133:
144:
1543:, a sequence entropy, also known as sequence complexity or information profile, is a numerical sequence providing a quantitative measure of the local complexity of a DNA sequence, independently of the direction of processing. The manipulations of the information profiles enable the analysis of the sequences using alignment-free techniques, such as for example in motif and rearrangements detection.
36:
290:
1431:, which are used to classify the evolutionary relationships between homologous genes represented in the genomes of divergent species. The degree to which sequences in a query set differ is qualitatively related to the sequences' evolutionary distance from one another. Roughly speaking, high sequence identity suggests that the sequences in question have a comparatively young
1170:
298:
1065:
1254:
1194:
fragment. The sequence of the DNA of a living thing encodes the necessary information for that living thing to survive and reproduce. Therefore, determining the sequence is useful in fundamental research into why and how organisms live, as well as in applied subjects. Because of the importance of DNA
1055:
Given the two 10-nucleotide sequences, line them up and compare the differences between them. Calculate the percent difference by taking the number of differences between the DNA bases divided by the total number of nucleotides. In this case there are three differences in the 10 nucleotide sequence.
1350:
Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. Usually, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or
432:
to another sequence, meaning that they have the base on each position in the complementary (i.e., A to T, C to G) and in the reverse order. For example, the complementary sequence to TTAC is GTAA. If one strand of the double-stranded DNA is considered the sense strand, then the other strand,
447:
While A, T, C, and G represent a particular nucleotide at a position, there are also letters that represent ambiguity which are used when more than one kind of nucleotide could occur at that position. The rules of the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
1455:
or the possible functional conservation of specific regions in a sequence. (In the case of nucleotide sequences, the molecular clock hypothesis in its most basic form also discounts the difference in acceptance rates between
970:
Apart from adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil (U), DNA and RNA also contain bases that have been modified after the nucleic acid chain has been formed. In DNA, the most common modified base is
1468:
being incorporated into the protein.) More statistically accurate methods allow the evolutionary rate on each branch of the phylogenetic tree to vary, thus producing better estimates of coalescence times for genes.
231:(GACU) molecule. This succession is denoted by a series of a set of five different letters that indicate the order of the nucleotides. By convention, sequences are usually presented from the
1812:
139:
137:
1591:"Nomenclature for incompletely specified bases in nucleic acid sequences. Recommendations 1984. Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB)"
1233:
Current sequencing methods rely on the discriminatory ability of DNA polymerases, and therefore can only distinguish four bases. An inosine (created from adenosine during
138:
2021:"The family of box ACA small nucleolar RNAs is defined by an evolutionarily conserved secondary structure and ubiquitous sequence elements essential for RNA accumulation"
2397:
136:
1417:
have similar biochemical properties) in a particular region of the sequence, suggest that this region has structural or functional importance. Although DNA and RNA
1401:) introduced in one or both lineages in the time since they diverged from one another. In sequence alignments of proteins, the degree of similarity between
1413:
is among lineages. The absence of substitutions, or the presence of only very conservative substitutions (that is, the substitution of amino acids whose
1241:) is read as a C. With current technology, it is difficult to sequence small amounts of DNA, as the signal is too weak to measure. This is overcome by
281:. Primary structure is sometimes mistakenly referred to as "primary sequence". However there is no parallel concept of secondary or tertiary sequence.
1161:" sequences which code for proteins, and the complementary "antisense" sequence, which is by itself nonfunctional, but can bind to the sense strand.
417:
backbone. In the typical case, the sequences are printed abutting one another without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC, read left to right in the
1820:
1483:
Frequently the primary structure encodes motifs that are of functional importance. Some examples of sequence motifs are: the C/D and H/ACA boxes of
1421:
bases are more similar to each other than are amino acids, the conservation of base pairs can indicate a similar functional or structural role.
