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conductive pore. Evidence for the existence of such pre-pores comes mostly from the "flickering" of pores, which suggests a transition between conductive and insulating states. It has been suggested that these pre-pores are small (~3 Γ
) hydrophobic defects. If this theory is correct, then the transition to a conductive state could be explained by a rearrangement at the pore edge, in which the lipid heads fold over to create a hydrophilic interface. Finally, these conductive pores can either heal, resealing the bilayer or expand, eventually rupturing it. The resultant fate depends on whether the critical defect size was exceeded which in turn depends on the applied field, local mechanical stress and bilayer edge energy.
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electrotransfer are not yet fully understood, it was shown that the introduction of DNA only occurs in the part of the membrane facing the cathode and that several steps are needed for successful transfection: electrophoretic migration of DNA towards the cell, DNA insertion into the membrane, translocation across the membrane, migration of DNA towards the nucleus, transfer of DNA across the nuclear envelope and finally gene expression. There are a number of factors that can influence the efficiency of gene electrotransfer, such as: temperature, parameters of electric pulses, DNA concentration, electroporation buffer used, cell size and the ability of cells to express transfected genes. In
341:(pIL-12) was performed and safety, tolerability and therapeutic effect were monitored. Study concluded, that gene electrotransfer with pIL-12 is safe and well tolerated. In addition partial or complete response was observed also in distant non treated metastases, suggesting the systemic treatment effect. Based on these results they are already planning to move to Phase II clinical study. There are currently several ongoing clinical studies of gene electrotransfer where safety, tolerability and effectiveness of immunization with DNA vaccine, which is administered by the electric pulses is monitored.
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short, repetitive bursts of electricity at a predetermined voltage and frequency. These bursts of electricity increase the resting transmembrane potential (TMP), so that nanopores form in the plasma membrane. When the electricity applied to the tissue is above the electric field threshold of the target tissue, the cells become permanently permeable from the formation of nanopores. As a result, the cells are unable to repair the damage and die due to a loss of homeostasis. N-TIRE is unique to other tumor ablation techniques in that it does not create thermal damage to the tissue around it.
33:
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approximate the volume of the tumor and decide on the best course of action including the insertion site of electrodes, the angle they are inserted in, the voltage needed, and more, using software technology. Often, a CT machine will be used to help with the placement of electrodes during the procedure, particularly when the electrodes are being used to treat tumors in the brain.
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their normal cell functions. Reversible electroporation is typically done with treatments that involve getting a drug or gene (or other molecule that is not normally permeable to the cell membrane) into the cell. Not all tissue has the same electric field threshold; therefore careful calculations need to be made prior to a treatment to ensure safety and efficacy.
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ablation success as N-TIRE. However, it has one distinct advantage, H-FIRE does not cause muscle contraction in the patient and therefore there is no need for a paralytic agent. Furthermore, H-FIRE has been demonstrated to produce more predictable ablations due to the lesser difference in the electrical properties of tissues at higher frequencies.
171:. Artificially induced cell fusion can be used to investigate and treat different diseases, like diabetes, regenerate axons of the central nerve system, and produce cells with desired properties, such as in cell vaccines for cancer immunotherapy. However, the first and most known application of cell fusion is production of monoclonal antibodies in
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A more recent technique has been developed called high-frequency irreversible electroporation (H-FIRE). This technique uses electrodes to apply bipolar bursts of electricity at a high frequency, as opposed to unipolar bursts of electricity at a low frequency. This type of procedure has the same tumor
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A recent technique called non-thermal irreversible electroporation (N-TIRE) has proven successful in treating many different types of tumors and other unwanted tissue. This procedure is done using small electrodes (about 1mm in diameter), placed either inside or surrounding the target tissue to apply
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Electroporation is a multi-step process with several distinct phases. First, a short electrical pulse must be applied. Typical parameters would be 300β400 mV for < 1 ms across the membrane (note- the voltages used in cell experiments are typically much larger because they are being
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core. This phenomenon indicates that the mechanism is the creation of nm-scale water-filled holes in the membrane. Electropores were optically imaged in lipid bilayer models like droplet interface bilayers and giant unilamellar vesicles, while addition of cytoskeletal proteins such as actin networks
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Recent research has shown that shock waves could be used for pre-treating the cell membrane prior to electroporation. This synergistic strategy has shown to reduce external voltage requirement and create larger pores. Also application of shock waves allow scope to target desired membrane site. This
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One major advantage of using N-TIRE is that, when done correctly according to careful calculations, it only affects the target tissue. Proteins, the extracellular matrix, and critical structures such as blood vessels and nerves are all unaffected and left healthy by this treatment. This allows for a
275:
The first group to look at electroporation for medical applications was led by Lluis M Mir at the
Institute Gustave Roussy. In this case, they looked at the use of reversible electroporation in conjunction with impermeable macromolecules. The first research looking at how nanosecond pulses might be
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In the 1960s it was known that by applying an external electric field, a large membrane potential at the two pole of a cell can be created. In the 1970s it was discovered that when a membrane potential reached a critical level, the membrane would break down and that it could recover. By the 1980s,
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both result from application of an electric field, the mechanisms involved are fundamentally different. In dielectric breakdown the barrier material is ionized, creating a conductive pathway. The material alteration is thus chemical in nature. In contrast, during electroporation the lipid molecules
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The first medical application of electroporation was used for introducing poorly permeant anticancer drugs into tumor nodules. Soon also gene electrotransfer became of special interest because of its low cost, easiness of realization and safety. Namely, viral vectors can have serious limitations in
207:
to be transformed. The mixture is pipetted into the cuvette, the voltage and capacitance are set, and the cuvette is inserted into the electroporator. The process requires direct contact between the electrodes and the suspension. Immediately after electroporation, one milliliter of liquid medium is
