History of Germany during World War I

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the entire war. At the Somme River in March, 63 divisions attacked in a blinding fog. No matter, the German lieutenants had memorized their maps and their orders. The British lost 270,000 men, fell back 40 miles, and then held. They quickly learned how to handle the new German tactics: fall back, abandon the trenches, let the attackers overextend themselves, and then counterattack. They gained an advantage in firepower from their artillery and from tanks used as mobile pillboxes that could retreat and counterattack at will. In April Ludendorff hit the British again, inflicting 305,000 casualties—but he lacked the reserves to follow up. In total, Ludendorff launched five great attacks between March and July, inflicting a million British and French casualties. The Western Front now had opened up—the trenches were still there but the importance of mobility now reasserted itself. The Allies held. The Germans suffered twice as many casualties as they inflicted, including most of their precious stormtroopers. The new German replacements were under-aged youth or embittered middle-aged family men in poor condition. They were not inspired by the elan of 1914, nor thrilled with battle—they hated it, and some began talking of revolution. Ludendorff could not replace his losses, nor could he devise a new brainstorm that might somehow snatch victory from the jaws of defeat. The British likewise were bringing in reinforcements from the whole Empire, but since their home front was in good condition, and since they could see inevitable victory, their morale was higher. The great German spring offensive was a race against time, for everyone could see the Americans were training millions of fresh soldiers who would eventually arrive on the Western Front.

993:. They each lasted most of the year, achieved minimal gains, and drained away the best soldiers of both sides. Verdun became the iconic symbol of the murderous power of modern defensive weapons, with 280,000 German casualties, and 315,000 French. At the Somme, there were over 400,000 German casualties, against over 600,000 Allied casualties. At Verdun, the Germans attacked what they considered to be a weak French salient which nevertheless the French would defend for reasons of national pride. The Somme was part of a multinational plan of the Allies to attack on different fronts simultaneously. German woes were also compounded by Russia's grand "Brusilov offensive", which diverted more soldiers and resources. Although the Eastern front was held to a standoff and Germany suffered fewer casualties than their allies with ~150,000 of the ~770,000 Central powers casualties, the simultaneous Verdun offensive stretched the German forces committed to the Somme offensive. German experts are divided in their interpretation of the Somme. Some say it was a standoff, but most see it as a British victory and argue it marked the point at which German morale began a permanent decline and the strategic initiative was lost, along with irreplaceable veterans and confidence. 1079:

troops, and trained them all winter in the new tactics. With stopwatch timing, the German artillery would lay down a sudden, fearsome barrage just ahead of its advancing infantry. Moving in small units, firing light machine guns, the stormtroopers would bypass enemy strongpoints, and head directly for critical bridges, command posts, supply dumps and, above all, artillery batteries. By cutting enemy communications they would paralyze response in the critical first half hour. By silencing the artillery they would break the enemy's firepower. Rigid schedules sent in two more waves of infantry to mop up the strong points that had been bypassed. The shock troops frightened and disoriented the first line of defenders, who would flee in panic. In one instance an easy-going Allied regiment broke and fled; reinforcements rushed in on bicycles. The panicky soldiers seized the bikes and beat an even faster retreat. The stormtrooper tactics provided mobility, but not increased firepower. Eventually—in 1939 and 1940—the formula would be perfected with the aid of dive bombers and tanks, but in 1918 the Germans lacked both.

1210:" in World War I, meant that food supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the British blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meager conditions. Food prices were first controlled. Bread rationing was introduced in 1915 and worked well; the cost of bread fell. Allen says there were no signs of starvation and states, "the sense of domestic catastrophe one gains from most accounts of food rationing in Germany is exaggerated." However Howard argues that hundreds of thousands of civilians died from malnutrition—usually from a typhus or a disease their weakened body could not resist. (Starvation itself rarely caused death.) A 2014 study, derived from a recently discovered dataset on the heights and weights of German children between 1914 and 1924, found evidence that German children suffered from severe malnutrition during the blockade, with working-class children suffering the most. The study furthermore found that German children quickly recovered after the war due to a massive international food aid program. 909: 1238:

government offices for the first time hired women for clerical positions. Factories hired them for unskilled labor – by December 1917, half the workers in chemicals, metals, and machine tools were women. Laws protecting women in the workplace were relaxed, and factories set up canteens to provide food for their workers, lest their productivity fall off. The food situation in 1918 was better, because the harvest was better, but serious shortages continued, with high prices, and a complete lack of condiments and fresh fruit. Many migrants had flocked into cities to work in industry, which made for overcrowded housing. Reduced coal supplies left everyone in the cold. Daily life involved long working hours, poor health, and little or no recreation, and increasing fears for the safety of loved ones in the Army and in prisoner of war camps. The men who returned from the front were those who had been permanently disabled; wounded soldiers who had recovered were sent back to the trenches.

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nearly exhausted their manpower. Berlin had calculated it would take months for the Americans to ship all their soldiers and equipment—but the U.S. troops arrived much sooner, as they left their heavy equipment behind, and relied on British and French artillery, tanks, airplanes, trucks and equipment. Berlin also assumed that Americans were fat, undisciplined and unaccustomed to hardship and severe fighting. They soon realized their mistake. The Germans reported that "The qualities of the individually may be described as remarkable. They are physically well set up, their attitude is good... They lack at present only training and experience to make formidable adversaries. The men are in fine spirits and are filled with naive assurance."

1253: 1356: 1195: 1404:"I have no idea what we are still fighting for anyway, maybe because the newspapers portray everything about the war in a false light which has nothing to do with the reality.....There could be no greater misery in the enemy country and at home. The people who still support the war haven't got a clue about anything...If I stay alive, I will make these things public...We all want peace...What is the point of conquering half of the world, when we have to sacrifice all our strength?..You out there, just champion peace! … We give away all our worldly possessions and even our freedom. Our only goal is to be with our wife and children again," 1130: 799: 1149:. One professor testified to a "great single feeling of moral elevation of soaring of religious sentiment, in short, the ascent of a whole people to the heights." At the same time, there was a level of anxiety; most commentators predicted a short victorious war – but that hope was dashed in a matter of weeks, as the invasion of Belgium bogged down and the French Army held in front of Paris. The Western Front became a killing machine, as neither army moved more than a few hundred yards at a time. Industry in late 1914 was in chaos, unemployment soared while it took months to reconvert to munitions productions. In 1916, the 649: 938:, designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border. The Belgians fought back, and sabotaged their rail system to delay the Germans. The Germans did not expect this and were delayed, and responded with systematic reprisals on civilians, killing nearly 6,000 Belgian noncombatants, including women and children, and burning 25,000 houses and buildings. The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to converge on Paris and initially, the Germans were very successful, particularly in the 717: 1368: 1234:

and lard were less than 20% of peacetime levels. In 1917 the harvest was poor all across Europe, and the potato supply ran short, and Germans substituted almost inedible turnips; the "turnip winter" of 1916–17 was remembered with bitter distaste for generations. Early in the war bread rationing was introduced, and the system worked fairly well, albeit with shortfalls during the Turnip Winter and summer of 1918. White bread used imported flour and became unavailable, but there was enough rye or rye-potato flour to provide a minimal diet for all civilians.

1392:"A terrible picture presented itself to me. A French and a General soldier on their knees were leaning against each other. They had pierced each other with the bayonet and had dropped like this to the ground...Courage, heroism, does it really exist? I am about to doubt it, since I haven't seen anything else than fear, anxiety, and despair in every face during the battle. There was nothing at all like courage, bravery, or the like. In reality, there is nothing else than texting discipline and coercion propelling the soldiers forward" 697:, the Social Democratic Party of Germany ended its differences with the Imperial government and abandoned its principles of internationalism to support the war effort. The German state spent 170 billion Marks during the war. The money was raised by borrowing from banks and from public bond drives. Symbolic purchasing of nails which were driving into public wooden crosses spurred the aristocracy and middle class to buy bonds. These bonds became worthless with the 1923 hyperinflation. 1214:

imports from abroad. The winter of 1916–1917 was known as the "turnip winter," because that hardly-edible vegetable, usually fed to livestock, was used by people as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce. Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry people, who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves. Even the army had to cut the rations for soldiers. Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink.