53:
2495:
2390:
1557:
1451:
are constant across sequence lineages. Therefore, it does not account for possible differences among organisms or species in the rates of
1154:
429:
1134:
1097:
418:
232:
2500:
2490:
1850:
1764:
119:
100:
72:
2480:
1007:
presence, both of them through deamination (replacement of the amine-group with a carbonyl-group). Hypoxanthine is produced from
356:
274:
1385:
relationships between the sequences. If two sequences in an alignment share a common ancestor, mismatches can be interpreted as
1153:
where the mRNA is used as a template for the construction of the protein strand. Since nucleic acids can bind to molecules with
2485:
2383:
360:
278:
1567:
79:
57:
2447:
2437:
2329:"Sequence complexity profiles of prokaryotic genomic sequences: A fast algorithm for calculating linguistic complexity"
459:
means that either an adenine or a thymine could occur in that position without impairing the sequence's functionality.
86:
2510:
2427:
1432:
1424:
2370:
2592:
2432:
1512:
323:
Nucleic acids consist of a chain of linked units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three subunits: a
68:
46:
2566:
2422:
2165:
Bogenhagen DF, Brown DD (1981). "Nucleotide sequences in
Xenopus 5S DNA required for transcription termination".
1562:
1351:
passing on a genetic disorder. Several hundred genetic tests are currently in use, and more are being developed.
1276:
1242:
1158:
364:
236:
158:
235:. For DNA, with its double helix, there are two possible directions for the notated sequence; of these two, the
1524:
1142:
1520:
1406:
422:
1435:, while low identity suggests that the divergence is more ancient. This approximation, which reflects the "
2597:
2467:
2457:
2406:
2025:
1516:
1444:
1115:
1077:
248:
154:
1972:"The snoRNA box C/D motif directs nucleolar targeting and also couples snoRNA synthesis and localization"
1669:
1227:
442:
259:
1137:
outlines the mechanism by which proteins are constructed using information contained in nucleic acids.
2283:
2224:
2074:
1928:
1718:
1390:
2536:
2505:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1394:
414:
93:
2190:
2098:
1952:
1528:
1378:
1360:
347:) make up the backbone of the nucleic acid strand, and attached to the sugar is one of a set of
247:
structure of the entire molecule. For this reason, the nucleic acid sequence is also termed the
2442:
2414:
2350:
2309:
2272:"An alignment-free method to find and visualise rearrangements between pairs of DNA sequences"
2252:
2182:
2147:
2090:
2044:
2001:
1944:
1897:
1846:
1746:
1630:
1612:
1448:
1440:
1428:
1316:
1288:
1268:
992:
175:
1772:
1705:
Nguyen, T; Brunson, D; Crespi, C L; Penman, B W; Wishnok, J S; Tannenbaum, S R (April 1992).
1405:
occupying a particular position in the sequence can be interpreted as a rough measure of how
2561:
2340:
2299:
2291:
2242:
2232:
2174:
2137:
2129:
2082:
2034:
1991:
1983:
1936:
1887:
1879:
1736:
1726:
1620:
1602:
1173:
972:
1347:, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders.
1027:
Example of comparing and determining the % difference between two nucleotide sequences
433:
considered the antisense strand, will have the complementary sequence to the sense strand.
1794:
1457:
1436:
1344:
1306:
1238:
1212:
1195:
to living things, knowledge of a DNA sequence may be useful in practically any biological
1443:
can be used to extrapolate the elapsed time since two genes first diverged (that is, the
2287:
2228:
2078:
1932:
1722:
1275:
below), be digitally altered and be used as templates for creating new actual DNA using
1130:
by which each possible combination of three bases corresponds to a specific amino acid.
2531:
2452:
2304:
2271:
2247:
2212:
1996:
1971:
1552:
1540:
1478:
1410:
1386:
1323:, and can also be used to determine a child's paternity (genetic father) or a person's
1294:
1181:
1103:
980:
289:
2345:
2328:
2142:
2117:
1892:
1867:
1687:
1625:
1590:
1223:
is a burgeoning discipline, with the potential for many useful products and services.
425:, a sequence is on the coding strand if it has the same order as the transcribed RNA.