144:
transfection. Adherent cells can also be transfected using electroporation, providing researchers with an alternative to trypsinizing their cells prior to transfection. One downside to electroporation, however, is that after the process the gene expression of over 7,000 genes can be affected. This
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Bacterial transformation is generally the easiest way to make large amounts of a particular protein needed for biotechnology purposes or in medicine. Since gene electrotransfer is very simple, rapid and highly effective technique it first became very convenient replacement for other transformation
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The entire procedure is very quick, typically taking about five minutes. The success rate of these procedures is high and is very promising for future treatment in humans. One disadvantage to using N-TIRE is that the electricity delivered from the electrodes can stimulate muscle cells to contract,
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Contrastingly, reversible electroporation occurs when the electricity applied with the electrodes is below the electric field threshold of the target tissue. Because the electricity applied is below the cells' threshold, it allows the cells to repair their phospholipid bilayer and continue on with
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Application of electric pulses of sufficient strength to the cell causes an increase in the trans-membrane potential difference, which provokes the membrane destabilization. Cell membrane permeability is increased and otherwise nonpermeant molecules enter the cell. Although the mechanisms of gene
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Electroporation is a dynamic phenomenon that depends on the local transmembrane voltage at each point on the cell membrane. It is generally accepted that for a given pulse duration and shape, a specific transmembrane voltage threshold exists for the manifestation of the electroporation phenomenon
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of electroporation was found in pigs to irreversibly destroy target cells within a narrow range while leaving neighboring cells unaffected, and thus represents a promising new treatment for cancer, heart disease and other disease states that require removal of tissue. Irreversible electroporation
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With regards to irreversible electroporation, the first successful treatment of malignant cutaneous tumors implanted in mice was completed in 2007 by a group of scientists who achieved complete tumor ablation in 12 out of 13 mice. They accomplished this by sending 80 pulses of 100 microseconds at
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could also be used. Electroporation works by passing thousands of volts (~8 kV/cm) across suspended cells in an electroporation cuvette. Afterwards, the cells have to be handled carefully until they have had a chance to divide, producing new cells that contain reproduced plasmids. This process is
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Before doing the procedure, scientists must carefully calculate exactly what needs to be done and treat each patient on an individual case-by-case basis. To do this, imaging technology such as CT scans and MRI's are commonly used to create a 3D image of the tumor. From this information, they can
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Since the cell membrane is not able to pass current (except in ion channels), it acts as an electrical capacitor. Subjecting membranes to a high-voltage electric field results in their temporary breakdown, resulting in pores that are large enough to allow macromolecules (such as DNA) to enter or
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gene electrotransfer was first described in 1991 and today there are many preclinical studies of gene electrotransfer. The method is used to deliver large variety of therapeutic genes for potential treatment of several diseases, such as: disorders in immune system, tumors, metabolic disorders,
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Electroporation can also be used to help deliver drugs or genes into the cell by applying short and intense electric pulses that transiently permeabilize cell membrane, thus allowing transport of molecules otherwise not transported through a cellular membrane. This procedure is referred to as
500:
through the migration of ions from the surrounding solution. Once the critical field is achieved there is a rapid localized rearrangement in lipid morphology. The resulting structure is believed to be a "pre-pore" since it is not electrically conductive but leads rapidly to the creation of a
252:
electroporation due to the visibility of ventricles for injections of nucleic acids, as well as the increased permeability of dividing cells. Electroporation of injected in utero embryos is performed through the uterus wall, often with forceps-type electrodes to limit damage to the embryo.
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0.3 Hz with an electrical field magnitude of 2500 V/cm to treat the cutaneous tumors. Currently, a number of companies, including AngioDynamics, Inc. and VoltMed, Inc., are continuing to develop and deploy irreversible electroporation-based technologies within clinical environments.
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which could have lethal consequences depending on the situation. Therefore, a paralytic agent must be used when performing the procedure. The paralytic agents that have been used in such research are successful; however, there is always some risk, albeit slight, when using anesthetics.
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Additionally, electroporation can be used to increase permeability of cells during in Utero injections and surgeries. Particularly, the electroporation allows for a more efficient transfection of DNA, RNA, shRNA, and all nucleic acids into the cells of mice and rats. The success of
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delivers trains of high-voltage ultra-rapid electrical pulses that form irreversible pores in cell membranes, resulting in cell death. It is thought to allow better selectivity than the previous techniques, which used heat or cold to kill larger volumes of muscle.
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to the giant unilamellar vesicles seem to prevent the formation of visible electropores. Experimental evidences for actin networks in regulating the cell membrane permeability has also emerged. Although electroporation and
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applied across large distances to the bulk solution so the resulting field across the actual membrane is only a small fraction of the applied bias). Upon application of this potential the membrane charges like a
219:
The success of the electroporation depends greatly on the purity of the plasmid solution, especially on its salt content. Solutions with high salt concentrations might cause an electrical discharge (known as
2643:
1447:
Vilquin JT, Kennel PF, Paturneau-Jouas M, Chapdelaine P, Boissel N, Delaère P, et al. (July 2001). "Electrotransfer of naked DNA in the skeletal muscles of animal models of muscular dystrophies".
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to deliver siRNAs, antisense oligonucleotides, chemotherapeutic agents and proteins specifically to neurons after inject them systemically (in blood). Because these exosomes are able to cross the
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Tabaja C, Younis A, Hussein AA, Taigen TL, Nakagawa H, Saliba WI, et al. (September 2023). "Catheter-Based
Electroporation: A Novel Technique for Catheter Ablation of Cardiac Arrhythmias".
