1416:
1366:
1355:
1320:
1293:
1274:
1246:space probes
1239:
1209:
1173:
1164:
1161:upper mantle
1142:
1130:
1085:
1027:
994:
986:conductivity
984:, while the
970:supercooling
939:
904:
886:
874:Kelvin waves
870:Rossby waves
855:
829:
803:
783:potassium-40
769:
687:
668:
634:
626:Rossby waves
614:Alfvén waves
611:
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537:
510:
486:
466:
462:seismographs
454:normal modes
448:
443:seismic wave
370:
330:geopotential
307:
303:
270:Solar System
254:
222:
214:Isaac Newton
207:
145: ; its
126:
58:
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32:
5740:Cartography
5679:Environment
5546:Climatology
5483:Troposphere
5346:Mathematics
5210:Web mapping
5200:Cartography
5079:Volcanology
5059:Meteorology
4775:Statistical
4691:Theoretical
4668:Engineering
4538:Occupations
4519:Meteoritics
4385:Cartography
4341:Volcanology
4326:Geodynamics
3947:Geodynamics
3784:Geodynamics
3635:28 February
3494:: 107–121.
3165:(3): 1012.
2856:18 February
2835:18 February
2805:18 February
2764:Temple 2006
2715:Temple 2006
2607:18 February
2504:18 February
2478:18 February
2231:18 February
2226:metlink.org
2138:18 February
2105:Fowler 2005
2090:18 February
2085:www.smu.edu
2069:Davies 2001
2058:Lowrie 2004
1918:13 November
1834:Geosciences
1807:Geodynamics
1718:seismometer
1699:gravitation
1662:'loadstones
1631:seismoscope
1591:Replica of
1577:ancient era
1530:time-series
1499:radiometric
1389:Serenitatis
1373:lunar maria
1335:. In 2002,
1324:gravimeters
1250:Earth radii
1153:lithosphere
982:percolation
978:groundwater
966:coalescence
954:evaporation
946:water cycle
942:hydrosphere
862:meteorology
791:thorium-232
787:uranium-238
583:Dawn chorus
521:cosmic rays
507:Electricity
401:lithosphere
355:A model of
183:electricity
171:water cycle
151:composition
6305:Geophysics
6299:Categories
6066:Geophysics
5845:Tomography
5830:Seismology
5797:Geophysics
5772:Navigation
5664:Time zones
5629:In culture
5574:Antarctica
5561:Continents
5493:Mesosphere
5465:Atmosphere
5341:Geophysics
5237:Navigation
5184:Geodesists
5049:Glaciology
5044:Geophysics
4892:Geophysics
4882:Biophysics
4726:Analytical
4679:Approaches
4499:Geobiology
4474:Biogeology
4453:Seismology
4430:Geophysics
4357:Glaciology
4262:Mineralogy
3987:Seismology
3912:Geophysics
3350:(Report).
2869:References
2546:Torge 2001
1716:The first
1657:De Magnete
1635:Zhang Heng
1597:seismology
1593:Zhang Heng
1569:geophysics
1491:gravimetry
1463:satellites
1436:derivative
1348:glaciers.
1345:satellites
1234:solar wind
1214:possible.
1185:convection
1151:, mantle,
1149:outer core
1145:inner core
1088:seismology
1013:permafrost
1001:ice sheets
997:cryosphere
958:atmosphere
907:seismology
835:atmosphere
671:solar wind
529:ionosphere
497:deep focus
493:intraplate
478:refraction
433:Seismology
427:Vibrations
421:geothermal
417:4.2 × 10 W
405:conduction
322:gravimetry
300:Gravimetry
210:lodestones
191:ionosphere
179:atmosphere
127:geophysics
59:Geophysics
6190:Lightning
6124:Whistlers
5762:Geomatics
5707:Ecosystem
5692:Biosphere
5654:Etymology
5634:Earth Day
5584:Australia
5503:Exosphere
5331:Astronomy
5295:Geodynamo
5268:phenomena
5266:Physical
5227:Geomatics
5193:Subfields
5054:Hydrology
4842:Molecular
4743:Acoustics
4736:Continuum
4731:Celestial
4721:Newtonian
4708:Classical
4651:Divisions
4545:Geologist
4400:Geomatics
4267:Petrology
4171:Overviews
4030:Geodynamo
4003:phenomena
4001:Physical
3940:Subfields
3655:31 August
3610:Macmillan
3189:123305218
2941:CRC Press
2885:About AGU
2702:129513373
2655:122239663
1999:Ross 1995
1950:IUGG 2011
1724:in 1844.