2581:
2178:
1940:
1741:
1706:
1427:
makes extensive use of sequence alignments in the construction and interpretation of
1220:
988:
976:
1956:
967:
These symbols are also valid for RNA, except with U (uracil) replacing T (thymine).
2602:
2587:
2546:
2194:
2102:
1649:
1648:
Nomenclature
Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB) (1984).
1332:
1127:
1102:
In biological systems, nucleic acids contain information which is used by a living
1093:
1073:
1069:
996:
17:
2237:
1340:
1234:
340:
263:
216:
162:
35:
1987:
1365:
In bioinformatics, a sequence alignment is a way of arranging the sequences of
2541:
2062:
1465:
1452:
1418:
1414:
1402:
1339:
to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes
1336:
1331:, one inherited from their mother, the other inherited from their father. The
1261:
Once a nucleic acid sequence has been obtained from an organism, it is stored
1187:
1119:
1111:
1081:
766:
390:
387:
348:
318:
310:
306:
212:
170:
166:
2133:
1845:(2nd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
1616:
1382:
1263:
1216:
1204:
352:
324:
2371:
A bibliography on features, patterns, correlations in DNA and protein texts
2354:
2313:
2256:
1948:
1901:
1731:
1335:
is believed to contain around 20,000–25,000 genes. In addition to studying
2186:
2151:
2118:"An analysis of 5'-noncoding sequences from 699 vertebrate messenger RNAs"
2048:
2005:
1750:
1634:
1169:
2375:
2094:
2039:
2020:
2019:
Ganot, Philippe; Caizergues-Ferrer, Michèle; Kiss, Tamás (1 April 1997).
1707:"DNA damage and mutation in human cells exposed to nitric oxide in vitro"
1650:"Nomenclature for Incompletely Specified Bases in Nucleic Acid Sequences"
1324:
1200:
1196:
1150:
1016:
1000:
517:
410:
398:
267:
244:
240:
1607:
1176:
printout from automated sequencer for determining part of a DNA sequence
2526:
1819:. EuroGentest Network of Excellence Project. 2008-09-11. Archived from
1374:
1320:
1208:
1107:
1085:
1064:
1012:
1008:
1004:
984:
571:
544:
487:
406:
402:
394:
297:
2295:
1916:
1883:
1817:
Definitions of
Genetic Testing (Jorge Sequeiros and Bárbara Guimarães)
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
2086:
2065:(1975). "Determinant of cistron specificity in bacterial ribosomes".
1917:"Crucial steps to life: From chemical reactions to code using agents"
1484:
1312:
1020:
737:
709:
598:
332:
220:
1253:
2327:
Troyanskaya, O; Arbell, O; Koren, Y; Landau, G; Bolshoy, A (2002).
1461:
1398:
1237:) is read as a G, and 5-methyl-cytosine (created from cytosine by
1168:
1123:
680:
449:
328:
296:
288:
1377:
to identify regions of similarity that may be due to functional,
1226:
RNA is not sequenced directly. Instead, it is copied to a DNA by
1328:
1146:
1122:
making up a protein strand. Each group of three bases, called a
302:
239:
is used. Because nucleic acids are normally linear (unbranched)
143:
2379:
131:
2556:
2551:
1488:
1370:
1366:
1267:
in digital format. Digital genetic sequences may be stored in
1191:
1138:
1126:, corresponds to a single amino acid, and there is a specific
344:
336:
228:
224:
29:
1293:
Digital genetic sequences may be analyzed using the tools of
2211:
Pinho, A; Garcia, S; Pratas, D; Ferreira, P (Nov 21, 2013).
142:
2270:
Pratas, D; Silva, R; Pinho, A; Ferreira, P (May 18, 2015).
1970:
Samarsky, DA; Fournier MJ; Singer RH; Bertrand E (1998).
1327:. Normally, every person carries two variations of every
942:
975:(m5C). In RNA, there are many modified bases, including
243:, specifying the sequence is equivalent to defining the
157:(primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) using
2519:
2466:
2413:
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1868:"Predicting Deleterious Amino Acid Substitutions"
1186:DNA sequencing is the process of determining the
1447:time), assumes that the effects of mutation and
1219:may lead to treatments for contagious diseases.