1176:
Trontelj K, Rebersek M, Kanduser M, Serbec VC, Sprohar M, Miklavcic D (November 2008). "Optimization of bulk cell electrofusion in vitro for production of human-mouse heterohybridoma cells".
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212:), and the tube is incubated at the bacteria's optimal temperature for an hour or more to allow recovery of the cells and expression of the plasmid, followed by bacterial culture on
2744:
Becker SM, Kuznetsov AV (October 2007). "Local temperature rises influence in vivo electroporation pore development: a numerical stratum corneum lipid phase transition model".
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Also first phase I clinical trial of gene electrotransfer in patients with metastatic melanoma was reported. Electroporation mediated delivery of a plasmid coding gene for
1975:
Garcia PA, Rossmeisl JH, Neal RE, Ellis TL, Olson JD, Henao-Guerrero N, et al. (July 2010). "Intracranial nonthermal irreversible electroporation: in vivo analysis".
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132:. Electroporation is highly effective for transfecting cells in suspension using electroporation cuvettes. Electroporation has proven efficient for use on tissues
2647:
3232:
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El-Andaloussi S, Lee Y, Lakhal-Littleton S, Li J, Seow Y, Gardiner C, et al. (December 2012). "Exosome-mediated delivery of siRNA in vitro and in vivo".
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are not chemically altered but simply shift position, opening up a pore which acts as the conductive pathway through the bilayer as it is filled with water.
3867:
2028:
Neal RE, Garcia PA, Rossmeisl JH, Davalos RV (2010). "A study using irreversible electroporation to treat large, irregular tumors in a canine patient".
175:, where hybrid cell lines (hybridomas) are formed by fusing specific antibody-producing B lymphocytes with a myeloma (B lymphocyte cancer) cell line.
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128:, as well as in tumor treatment, gene therapy, and cell-based therapy. The process of introducing foreign DNA into eukaryotic cells is known as
224:), which often reduces the viability of the bacteria. For a further detailed investigation of the process, more attention should be paid to the
3141:
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Garcia PA, Rossmeisl JH, Davalos RV (2011). "Electrical conductivity changes during irreversible electroporation treatment of brain cancer".
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are mixed together, the plasmids can be transferred into the bacteria after electroporation, though depending on what is being transferred,
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gene electrotransfer, DNA diffusion through extracellular matrix, properties of tissue and overall tissue conductivity are also crucial.
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electroporation depends greatly on voltage, repetition, pulses, and duration. Developing central nervous systems are most effective for
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Schematic cross-section showing the theoretical arrangement of lipids in a hydrophobic pore (top) and a hydrophilic pore (bottom).
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Although the method is not systemic, but strictly local one, it is still the most efficient non-viral strategy for gene delivery.
2644:"Gels with predetermined conductivity used in electroporation of tissue USPTO Application #: 20080214986 β Class: 604 21 (USPTO)"
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Garcia PA, Neal RE, Rossmeisl JH, Davalos RV (2010). "Non-thermal irreversible electroporation for deep intracranial disorders".
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2991:"Mechanisms of in vivo DNA electrotransfer: respective contributions of cell electropermeabilization and DNA electrophoresis"
1057:"Development and functional characterization of insulin-releasing human pancreatic beta cell lines produced by electrofusion"
416:, this protocol could solve the problem of poor delivery of medications to the central nervous system, and potentially treat
2942:"Characterization of Cell Membrane Permeability In Vitro Part I: Transport Behavior Induced by Single-Pulse Electric Fields"
476:(from 0.5 V to 1 V). This leads to the definition of an electric field magnitude threshold for electroporation (E
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of tissue utilizing electroporation-based techniques via nanochannels to minimally invasively deliver cargo to the cells.
156:, it still has limitations, including low cell viability. Miniaturization of electroporation has been studied, leading to
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293:
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Gehl J (April 2003). "Electroporation: theory and methods, perspectives for drug delivery, gene therapy and research".
2273:"Analysis of a dual shock-wave and ultrashort electric pulsing strategy for electro-manipulation of membrane nanopores"
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2838:"Electroporation dynamics in biological cells subjected to ultrafast electrical pulses: a numerical simulation study"
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can cause problems in studies where gene expression has to be controlled to ensure accurate and precise results.
110:
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2130:"Mitigation of impedance changes due to electroporation therapy using bursts of high-frequency bipolar pulses"
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2371:"Changes in membrane structure induced by electroporation as revealed by rapid-freezing electron microscopy"
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2079:"High-frequency irreversible electroporation (H-FIRE) for non-thermal ablation without muscle contraction"
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2781:"Voltage-induced nonconductive pre-pores and metastable single pores in unmodified planar lipid bilayer"
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2705:"Models of electroporation and the associated transmembrane molecular transport should be revisited"
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2487:"DNA translocation to giant unilamellar vesicles during electroporation is independent of DNA size"
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Arena CB, Sano MB, Rossmeisl JH, Caldwell JL, Garcia PA, Rylander MN, et al. (November 2011).
1989:
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quicker recovery, and facilitates a more rapid replacement of dead tumor cells with healthy cells.
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1755:"Phase I trial of interleukin-12 plasmid electroporation in patients with metastatic melanoma"
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1398:"Intramuscular electroporation with the pro-opiomelanocortin gene in rat adjuvant arthritis"
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113:, although many laboratories lack the specialized equipment needed for electroporation.