55: 917: 786:. While Grey was suggesting a mediation between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Bethmann Hollweg wanted Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia and so he tampered with the British message and deleted the last line of the letter: "Also, the whole world here is convinced, and I hear from my colleagues that the key to the situation lies in Berlin, and that if Berlin seriously wants peace, it will prevent Vienna from following a foolhardy policy. 978: 969:. The Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight a war on two fronts. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of obtaining an early victory. 1398:"Our men have reached an agreement with the French to cease fire. They bring us bread, wine, sardines etc., we bring them schnapps. The masters make war, they have a quarrel, and the workers, the little men...have to stand there fighting against each other. Is that not a great stupidity?...If this were to be decided according to the number of votes, we would have been long home by now" 1218: 516: 713:, both to produce food and to preserve grain. The winter of 1916/17 was called the "turnip winter" because the potato harvest was poor and people ate animal food, including vile-tasting turnips. From August 1914 to mid-1919, the excess deaths compared to peacetime caused by malnutrition and high rates of exhaustion and disease and despair came to about 474,000 civilians. 530: 857:(respectively commander-in-chief and chief of staff for the Eastern Front) for an Eastern Offensive. They then succeeded, in August 1916 in securing Falkenhayn's replacement by Hindenburg as Chief of the General Staff, with Ludendorff as First Quartermaster-General (Hindenburg's deputy). Thereafter, Bethmann Hollweg's hopes for US President 1039:. This happened as the enthusiasm for war faded with the enormous numbers of casualties, the dwindling supply of manpower, the mounting difficulties on the homefront, and the never-ending flow of casualty reports. A grimmer and grimmer attitude began to prevail amongst the general population. The only highlight was the first use of 755:'s plea for friendship. Bethmann Hollweg was assured that Britain would not intervene in the frantic diplomatic rounds across the European powers. However, reliance on that assumption encouraged Austria to demand Serbian concessions. His main concern was Russian border manoeuvres, conveyed by his ambassadors at a time when 1165:

Staff. Military officers controlled civilian government officials, the staffs of banks, cartels, firms, and factories, engineers and scientists, workingmen, farmers-indeed almost every element in German society; and all efforts were directed in theory and in large degree also in practice to forwarding the war effort.

1191:, as well as supplies from occupied Belgium and France. It set prices and regulated the distribution to vital war industries. It began the development of ersatz raw materials. KRA suffered many inefficiencies caused by the complexity and selfishness KRA encountered from commerce, industry, and the government. 876:, Bethmann Hollweg weakened his own position by failing to establish good control over public relations. To avoid highly intensive negative publicity, he conducted much of his diplomacy and secret, thereby failed to build strong support for it. In 1914 he was willing to risk a world war to win public support. 1233:

The food supply increasingly focused on potatoes and bread, it was harder and harder to buy meat. The meat ration in late 1916 was only 31% of peacetime, and it fell to 12% in late 1918. The fish ration was 51% in 1916, and none at all by late 1917. The rations for cheese, butter, rice, cereals, eggs

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By 1917, after three years of war, the various groups and bureaucratic hierarchies which had been operating more or less independently of one another in peacetime (and not infrequently had worked at cross purposes) were subordinated to one (and perhaps the most effective) of their number: the General

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By September 1918, the Central Powers were exhausted from fighting, the American forces were pouring into France at a rate of 10,000 a day, the British Empire was mobilised for war peaking at 4.5 million soldiers and 4,000 tanks on the Western Front. The decisive Allied counteroffensive, known as the

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The attrition warfare now caught up to both sides. Germany had used up all the best soldiers they had, and still had not conquered much territory. The British likewise were bringing in youths of 18 and unfit and middle-aged men, but they could see the Americans arriving steadily. The French had also

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After, morale was helped by victories against Serbia, Greece, Italy, and Russia which made great gains for the Central Powers. Morale was at its greatest since 1914 at the end of 1917 and beginning of 1918 with the defeat of Russia following her rise into revolution, and the German people braced for

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Conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front, with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas. The causes involved the transfer of so many farmers and food workers into the military, combined with the overburdened railroad system, shortages of coal, and the British blockade that cut off