1595:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1464:and other mutations that result in a different
135:
2391:
8:
1843:Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis
1157:sequences, there is a distinction between "
27:Succession of nucleotides in a nucleic acid
2398:
2384:
2376:
1003:are two of the many bases created through
2344:
2303:
2246:
2236:
2206:
2204:
2141:
2038:
1995:
1891:
1740:
1730:
1624:
1606:
1460:that do not alter the meaning of a given
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
1252:
1072:, by which the information contained in
1063:
461:
147:The image above contains clickable links
1579:
305:molecule. Each codon consists of three
1297:to attempt to determine its function.
1439:" hypothesis that a roughly constant
1118:by cell machinery into a sequence of
7:
1585:
1583:
1558:Nucleic acid structure determination
58:adding citations to reliable sources
1491:found in spliceosomal RNAs such as
1343:tests for the possible presence of
1257:Genetic sequence in digital format.
351:. The nucleobases are important in
1230:, and this DNA is then sequenced.
1135:central dogma of molecular biology
1098:Central dogma of molecular biology
266:which directs the functions of an
25:
1941:10.1016/j.biosystems.2015.12.007
1866:Ng, P. C.; Henikoff, S. (2001).
1813:"Definitions of Genetic Testing"
1056:Thus there is a 30% difference.
1011:, and xanthine is produced from
355:of strands to form higher-level
309:, usually representing a single
301:A series of codons in part of a
34:
2346:10.1093/bioinformatics/18.5.679
1771:. 16 March 2015. Archived from
1149:molecules, which travel to the
903:
759:
730:
702:
673:
647:
618:
45:needs additional citations for
1568:Single-nucleotide polymorphism
1:
1529:RNA polymerase III terminator
1319:vulnerabilities to inherited
2238:10.1371/journal.pone.0079922
2179:10.1016/0092-8674(81)90522-5
1203:it can be used to identify,
1114:on a nucleic acid strand is
1015:. Similarly, deamination of
2213:"DNA Sequences at a Glance"
1441:rate of evolutionary change
1433:most recent common ancestor
1425:Computational phylogenetics
1215:. Similarly, research into
421:direction. With regards to
2619:
1765:"What is genetic testing?"
1476:
1358:
1304:
1286:
1179:
1091:
941:
909:
881:
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794:
765:
736:
708:
679:
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597:
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516:
486:
440:
316:
273:Nucleic acids also have a
2567:Nucleic acid double helix
1563:Quaternary numeral system
1311:The DNA in an organism's
1277:artificial gene synthesis
1243:polymerase chain reaction
812:
640:
503:
473:
370:The possible letters are
293:Chemical structure of RNA
2116:Kozak M (October 1987).
1988:10.1093/emboj/17.13.3747
1525:Kozak consensus sequence
1207:and potentially develop
386:, representing the four
254:The sequence represents
2026:Genes & Development
1769:Genetics Home Reference
1670:"BIOL2060: Translation"
1521:Shine-Dalgarno sequence
1409:a particular region or
1060:Biological significance
69:"Nucleic acid sequence"
2468:Nucleic acid structure
2407:Biomolecular structure
2134:10.1093/nar/15.20.8125
1732:10.1073/pnas.89.7.3030
1711:Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
1258:
1249:Digital representation
1177:
1165:Sequence determination
1106:to construct specific
1089:
314:
294:
204:
161:and examples from the
155:nucleic acid structure
148:
1256:
1245:(PCR) amplification.
1228:reverse transcriptase
1172:
1092:Further information:
1067:
914:ucleotide (not a gap)
443:Nucleic acid notation
300:
292:
260:deoxyribonucleic acid
209:nucleic acid sequence
146:
141:
2040:10.1101/gad.11.7.941
1190:sequence of a given
886:comes after T and U)
428:One sequence can be
233:5' end to the 3' end
54:improve this article
2537:Protein engineering
2288:2015NatSR...510203P
2229:2013PLoSO...879922P
2079:1975Natur.254...34S
2063:Shine J, Dalgarno L
1933:2016BiSys.140...49W
1915:Witzany, G (2016).