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610:
488:) is reached or surpassed, electroporation will compromise the viability of the cells,
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Electroporation allows cellular introduction of large highly charged molecules such as
338:
149:
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Although bulk electroporation has many benefits over physical delivery methods such as
109:
approximately ten times more effective in increasing cell membrane's permeability than
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851:"Topical tissue nano-transfection mediates non-viral stroma reprogramming and rescue"
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this opening was being used to introduce various materials/molecules into the cells.
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2010 Annual
International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology
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2010 Annual
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is used. Prior to electroporation, this suspension of bacteria is mixed with the
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on its sides. For bacterial electroporation, typically a suspension of around 50
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326:(IRE) has since proven effective in treating human cancer, with surgeons at
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1341:
1271:
Guide to
Techniques in Mouse Development, Part B: Mouse Molecular Genetics
820:
742:
Liu J, Chang W, Pan L, Liu X, Su L, Zhang W, et al. (December 2018).
628:
4010:
3977:
3780:
3775:
3652:
153:
116:
Electroporation is also highly efficient for the introduction of foreign
2668:
Ho SY, Mittal GS (1996). "Electroporation of cell membranes: a review".
1729:
Johns Hopkins Surgery: News from the Johns Hopkins Department of Surgery
4005:
3982:
3562:
3463:
3312:
3284:
3279:
2511:
2486:
322:
204:
192:
97:
37:
3210:
2757:
2521:
2224:"High-efficiency transformation of bacterial cells by electroporation"
299:
terms of immunogenicity and pathogenicity when used for DNA transfer.
3443:
3381:
1819:
121:
1317:
396:
when the molecules to be transported are chemotherapeutic agents or
1414:
1322:
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Gene Structure and Expression
1214:
Potter H (May 2003). "Chapter 9: Transfection by electroporation".
3760:
1705:"New medical technique punches holes in cells, could treat tumors"
1549:
Beebe SJ, Fox PM, Rec LJ, Willis EL, Schoenbach KH (August 2003).
443:
200:
90:
86:
45:
31:
78:
In microbiology, the process of electroporation is often used to
63:
is applied to cells in order to increase the permeability of the
2601:
Muralidharan A, Rems L, Kreutzer MT, Boukany PE (January 2021).
2546:"Response of an actin network in vesicles under electric pulses"
744:"An Improved Method of Preparing High Efficiency Transformation
309:
to kill very small areas of heart muscle. This is done to treat
233:
213:
117:
3214:
2128:
Bhonsle SP, Arena CB, Sweeney DC, Davalos RV (27 August 2015).
3165:
Neumann E, Schaefer-Ridder M, Wang Y, Hofschneider PH (1982).
593:
Neumann E, Schaefer-Ridder M, Wang Y, Hofschneider PH (1982).
459:
68:
711:
Encyclopedia of Molecular Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine
268:
monogenetic diseases, cardiovascular diseases, analgesia....
167:
Electroporation has also been used as a mechanism to trigger
400:
when the molecule to be transported is DNA. Scientists from
462:
which would never passively diffuse across the hydrophobic
124:
cells. For example, it is used in the process of producing
27:
Method in molecular biology to make pores in cell membranes
330:
and other institutions now using the technology to treat
195:
into a glass or plastic cuvette which has two aluminium
549:"Electrotransfer for nucleic acid and protein delivery"
67:. This may allow chemicals, drugs, electrode arrays or
1316:
Titomirov AV, Sukharev S, Kistanova E (January 1991).
3295:
List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn
1600:
Comptes Rendus de l'AcadΓ©mie des Sciences, SΓ©rie III
276:
used on human cells was conducted by researchers at
3970:
3924:
3906:
3853:
3823:
3791:
3728:
3721:
3691:
3638:
3629:
3592:
3545:
3495:
3486:
3416:
3398:
3380:
3362:
3339:
3321:
3303:
3270:
3261:
3248:
2940:Sweeney DC, Weaver JC, Davalos RV (January 2018).
2607:Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes
1492:"Tumor ablation with irreversible electroporation"
436:procedure allows to control the size of the pore.
2428:"Imaging the dynamics of individual electropores"
1725:"A Potential Boon for Pancreatic Cancer Patients"
480:). That is, only the cells within areas where Eβ§E
36:Cuvettes for in-vitro electroporation. These are
1267:"Embryonic In Vivo Electroporation in the Mouse"
208:added to the bacteria (in the cuvette or in an
96:by introducing new coding DNA. If bacteria and
1209:
1207:
3226:
2946:Technology in Cancer Research & Treatment
588:
586:
584:
8:
748:with Both Plasmids and Larger DNA Fragments"
547:Muralidharan A, Boukany PE (December 2023).
484:are electroporated. If a second threshold (E
71:to be introduced into the cell (also called
3868:Detection of genetically modified organisms
1852:"2 Studies found for: gene electrotransfer"
1804:"Plasmid IL-12 electroporation in melanoma"
44:and a blue lid. They hold a maximum of 400
3725:
3635:
3492:
3267:
3258:
3233:
3219:
3211:
3133:Guide to electroporation and electrofusion
1218:. Vol. Chapter 9. pp. Unit 9.3.
3190:
3106:
3006:
2965:
2916:
2812:
2720:
2618:
2577:
2520:
2510:
2461:
2451:
2402:
2247:
2155:
2145:
2104:
2094:
1988:
1827:
1778:
1566:
1525:
1515:
1423:
1413:
1372:
1241:
1082:
1072:
1031:
1021:
964:
923:
882:
836:"Cell squeezing enhances protein imaging"
771:
677:
667:
618:
564:
2271:Hu Q, Hossain S, Joshi RP (2018-06-25).
713:. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
508:
1808:Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics
539:
334:previously thought to be unresectable.
1216:Current Protocols in Molecular Biology
492:, irreversible electroporation (IRE).
120:into tissue culture cells, especially
2883:Kotnik T, Miklavcic D (August 2000).
2836:Joshi RP, Schoenbach KH (July 2000).
2277:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
1355:Heller LC, Coppola D (October 2002).
7:
2746:Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
2328:Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine
2222:Calvin NM, Hanawalt PC (June 1988).
2032:. Vol. 2010. pp. 2747β50.
1930:. Vol. 2010. pp. 2743β6.
1881:. Vol. 2011. pp. 739β42.
1061:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
3898:Genetic use restriction technology
3183:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1982.tb01257.x
2426:Sengel JT, Wallace MI (May 2016).
1120:10.1227/01.NEU.0000175545.57795.ac
611:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1982.tb01257.x
183:Electroporation is performed with
25:
2670:Critical Reviews in Biotechnology
3044:10.1046/j.1365-201X.2003.01093.x
2722:10.1016/j.bioelechem.2022.108216
2369:Chang DC, Reese TS (July 1990).
1670:JACC. Clinical Electrophysiology
1402:Arthritis Research & Therapy
1190:10.1016/j.bioelechem.2008.06.003
1114:(4): 635β46, discussion 635β46.
925:10.1016/j.bioelechem.2022.108197
834:Anne Trafton (2 February 2016).
795:Sugar IP, Neumann E (May 1984).
719:10.1002/3527600906.mcb.200300026
3916:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
2240:10.1128/jb.170.6.2796-2801.1988
1977:The Journal of Membrane Biology
1802:Cha E, Daud A (November 2012).
305:is being used and evaluated as
278:Eastern Virginia Medical School
3032:Acta Physiologica Scandinavica
1858:. National Library of Medicine
966:10.1113/expphysiol.2006.034835
752:Indian Journal of Microbiology
311:irregularities of heart rhythm
232:of the cells suspension (e.g.
228:of the porator device and the
1:
3678:Somatic cell nuclear transfer
3136:. San Diego: Academic Press.
3099:10.1016/S0006-3495(98)77924-X
2909:10.1016/S0006-3495(00)76325-9
2805:10.1016/S0006-3495(01)76153-X
2395:10.1016/S0006-3495(90)82348-1
2340:10.1080/15368378.2019.1706553
2134:BioMedical Engineering OnLine
2083:BioMedical Engineering OnLine
1639:10.1126/science.286.5448.2244
1279:10.1016/s0076-6879(10)77003-8
566:10.1016/j.tibtech.2023.11.009
59:, is a technique in which an
2620:10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183468
1759:Journal of Clinical Oncology
1731:. 2014-06-23. Archived from
1517:10.1371/journal.pone.0001135
1334:10.1016/0167-4781(91)90162-F
1224:10.1002/0471142727.mb0903s62
1023:10.1371/journal.pone.0064499
813:10.1016/0301-4622(84)87003-9
303:Irreversible electroporation
294:Irreversible electroporation
1682:10.1016/j.jacep.2023.03.014
947:McClenaghan NH (May 2007).
4078:
2570:10.1038/s41598-019-44613-5
2147:10.1186/1475-925X-14-S3-S3
2038:10.1109/IEMBS.2010.5626372
1936:10.1109/IEMBS.2010.5626371
1887:10.1109/IEMBS.2011.6090168
451:
428:, among other conditions.
357:Reversible electroporation
291:
4001:
3736:Genetically modified food
2682:10.3109/07388559609147426
1999:10.1007/s00232-010-9284-z
1703:Sarah Yang (2007-02-12).
764:10.1007/s12088-018-0743-z
284:, and published in 2003.
102:cell-penetrating peptides
2958:10.1177/1533033818792491
2862:10.1103/PhysRevE.62.1025
2297:10.1088/1361-6463/aaca7a
2096:10.1186/1475-925X-10-102
1771:10.1200/JCO.2007.15.6794
307:cardiac ablation therapy
140:applications as well as
2453:10.1073/pnas.1517437113
2228:Journal of Bacteriology
1074:10.1074/jbc.M111.226795
953:Experimental Physiology
669:10.1073/pnas.2022300118
553:Trends in Biotechnology
454:Lipid bilayer mechanics
408:use electroporation of
282:Old Dominion University
111:chemical transformation
57:electropermeabilization
3008:10.1006/mthe.2002.0526
2642:Ivorra A, Rubinsky B.
2193:10.1038/nprot.2012.131
875:10.1038/nnano.2017.134
513:
449:
387:Drug and gene delivery
49:
4062:Laboratory techniques
3349:Roundup ready soybean
1568:10.1096/fj.02-0859fje
1461:10.1038/sj.gt.3301484
1374:10.1038/sj.gt.3301802
855:Nature Nanotechnology
801:Biophysical Chemistry
512:
452:Further information:
447:
35:
3888:Reverse transfection
3663:Genetic transduction
2952:: 1533033818792491.
505:Gene electroporation
469:dielectric breakdown
406:University of Oxford
402:Karolinska Institute
398:gene electrotransfer
288:Medical applications
173:hybridoma technology
158:microelectroporation
18:Gene electrotransfer
3878:Genetics in fiction
3810:Genetic enhancement
3612:Hepatitis B vaccine
3242:Genetic engineering
3091:1998BpJ....74.2152M
3079:Biophysical Journal
2901:2000BpJ....79..670K
2889:Biophysical Journal
2854:2000PhRvE..62.1025J
2848:(1 Pt B): 1025β33.