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had full control of the army, they had a large supply of reinforcements moved from the Eastern front, and they trained storm troopers with new tactics to race through the trenches and attack the enemy's command and communications centers. The new tactics would indeed restore mobility to the Western

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Bethmann Hollweg sought public approval from a declaration of war. His civilian colleagues pleaded for him to register some febrile protest, but he was frequently outflanked by the military leaders, who played an increasingly important role in the direction of all German policy. However, according

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It soon became apparent that Germany was not prepared for a war lasting more than a few months. At first, little was done to regulate the economy for a wartime footing, and the German war economy would remain badly organized throughout the war. Germany depended on imports of food and raw materials,

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While the KRA handled critical raw materials, the crisis over food supplies grew worse. The mobilization of so many farmers and horses, and the shortages of fertilizer, steadily reduced the food supply. Prisoners of war were sent to work on farms, and many women and elderly men took on work roles.

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Ludendorff erred by attacking the British first in 1918, instead of the French. He mistakenly thought the British to be too uninspired to respond rapidly to the new tactics. The exhausted, dispirited French perhaps might have folded. The German assaults on the British were ferocious—the largest of

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Bethmann Hollweg, much of whose foreign policy before the war had been guided by his desire to establish good relations with Britain, was particularly upset by Britain's declaration of war following the German violation of Belgium's neutrality during its invasion of France. He reportedly asked the

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deceptions were revealed. The Kaiser's first words to him were suitably brusque: "How did it all happen?" Rather than attempt to explain, the Chancellor offered his resignation by way of apology. Wilhelm refused to accept it, muttering furiously, "You've made this stew, now you're going to eat it!"

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in July 1914 was the steady growth of Russian power, and the growing closeness of the British and French military collaboration. Under these circumstances he decided to run what he considered a calculated risk to back Vienna in a local small-scale war against Serbia, while risking a major war with

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parties. That same July the strong opposition to him from high-level military leaders – including Hindenburg and Ludendorff who both threatened to resign – was exacerbated when Bethmann Hollweg convinced the Emperor to agree publicly to the introduction of equal manhood suffrage in Prussian state

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During the winter of 1917-18 it was "quiet" on the Western Front—British casualties averaged "only" 3,000 a week. Serious attacks were impossible in the winter because of the deep caramel-thick mud. Quietly the Germans brought in their best soldiers from the eastern front, selected elite storm

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German women were not employed in the Army, but large numbers took paid employment in industry and factories, and even larger numbers engaged in volunteer services. Housewives were taught how to cook without milk, eggs or fat; agencies helped widows find work. Banks, insurance companies and

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When Wilhelm arrived at the Potsdam station late in the evening of July 26, he was met by a pale, agitated, and somewhat fearful Chancellor. Bethmann Hollweg's apprehension stemmed not from the dangers of the looming war, but rather from his fear of the Kaiser's wrath when the extent of his

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Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers of Germans began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party which demanded an end to the war. The third reason was the entry of the

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Due to German military forces still occupying portions of France on the day of the armistice, various nationalist groups and those angered by the defeat in the war shifted blame to civilians; accusing them of betraying the army and surrendering. This contributed to the

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Although German armies were still on enemy soil as the war ended, the generals, the civilian leadership—and indeed the soldiers and the people—knew all was hopeless. They started looking for scapegoats. The hunger and popular dissatisfaction with the war precipitated

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Despite the often ruthless conduct of the German military machine, in the air and at sea as well as on land, individual German and soldiers could view the enemy with respect and empathy and the war with contempt. Some examples from letters homeward :

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Germany had no plans for mobilizing its civilian economy for the war effort, and no stockpiles of food or critical supplies had been made. Germany had to improvise rapidly. All major political sectors initially supported the war, including the Socialists.

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on 11 November 1918; in practice it was a surrender, and the Allies kept up the food blockade to guarantee an upper hand in negotiations. The now defunct German Empire had gotten so defunct that it fell and France took all of the empire.