1823:on February 4, 2009
1723:1992PNAS...89.3030N
1608:10.1073/pnas.83.1.4
1315:can be analyzed to
1271:, be analyzed (see
1068:A depiction of the
464:
361:tertiary structures
275:secondary structure
256:genetic information
211:is a succession of
18:Genetic information
2276:Scientific Reports
1841:Mount DM. (2004).
1429:phylogenetic trees
1395:deletion mutations
1361:Sequence alignment
1355:Sequence alignment
1269:sequence databases
1259:
1199:. For example, in
1178:
1110:. The sequence of
1090:
471:Meaning/derivation
462:
452:) are as follows:
393:of a DNA strand –
363:such as the famed
315:
295:
279:tertiary structure
205:
149:
2593:Molecular biology
2575:
2574:
2415:Protein structure
2296:10.1038/srep10203
2122:Nucleic Acids Res
1884:10.1101/gr.176601
1795:"Genetic Testing"
1289:Sequence analysis
1283:Sequence analysis
1273:Sequence analysis
993:7-methylguanosine
965:
964:
249:primary structure
151:Interactive image
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
2610:
2562:Structural motif
2400:
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2087:10.1038/254034a0
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2016:
2010:
2009:
1999:
1976:The EMBO Journal
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1610:
1601:(1): 4–8. 1986.
1587:
1535:Sequence entropy
1458:silent mutations
1345:genetic diseases
1213:genetic diseases
1174:Electropherogram
973:5-methylcytidine
465:
463:List of symbols
227:(using GACT) or
202:
145:
134:
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
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62:
38:
30:
21:
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2209:
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2159:
2128:(20): 8125–48.
2115:
2114:
2110:
2073:(5495): 34–38.
2061:
2060:
2056:
2018:
2017:
2013:
1982:(13): 3747–57.
1969:
1968:
1964:
1914:
1913:
1909:
1872:Genome Research
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1717:(7): 3030–034.
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1652:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1589:
1588:
1581:
1577:
1549:
1537:
1489:Sm binding site
1481:
1475:
1473:Sequence motifs
1437:molecular clock
1387:point mutations
1363:
1357:
1309:
1307:Genetic testing
1303:
1301:Genetic testing
1291:
1285:
1251:
1239:DNA methylation
1184:
1167:
1100:
1062:
445:
439:
335:in the case of
321:
287:
262:represents the
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140:
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115:
109:
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63:
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51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
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2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2532:Protein domain
2529:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2511:Thermodynamics
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
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2464:
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2458:Thermodynamics
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2445:
2440:
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2430:
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2411:
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2405:
2403:
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2365:External links
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2361:
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2333:Bioinformatics
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2223:(11): e79922.
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2011:
1962:
1907:
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1804:
1786:
1775:on 29 May 2006
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1565:
1560:
1555:
1553:Gene structure
1548:
1545:
1541:bioinformatics
1536:
1533:
1479:Sequence motif
1477:Main article:
1474:
1471:
1411:sequence motif
1359:Main article:
1356:
1353:
1305:Main article:
1302:
1299:
1295:bioinformatics
1287:Main article:
1284:
1281:
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1247:
1182:DNA sequencing
1180:Main article:
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1029:
1028:
981:dihydrouridine
963:
962:
959:
956:
954:
952:
950:
948:
940:
934:
933:
930:
927:
924:
921:
918:
915:
908:
902:
901:
898:
896:
893:
890:
887:
880:
874:
873:
870:
867:
865:
862:
859:
858:comes after G)
852:
846:
845:
842:
839:
836:
834:
831:
830:comes after C)
824:
818:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
800:
799:comes after A)
793:
787:
786:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
764:
758:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
735:
729:
728:
725:
722:
719:
717:
715:
707:
701:
700:
697:
695:
693:
690:
687:
678:
672:
671:
668:
666:
663:
660:
658:
652:
646:
645:
642:
639:
636:
634:
632:
629:
623:
617:
616:
613:
610:
608:
606:
604:
596:
590:
589:
586:
583:
581:
579:
577:
569:
563:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
550:
542:
536:
535:
532:
530:
528:
525:
523:
515:
509:
508:
505:
502:
500:
498:
496:
493:
485:
479:
478:
475:
474:Possible bases
472:
469:
441:Main article:
438:
435:
415:phosphodiester
317:Main article:
286:
283:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2615:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2598:Nucleic acids
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2496:Determination
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2443:Determination
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2401:
2396:
2394:
2389:
2387:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2356:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2339:(5): 679–88.