2797:2001BpJ....80.1829M
2785:Biophysical Journal
2709:Bioelectrochemistry
2562:2019NatSR...9.8151P
2503:2019SMat...15.9187S
2444:2016PNAS..113.5281S
2387:1990BpJ....58....1C
2375:Biophysical Journal
2289:2018JPhD...51B5403H
1508:2007PLoSO...2.1135A
1178:Bioelectrochemistry
1014:2013PLoSO...864499Y
912:Bioelectrochemistry
867:2017NatNa..12..974G
660:2021PNAS..11822300J
654:(39): e2022300118.
422:Parkinson's disease
418:Alzheimer's disease
414:blood brain barrier
394:electrochemotherapy
179:Laboratory practice
3988:Stem cell research
3607:Ice-minus bacteria
2550:Scientific Reports
2512:10.1039/C9SM01274E
1856:ClinicalTrials.gov
1151:Discovery Medicine
838:. MIT News Office.
514:
450:
440:Physical mechanism
260:and animal studies
50:
4052:Molecular biology
4029:
4028:
3993:Synthetic biology
3883:Human enhancement
3873:Genetic pollution
3849:
3848:
3717:
3716:
3625:
3624:
3588:
3587:
3482:
3481:
3143:978-0-12-168041-1
3130:Chang DC (1992).
2995:Molecular Therapy
2842:Physical Review E
2758:10.1115/1.2768380
2497:(45): 9187β9194.
2438:(19): 5281β5286.
2047:978-1-4244-4123-5
1945:978-1-4244-4123-5
1896:978-1-4577-1589-1
1288:978-0-12-384880-2
332:pancreatic cancer
16:(Redirected from
4069:
3766:Dow AgroSciences
3726:
3636:
3493:
3268:
3259:
3235:
3228:
3221:
3212:
3205:
3204:
3194:
3171:The EMBO Journal
3162:
3156:
3155:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3110:
3070:
3064:
3063:
3027:
3021:
3020:
3010:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2969:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2920:
2880:
2874:
2873:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2816:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2724:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2646:. Archived from
2639:
2633:
2632:
2622:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2581:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2514:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2465:
2455:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2406:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2251:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2181:Nature Protocols
2176:
2170:
2169:
2159:
2149:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2108:
2098:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2025:
2019:
2018:
1992:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1831:
1820:10.4161/hv.22573
1799:
1793:
1792:
1782:
1765:(36): 5896β903.
1750:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1721:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1711:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1676:(9): 2008β2023.
1665:
1659:
1658:
1633:(5448): 2244β5.
1622:
1616:
1615:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1570:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1529:
1519:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1455:(14): 1097β107.
1444:
1438:
1437:
1427:
1417:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1376:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1304:
1303:
1265:Saito T (2010).
1262:
1256:
1255:
1245:
1211:
1202:
1201:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1086:
1076:
1067:(25): 21982β92.
1052:
1046:
1045:
1035:
1025:
993:
987:
986:
968:
944:
938:
937:
927:
903:
897:
896:
886:
846:
840:
839:
831:
825:
824:
792:
786:
785:
775:
746:Escherichia coli
739:
733:
732:
706:
700:
699:
681:
671:
639:
633:
632:
622:
599:The EMBO Journal
590:
579:
578:
568:
544:
315:cardiac catheter
240:leave the cell.
226:output impedance
162:nanotransfection
61:electrical field
21:
4077:
4076:
4072:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4067:
4066:
4032:
4031:
4030:
4025:
3997:
3966:
3920:
3902:
3855:
3845:
3819:
3815:Genetic testing
3797:
3787:
3713:
3699:Recombinant DNA
3687:
3658:Electroporation
3621:
3617:Oncolytic virus
3596:
3584:
3541:
3527:Herman the Bull
3478:
3412:
3394:
3376:
3358:
3335:
3317:
3299:
3253:
3251:
3244:
3239:
3209:
3208:
3164:
3163:
3159:
3144:
3129:
3128:
3124:
3072:
3071:
3067:
3029:
3028:
3024:
2988:
2987:
2983:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2882:
2881:
2877:
2835:
2834:
2830:
2778:
2777:
2773:
2743:
2742:
2738:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2653:
2651:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2600:
2599:
2595:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2234:(6): 2796β801.
2221:
2220:
2216:
2187:(12): 2112β26.
2178:
2177:
2173:
2140:(Suppl 3): S3.
2127:
2126:
2122:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2048:
2027:
2026:
2022:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1946:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1897:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1861:
1859:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1738:
1736:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1709:
1707:
1702:
1701:
1697:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1489:
1488:
1484:
1446:
1445:
1441:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1301:
1299:
1289:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1234:
1213:
1212:
1205:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1157:(104): 169β74.
1148:
1147:
1143:
1105:
1104:
1100:
1054:
1053:
1049:
995:
994:
990:
946:
945:
941:
905:
904:
900:
861:(10): 974β979.