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held senior posts in the Raw Materials Department of the War Ministry, while becoming chairman of AEG upon his father's death in 1915. Rathenau played the key role in convincing the War Ministry to set up the War Raw Materials Department

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In spring 1918, Germany realized that time was running out. It prepared for the decisive strike with new armies and new tactics, hoping to win the war on the Western front before millions of American soldiers appeared in battle. General

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materials, such as paper and cardboard for cloth and leather proved unsatisfactory. Soap was in short supply, as was hot water. All the cities reduced tram services, cut back on street lighting, and closed down theaters and cabarets.

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Out of a population of 65 million, Germany suffered 1.7 million military deaths and 430,000 civilian deaths due to wartime causes (especially the food blockade), plus about 17,000 killed in Africa and the other overseas colonies.

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had put it, which was readily supported by prevalent nationalism among the public. The German establishment hoped the war would unite the public behind the monarchy, and lessen the threat posed by the dramatic growth of the

1145:" was the enthusiastic support of mostly the educated middle- and upper-class elements of the population for the war when it first broke out in 1914. In the Reichstag, the vote for credits was unanimous, including from the 1187:- 'KRA'); he was in charge of it from August 1914 to March 1915 and established the basic policies and procedures. His senior staff were on loan from industry. KRA focused on raw materials threatened by the 1115:

throughout Germany. By 11 November Germany had virtually surrendered, the Kaiser and all the royal families had abdicated, and the German Empire fell and Germany actually never became a country of today.

861:'s mediation at the end of 1916 came to nothing. Over Bethmann Hollweg's objections, Hindenburg and Ludendorff forced the adoption of unrestricted submarine warfare in March 1917, adopted as a result of 3048: 1435: 744:

for quick victory against a poorly prepared France. By rushing through Belgium, Germany expanded the war to include England. Bethmann thus failed to keep France and Britain out of the conflict.

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Cox, Mary Elisabeth (2015-05-01). "Hunger games: or how the Allied blockade in the First World War deprived German children of nutrition, and Allied food aid subsequently saved them".

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and when Russia attacked in this region it diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First

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German soldiers on the way to the front in 1914. A message on the freight car spells out "Trip to Paris"; early in the war, all sides expected the conflict to be a short one.

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The drafting of miners reduced the main energy source, coal. The textile factories produced Army uniforms, and warm clothing for civilians ran short. The device of using

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Russia. He calculated that France would not support Russia. It failed when Russia decided on general mobilization, and his own Army demanded the opportunity to use the

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called for the mobilization of all economic resources to produce artillery, shells, and machine guns. Church bells and copper roofs were ripped out and melted down.

4180: 3967: 2632: 1021: 4155: 3420: 950:(5–12 September). The last days of this battle signified the end of mobile warfare in the west. The French offensive into Germany launched on 7 August with the 1007: 4210: 2833: 1035: 4361: 4022: 606:

fronts, although German territory itself remained relatively safe from widespread invasion for most of the war, except for a brief period in 1914 when

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elections. The combination of political and military opposition forced Bethmann Hollweg's resignation and replacement by a relatively unknown figure,

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The German population responded to the outbreak of war in 1914 with a complex mix of emotions, in a similar way to the populations of emotions in the

1107:, began on 8 August 1918—what Ludendorff called the "Black Day of the German army." The Allied armies advanced steadily as German defenses faltered. 3706: 2946: 554: 720:

Bethmann Hollweg in uniform. He never served in the army, but after the war started, he was appointed to an honorary rank with a general's uniform.

3887: 1308: 1285:, they quickly spread the revolt across Germany. Meanwhile, Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government. 607: 113: 888: 1355: 494: 4336: 4129: 2436:

A History of the Blockade of Germany and the Countries Associated with Her in the Great War, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, 1914–1918

2397: 2325: 2259: 1584: 1316: 965:(17 August – 2 September), but this diversion exacerbated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail-heads not foreseen by the 425: 830:, writing in the 1960s, Bethmann Hollweg made more concessions to the nationalist right than had previously been thought. He supported the 4240: 3487: 2184:(Pen and Sword Military, 2010). This book is a compilation of German soldiers' letters and memoirs. All the references come from this book. 1194: 3150: 1188: 702: 321: 3997: 3960: 3334: 3317: 2456:

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and the workers' and soldiers' councils, the Kaiser and all German ruling princes abdicated. On 9 November 1918, the Social Democrat