2338:
2334:
2330:
2323:
2320:
2315:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2207:
2205:
2201:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2173:(1): 261–70.
2172:
2168:
2161:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2033:(7): 941–56.
2032:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2015:
2012:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1908:
1903:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1878:(5): 863–74.
1877:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1859:
1854:
1852:0-87969-608-7
1848:
1844:
1837:
1834:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1790:
1787:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1760:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1698:
1693:
1689:
1683:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1662:
1651:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1574:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1480:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1362:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1290:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1255:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1221:Biotechnology
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1175:
1171:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1156:
1155:complementary
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1095:
1087:
1084:sequences in
1083:
1079:
1075:
1074:nucleic acids
1071:
1066:
1059:
1057:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1025:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
989:ribothymidine
986:
982:
978:
977:pseudouridine
974:
968:
960:
957:
955:
953:
951:
949:
947:
945:
939:
936:
935:
931:
928:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
907:
904:
899:
897:
894:
891:
888:
885:
879:
876:
875:
871:
868:
866:
863:
860:
857:
851:
848:
847:
843:
840:
837:
835:
832:
829:
823:
820:
819:
815:
809:
806:
803:
801:
798:
792:
789:
788:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
772:
770:
763:
760:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
743:
741:
734:
731:
726:
723:
720:
718:
716:
714:
712:
706:
703:
698:
696:
694:
691:
688:
686:
684:
677:
674:
669:
667:
664:
661:
659:
656:
651:
648:
643:
637:
635:
633:
630:
627:
622:
619:
614:
611:
609:
607:
605:
603:
601:
595:
592:
591:
587:
584:
582:
580:
578:
576:
574:
568:
565:
564:
560:
558:
555:
553:
551:
549:
547:
541:
538:
537:
533:
531:
529:
526:
524:
522:
520:
514:
511:
510:
506:
501:
499:
497:
494:
492:
490:
484:
481:
480:
476:
470:
467:
466:
460:
458:
455:For example,
453:
451:
444:
436:
434:
431:
430:complementary
426:
424:
423:transcription
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
320:
312:
308:
304:
299:
291:
284:
282:
280:
276:
271:
269:
265:
261:
258:. Biological
257:
252:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
2547:Nucleic acid
2475:
2336:
2332:
2322:
2279:
2275:
2265:
2220:
2216:
2170:
2166:
2160:
2125:
2121:
2111:
2070:
2066:
2057:
2030:
2024:
2014:
1979:
1975:
1965:
1924:
1920:
1910:
1875:
1871:
1861:
1842:
1836:
1825:. Retrieved
1821:the original
1816:
1807:
1798:
1789:
1777:. Retrieved
1773:the original
1768:
1759:
1714:
1710:
1700:
1691:
1682:
1673:
1664:
1653:. Retrieved
1643:
1598:
1594:
1538:
1482:
1423:
1389:and gaps as
1383:evolutionary
1364:
1349:
1333:human genome
1310:
1292:
1272:
1262:
1260:
1232:
1225:
1185:
1132:
1128:genetic code
1101:
1094:Genetic code
1070:genetic code
1054:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1033:
997:Hypoxanthine
969:
966:
943:
937:
911:
905:
883:
877:
855:
849:
827:
821:
796:
790:
768:
761:
739:
732:
710:
704:
682:
675:
654:
649:
625:
620:
599:
593:
572:
566:
545:
539:
518:
512:
488:
482:
456:
454:
446:
427:
413:linked to a
383:
379:
375:
371:
369:
365:double helix
353:base pairing
327:group and a
322:
272:
255:
253:
237:sense strand
208:
206:
150:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
1445:coalescence
1415:side chains
1403:amino acids
1341:biochemical
1337:chromosomes
1235:RNA editing
1143:transcribed
1120:amino acids
1112:nucleobases
1019:results in
477:Complement
349:nucleobases
341:deoxyribose
307:nucleotides
285:Nucleotides
264:information
217:nucleotides
215:within the
163:VS ribozyme
159:DNA helices
2582:Categories
2542:Proteasome
2501:Prediction
2491:Quaternary
2448:Prediction
2438:Quaternary
1921:Biosystems
1827:2008-08-10
1688:"Research"
1655:2008-02-04
1575:References
1466:amino acid
1453:DNA repair
1419:nucleotide
1379:structural
1209:treatments
1188:nucleotide
1116:translated
1082:amino acid
1078:translated
411:covalently
388:nucleotide
319:Nucleotide
311:amino acid
171:nucleosome
167:telomerase
110:March 2014
80:newspapers
2481:Secondary
2428:Secondary
2282:: 10203.
1927:: 49–57.
1692:uw.edu.pl
1617:0027-8424
1449:selection
1407:conserved
1391:insertion
1264:in silico
1217:pathogens
991:(rT) and
507:T (or U)
357:secondary
325:phosphate
223:within a
2520:See also
2486:Tertiary
2433:Tertiary
2355:12050064
2314:25984837
2257:24278218
2217:PLOS ONE
1957:30962295
1949:26723230
1902:11337480
1547:See also
1527:and the
1325:ancestry
1321:diseases
1317:diagnose
1205:diagnose
1201:medicine
1197:research
1151:ribosome
1108:proteins
1086:proteins
1017:cytosine
1001:xanthine
771:rimidine
437:Notation
419:5' to 3'
399:cytosine
268:organism
245:covalent
241:polymers
219:forming
2527:Protein
2476:Primary
2423:Primary
2305:4434998
2284:Bibcode
2248:3836782
2225:Bibcode
2195:9982829
2187:6263489
2152:3313277
2103:4162567
2075:Bibcode
2049:9106664
2006:9649444
1997:1170710
1929:Bibcode
1799:nih.gov
1751:1557408
1719:Bibcode
1635:2417239
1485:snoRNAs
1375:protein
1013:guanine
1009:adenine
1005:mutagen
995:(m7G).
985:inosine
882:not T (
854:not G (
826:not C (
795:not A (
521:ytosine
407:thymine
403:guanine
395:adenine
221:alleles
94:scholar
2506:Design
2453:Design
2353:
2312:
2302:
2255:
2245:
2193:
2185:
2150:
2143:306349
2140:
2101:
2095:803646
2093:
2067:Nature
2047:
2004:
1994:
1955:
1947:
1900:
1893:311071
1890:
1849:
1779:19 May
1749:
1739:
1674:mun.ca
1633:
1626:322779
1623:
1615:
1523:, the
1519:, the
1399:indels
1313:genome
1021:uracil
575:hymine
548:uanine
491:denine
468:Symbol
382:, and
333:ribose
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
2191:S2CID
2099:S2CID
1953:S2CID
1742:48797
1570:(SNP)
1462:codon
1381:, or
1373:, or
1159:sense
1145:into
1124:codon
1080:into
987:(I),
983:(D),
979:(Ψ),
657:trong
602:racil
450:IUPAC
391:bases
329:sugar
213:bases
101:JSTOR
87:books
2351:PMID
2310:PMID
2253:PMID
2183:PMID
2167:Cell
2148:PMID
2091:PMID
2045:PMID
2002:PMID
1945:PMID
1898:PMID
1847:ISBN
1781:2010
1747:PMID
1631:PMID
1613:ISSN
1515:and
1329:gene
1211:for
1147:mRNA
1133:The
1104:cell
1096:and
1076:are
999:and
910:any
359:and
303:mRNA
277:and
200:1EQZ
196:1YMO
192:4R4V
188:4OCB
184:1BNA
180:ADNA
169:and
165:and
73:news
2603:RNA
2588:DNA
2557:RNA
2552:DNA
2341:doi
2300:PMC
2292:doi
2243:PMC
2233:doi
2175:doi
2138:PMC
2130:doi
2083:doi
2071:254
2035:doi
1992:PMC
1984:doi
1937:doi
1925:140
1888:PMC
1880:doi
1737:PMC
1727:doi
1621:PMC
1603:doi
1539:In
1513:U12
1393:or
1371:RNA
1367:DNA
1192:DNA
1141:is
1139:DNA
1051:TAG
1040:TAG
946:ero
742:ine
713:eto
685:ino
628:eak
345:DNA
343:in
337:RNA
229:RNA
225:DNA
176:PDB
173:. (
153:of
56:by
2584::
2349:.