848:
847:
843:
833:
832:
828:
794:
793:
789:
741:
740:
736:
729:
708:
707:
703:
641:
640:
636:
592:
591:
582:
546:
545:
541:
536:
527:
507:
487:
483:
479:
456:
442:
389:
380:
359:
350:
296:
290:
262:
230:input impedance
185:electroporators
181:
150:microinjections
73:electrotransfer
53:Electroporation
40:with aluminium
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4075:
4073:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4034:
4033:
4027:
4026:
4024:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3996:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3974:
3972:
3971:Similar fields
3968:
3967:
3965:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3928:
3926:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3912:
3910:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3859:
3857:
3851:
3850:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3843:
3841:Gene targeting
3838:
3836:Gene knockdown
3833:
3827:
3825:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3801:
3799:
3789:
3788:
3786:
3785:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3771:DuPont Pioneer
3768:
3763:
3758:
3750:
3745:
3744:
3743:
3732:
3730:
3729:In agriculture
3723:
3719:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3673:Microinjection
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3644:
3642:
3633:
3627:
3626:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3603:
3601:
3590:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3583:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3571:
3570:
3565:
3555:
3549:
3547:
3543:
3542:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3518:
3517:
3512:
3510:Knockout mouse
3501:
3499:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3410:
3404:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3386:
3384:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3374:
3368:
3366:
3360:
3359:
3357:
3356:
3351:
3345:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3333:
3327:
3325:
3319:
3318:
3316:
3315:
3309:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3276:
3274:
3265:
3256:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3238:
3237:
3230:
3223:
3215:
3207:
3206:
3157:
3142:
3122:
3065:
3022:
2981:
2932:
2895:(2): 670β679.
2875:
2828:
2791:(4): 1829β36.
2771:
2736:
2695:
2660:
2634:
2593:
2536:
2477:
2418:
2361:
2318:
2283:(28): 285403.
2263:
2214:
2171:
2120:
2069:
2046:
2020:
1990:10.1.1.679.527
1967:
1944:
1918:
1895:
1869:
1843:
1814:(11): 1734β8.
1794:
1745:
1716:
1695:
1660:
1617:
1590:
1561:(11): 1493β5.
1541:
1482:
1439:
1415:10.1186/ar1014
1388:
1367:(19): 1321β5.
1347:
1308:
1287:
1257:
1233:978-0471142720
1232:
1203:
1168:
1141:
1098:
1047:
988:
939:
898:
841:
826:
807:(3): 211β225.
787:
758:(4): 448β456.
734:
727:
701:
634:
605:(7): 841β845.
580:
559:(6): 780β798.
538:
537:
535:
532:
526:
523:
506:
503:
485:
481:
477:
441:
438:
388:
385:
379:
376:
358:
355:
349:
346:
339:interleukin-12
292:Main article:
289:
286:
261:
255:
210:Eppendorf tube
180:
177:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4074:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4057:Gene delivery
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4042:Biotechnology
4040:
4039:
4037:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4016:Biotechnology
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4003:
4000:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3975:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3957:South America
3955:
3952:
3948:
3947:North America
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3923:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3909:
3905:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3893:Transhumanism
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3860:
3858:
3852:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3831:Gene knockout
3829:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3802:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3742:
3741:Controversies
3739:
3738:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3731:
3727:
3724:
3720:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3690:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3643:
3641:
3640:Inserting DNA
3637:
3634:
3632:
3628:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3600:
3595:
3591:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3550:
3548:
3546:Other animals
3544:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3485:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3415:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3365:
3361:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3332:
3329:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3320:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3302:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3247:
3243:
3236:
3231:
3229:
3224:
3222:
3217:
3216:
3213:
3202:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3161:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3135:
3134:
3126:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3085:(5): 2152β8.
3084:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3066:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3038:(4): 437β47.
3037:
3033:
3026:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3001:(2): 133β40.
3000:
2996:
2992:
2985:
2982:
2977:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2879:
2876:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2832:
2829:
2824:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2775:
2772:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2752:(5): 712β21.
2751:
2747:
2740:
2737:
2732:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2676:(4): 349β62.
2675:
2671:
2664:
2661:
2650:on 2014-10-22
2649:
2645:
2638:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2613:(1): 183468.
2612:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2481:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2319:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2264:
2259:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2218:
2215:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2124:
2121:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2024:
2021:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1983:(1): 127β36.
1982:
1978:
1971:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1870:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1746:
1735:on 2019-03-23
1734:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1717:
1706:
1699:
1696:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1664:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1606:(13): 613β8.
1605:
1602:(in French).
1601:
1594:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1555:FASEB Journal
1552:
1545:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1502:(11): e1135.
1501:
1497:
1493:
1486:
1483:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1408:(1): R7βR14.
1407:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1348:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1309:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1172:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1102:
1099:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1051:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1008:(5): e64499.
1007:
1003:
999:
992:
989:
984:
980:
976:
972:
967:
962:
959:(3): 481β96.
958:
954:
950:
943:
940:
935:
931:
926:
921:
917:
913:
909:
902:
899:
894:
890:
885:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
845:
842:
837:
830:
827:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
791:
788:
783:
779:
774:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
747:
738:
735:
730:
728:9783527600908
724:
720:
716:
712:
705:
702:
697:
693:
689:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
638:
635:
630:
626:
621:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
589:
587:
585:
581:
576:
572:
567:
562:
558:
554:
550:
543:
540:
533:
531:
524:
522:
520:
511:
504:
502:
499:
493:
491:
473:
470:
465:
461:
455:
446:
439:
437:
433:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
386:
384:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
356:
354:
347:
345:
342:
340:
335:
333:
329:
328:Johns Hopkins
324:
319:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
295:
287:
285:
283:
279:
273:
269:
266:
259:
256:
254:
251:
247:
241:
237:
235:
231:
227:
223:
217:
215:
211:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
178:
176:
174:
170:
165:
163:
159:
155:
151:
146:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
126:knockout mice
123:
119:
114:
112:
107:
103:
99:
95:
92:
88:
84:
81:
76:
74:
70:
66:
65:cell membrane
62:
58:
54:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
4047:Microbiology
3805:Gene therapy
3704:Transgenesis
3683:Transfection
3657:
3648:Agrobacteria
3532:Knockout rat
3354:Vistive Gold
3250:Genetically
3177:(7): 841β5.