1687:astronomy
1682:Principia
1666:versorium
1624:longitude
1604:feng shui
1565:astronomy
1503:barometry
1205:silicates
1046:mountains
1030:ellipsoid
935:viscosity
839:viscosity
651:Magnetism
597:strikes.
595:lightning
591:Whistlers
377:geodynamo
373:heat flow
341:Heat flow
187:magnetism
167:volcanism
53:reversals
6271:Category
6010:Category
5384:Category
5172:Overview
5098:Category
4109:Category
3919:Overview
3842:Archived
3562:17837768
3500:10800377
3336:40110502
3328:17801458
3227:(eds.).
3074:(2005).
2879:(2011).
2730:(2004).
2557:CSR 2011
2452:CFG 2011
1961:AGU 2011
1894:15960331
1728:See also
1675:In 1687
1620:latitude
1487:magnetic
1479:borehole
1467:aircraft
1403:basins.
1397:Nectaris
1308:nutation
1287:and the
1177:geotherm
1005:glaciers
990:salinity
843:isostasy
806:isotopes
779:isotopes
423:energy.
399:and the
155:dynamics
6283:Commons
6178:Sources
6155:Sprites
6059:General
5855:Geology
5767:Gravity
5732:Geodesy
5702:Ecology
5518:Climate
5508:Weather
5455:History
5450:Outline
5396:Commons
5351:Physics
5336:Geology
5179:History
5165:Geodesy
5122:Commons
5039:Geology
5034:Geodesy
5006:Outline
4926:Related
4810:General
4805:Special
4663:Applied
4600:Geology
4588:Geology
4377:Geodesy
4164:Geology
4121:Commons
4076:Geodesy
3926:Outline
3760:Geodesy
3570:9147772
3542:Bibcode
3533:Science
3467:Bibcode
3308:Bibcode
3299:Science
3167:Bibcode
2682:Bibcode
2401:23 June
2371:23 June
1872:Bibcode
1839:Geodesy
1824:Physics
1691:physics
1561:geology
1545:History
1428:Geosoft
1401:Humorum
1393:Crisium
1385:Imbrium
1381:mascons
1277:geodesy
1271:Geodesy
1265:Geodesy
1260:Methods
1133:S-waves
1104:2.7–3.3
1034:Equator
1009:sea ice
950:climate
915:elastic
675:auroras
535:above.
533:sprites
525:amperes
359:in the
276:Gravity
265:physics
189:in the
119:physics
113:of the
6225:People
6129:Chorus
5910:Oceans
5878:Future
5722:Nature
5644:Symbol
5589:Europe
5569:Africa
5110:Portal
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4792:Modern
4642:Major
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2902:. 2011
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1780:(IUGG)
1475:drones
1424:ArcGIS
1283:, the
909:, the
690:dipole
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409:mantle
328:. The
235:. In
163:magmas
153:; its
141:, and
133:; its
5687:Biome
5669:World
5439:Earth
5011:Index
4350:Water
3566:S2CID
3348:(PDF)
3332:S2CID
3185:S2CID
2742:–277.
2698:S2CID
2651:S2CID
2222:(PDF)
1890:S2CID
1845:Notes
1532:with
1471:boats
1333:geoid
1157:crust
1112:0.33
1100:5.515
1080:Earth
931:creep
724:(see
517:volts
334:geoid
131:shape
115:Earth
6134:Hiss
5959:Moon
5639:Flag
5579:Asia
5315:Tide
4763:Wave
4658:Pure
4060:Tide
3818:ISBN
3793:ISBN
3768:ISBN
3745:ISBN
3722:ISBN
3699:ISBN
3676:ISBN
3657:2011
3637:2007
3614:ISBN
3591:ISBN
3558:PMID
3517:ISBN
3496:PMID
3442:ISBN
3419:ISBN
3392:ISBN
3369:ISBN
3324:PMID
3283:ISBN
3260:ISBN
3237:ISBN
3206:ISBN
3144:2011
3119:2011
3086:ISBN
3058:ISBN
3041:2011
2995:ISBN
2972:ISBN
2945:ISBN
2928:2011
2908:2011
2892:2011
2858:2024
2837:2024
2807:2024
2609:2024
2506:2024
2480:2024
2403:2014
2373:2014
2283:ISBN
2233:2024
2159:ISBN
2140:2024
2092:2024
1920:2018
1697:and
1689:and
1622:and
1426:and
1399:and
1337:NASA
1310:and
1183:and
1155:and
1119:0.4
972:and
948:and
876:and
860:and
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781:are
616:are
599:Hiss
562:and
320:and
312:and
298:and
231:and
203:Moon
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193:and
185:and
149:and
4758:Ray
3550:doi
3538:246
3475:doi
3316:doi
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3175:doi
2740:273
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