2337:18
2335:.
2331:.
2308:.
2298:.
2290:.
2278:.
2274:.
2251:.
2241:.
2231:.
2219:.
2215:.
2203:^
2189:.
2181:.
2171:24
2169:.
2146:.
2136:.
2126:15
2124:.
2120:.
2097:.
2089:.
2081:.
2069:.
2043:.
2031:11
2029:.
2023:.
2000:.
1990:.
1980:17
1978:.
1974:.
1951:.
1943:.
1935:.
1923:.
1919:.
1896:.
1886:.
1876:11
1874:.
1870:.
1815:.
1797:.
1767:.
1745:.
1735:.
1725:.
1715:89
1713:.
1709:.
1690:.
1672:.
1629:.
1619:.
1611:.
1599:83
1597:.
1593:.
1582:^
1531:.
1517:U3
1511:,
1509:U6
1507:,
1505:U5
1503:,
1501:U4
1499:,
1497:U2
1495:,
1493:U1
1487:,
1369:,
1279:.
1049:CT
1047:CC
1043:AA
1038:GC
1036:CC
1032:AA
1023:.
961:Z
932:N
900:B
872:D
844:H
816:V
785:R
756:Y
738:pu
727:M
699:K
670:S
644:W
615:A
588:A
561:C
534:G
409:–
405:,
401:,
397:,
378:,
374:,
367:.
339:,
270:.
251:.
207:A
203:)
198:,
194:,
190:,
186:,
182:,
178::
2399:e
2392:t
2385:v
2357:.
2343::
2316:.
2294::
2286::
2280:5
2259:.
2235::
2227::
2221:8
2197:.
2177::
2154:.
2132::
2105:.
2085::
2077::
2051:.
2037::
2008:.
1986::
1959:.
1939::
1931::
1904:.
1882::
1855:.
1830:.
1801:.
1783:.
1753:.
1729::
1721::
1694:.
1676:.
1658:.
1637:.
1605::
1397:(
1088:.
1045:A
1034:T
958:0
944:Z
938:Z
929:4
926:T
923:G
920:C
917:A
912:N
906:N
895:G
892:C
889:A
884:V
878:V
869:T
864:C
861:A
856:H
850:H
841:T
838:G
833:A
828:D
822:D
813:3
810:T
807:G
804:C
797:B
791:B
782:T
777:C
769:Y
767:p
762:Y
751:G
746:A
740:R
733:R
724:T
721:G
711:K
705:K
692:C
689:A
683:M
681:a
676:M
665:G
662:C
655:S
650:S
641:2
638:T
631:A
626:W
621:W
612:U
600:U
594:U
585:T
573:T
567:T
556:G
546:G
540:G
527:C
519:C
513:C
504:1
495:A
489:A
483:A
457:W
448:(
384:T
380:G
376:C
372:A
331:(
313:.
123:)
117:(
112:)
108:(
98:·
91:·
84:·
77:·
50:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