3174:
3170:
3160:
3132:
3125:
3082:
3078:
3068:
3035:
3031:
3025:
2998:
2994:
2984:
2949:
2945:
2935:
2892:
2888:
2878:
2845:
2841:
2831:
2788:
2784:
2774:
2749:
2745:
2739:
2712:
2708:
2698:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2652:. Retrieved
2648:the original
2637:
2610:
2606:
2596:
2553:
2549:
2539:
2494:
2490:
2480:
2435:
2431:
2421:
2378:
2374:
2364:
2334:(1): 20β29.
2331:
2327:
2321:
2280:
2276:
2266:
2231:
2227:
2217:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2137:
2133:
2123:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2029:
2023:
1980:
1976:
1970:
1927:
1921:
1878:
1872:
1862:19 September
1860:. Retrieved
1855:
1846:
1811:
1807:
1797:
1762:
1758:
1748:
1737:. Retrieved
1733:the original
1728:
1719:
1708:. Retrieved
1698:
1673:
1669:
1663:
1630:
1626:
1620:
1603:
1599:
1593:
1558:
1554:
1544:
1499:
1495:
1485:
1452:
1449:Gene Therapy
1448:
1442:
1405:
1401:
1391:
1364:
1361:Gene Therapy
1360:
1350:
1328:(1): 131β4.
1325:
1321:
1311:
1300:. Retrieved
1270:
1260:
1215:
1184:(1): 124β9.
1181:
1177:
1171:
1154:
1150:
1144:
1111:
1108:Neurosurgery
1107:
1101:
1064:
1060:
1050:
1005:
1001:
991:
956:
952:
942:
915:
911:
901:
858:
854:
844:
829:
804:
800:
790:
755:
751:
745:
737:
710:
704:
651:
647:
637:
602:
598:
556:
552:
542:
528:
518:
515:
494:
489:
474:
457:
434:
432:procedures.
430:
426:brain cancer
390:
381:
372:
368:
364:
360:
351:
343:
336:
320:
301:
297:
274:
270:
264:
263:
257:
249:
245:
242:
238:
218:
184:
182:
166:
147:
141:
137:
133:
130:transfection
115:
106:cell squeeze
77:
72:
56:
52:
51:
29:
3824:In research
3798:diagnostics
3668:Lipofection
3429:Arabidopsis
3331:Golden rice
2556:(1): 8151.
2491:Soft Matter
2381:(1): 1β12.
201:microliters
169:cell fusion
94:protoplasts
4036:Categories
3908:Regulation
3752:Companies
3709:Cisgenesis
3653:Biolistics
3459:Sugar beet
3372:Flavr Savr
3272:Maize/corn
2715:: 108216.
2654:2008-11-21
2522:1887/85963
1739:2014-07-09
1710:2007-12-13
1302:2022-09-19
918:: 108197.
534:References
236:content).
197:electrodes
189:suspension
42:electrodes
4021:Bioethics
3925:Geography
3863:Transgene
3631:Processes
3522:Enviropig
3515:Oncomouse
3454:SmartStax
3390:Bt cotton
3254:organisms
3152:817706277
2356:209446699
2313:125134522
2305:0022-3727
1985:CiteSeerX
1136:196411777
696:237584521
498:capacitor
321:A higher
154:gene guns
122:mammalian
80:transform
4011:Genetics
3978:Eugenics
3856:articles
3781:Syngenta
3776:Monsanto
3748:Pharming
3594:Bacteria
3290:StarLink
3252:modified
3060:16742681
3052:12648161
3017:11829520
2976:30236040
2927:10920001
2870:11088559
2823:11259296
2766:17887897
2731:35932533
2629:32882211
2588:31148577
2531:31595286
2472:27114528
2348:31868023
2209:34413410
2201:23154783
2166:26355870
2115:22104372
2064:24348785
2056:21095963
2015:10958480
2007:20668843
1954:21095962
1905:22254416
1838:23151447
1789:19029422
1690:37354168
1655:46362535
1647:10636774
1585:13189517
1577:12824299
1536:17989772
1496:PLOS ONE
1469:11526457
1434:14979933
1383:12224015
1297:20699135
1252:18265334
1198:18667367
1163:25828520
1128:16239875
1093:21515691
1042:23724055
1002:PLOS ONE
983:22548866
975:17272356
934:35810498
893:28785092
782:30262955
688:34544852
575:38102019
410:exosomes
404:and the
258:In vitro
216:plates.
193:pipetted
138:in utero
98:plasmids
83:bacteria
4006:Biology
3983:Cloning
3962:Oceania
3854:Related
3599:viruses
3563:GloFish
3553:Insects
3497:Mammals
3488:Animals
3474:Mustard
3464:Tobacco
3434:Brinjal
3341:Soybean
3313:Amflora
3285:MON 863
3280:MON 810
3201:6329708
3117:9591642
3108:1299558
3087:Bibcode
2967:6154305
2918:1300967
2897:Bibcode
2850:Bibcode
2814:1301372
2793:Bibcode
2690:8989868
2579:6544639
2558:Bibcode
2499:Bibcode
2463:4868429
2440:Bibcode
2413:2383626
2404:1280935
2383:Bibcode
2285:Bibcode
2258:3286620
2157:4565149
2106:3258292
2089:: 102.
1962:9589956
1913:4953213
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