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Posters of the German Military Government in the Generalgouvernement Warshau (German occupied Poland) from World War I, 1915-1916

2103: 1425: 680:. The war was presented inside Germany as the chance for the nation to secure "our place under the sun," as the Foreign Minister 155: 104: 2845: 1019:(SAG, "Social Democratic Working Group"). On 17 January they expelled them, and in April 1917 the left-wing went on to form the 1015:

In early 1917 the SPD leadership became concerned about the activity of its anti-war left-wing which had been organising as the

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Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914-1918 (Publications of the German Historical Institute)

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When the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum was presented to Serbia, Kaiser Wilhelm II ended his vacation and hurried back to Berlin.

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into the war in April 1917, which tipped the long-run balance of power even more to the Allies. The end of October 1918, in

782:, were instrumental in assuring Austria-Hungary of Germany's unconditional support, regardless of Austria's actions against 4255: 4235: 4114: 3817: 3593: 3455: 3359: 3258: 2863: 1430: 1415: 736: 730: 639: 2292:

German and Austrian Aviation of World War I: A Pictorial Chronicle of the Airmen and Aircraft That Forged German Airpower

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Dasey, Robyn. "Women's Work and the Family: Women Garment Workers in Berlin and Hamburg before the First World War," in

648: 127: 2629: 2237: 716: 4245: 4165: 3632: 3545: 2997: 962: 929: 767:, "Russian mobilisation measures would compel us to mobilise and that then European war could scarcely be prevented." 603: 599: 147: 99: 84: 79: 34: 2827: 869:. Bethmann Hollweg had been a reluctant participant and opposed it in cabinet. The US entered the war in April 1917. 2857: 1528: 4280: 4225: 4185: 4175: 4170: 4027: 3555: 3467: 3445: 3364: 3349: 3165: 3145: 2987: 2521:

Donson, Andrew. "Why did German youth become fascists? Nationalist males born 1900 to 1908 in war and revolution,"

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Terraine, John. "'An Actual Revolutionary Situation': In 1917 there was little to sustain German morale at home,"

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Germany's Defeat in the First World War: The Lost Battles and Reckless Gambles That Brought Down the Second Reich

947: 827: 690: 143: 139: 74: 924:, the German soldiers bound westwards to France and those bound eastwards to Russia smilingly salute each other. 4265: 4109: 4084: 3784: 3746: 3583: 3354: 2881: 2839: 2719: 1247: 862: 151: 2887: 2736: 1549:

Konrad H. Jarausch, "The Illusion of Limited War: Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg's Calculated Risk, July 1914."

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Total Warfare and Compulsory Labor: A Study of the Military-Industrial Complex in Germany during World War I

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The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918

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The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Germany,

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7 million soldiers and sailors were quickly demobilized. Some joined right-wing organizations such as the

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Feldman, Gerald D. "The Political and Social Foundations of Germany's Economic Mobilization, 1914-1916,"

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Bethmann Hollweg remained in office until July 1917, when a Reichstag revolt resulted in the passage of

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N. P. Howard, "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

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were limited, then rationing was introduced. In 1915 five million pigs were massacred in the so-called

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Howard, N.P. "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

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N.P. Howard, "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

3664: 3608: 3492: 3430: 3425: 3395: 3327: 3305: 3253: 3155: 2581: 2384:(U. of Nebraska Press, 1982); Contains design and production figures, as well as economic influences. 966: 694: 476: 304: 291: 17: 4124: 3847: 3741: 3716: 3711: 3588: 3533: 3472: 3378: 3109: 3043: 2919: 1305: 1071: 990: 873: 850: 835: 756: 623: 2617:

Moeller, Robert G. "Dimensions of Social Conflict in the Great War: A View from the Countryside,"

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War and Revolution in Leipzig, 1914–1918: Socialist Politics and Urban Evolution in a German City

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Keith Allen, "Sharing scarcity: Bread rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914-1923,"

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Keith Allen, "Sharing scarcity: Bread rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914-1923,"

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edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 159–96.

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caused severe food shortages in the cities, especially in the winter of 1916–17, known as the

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The Allied blockade continued until July 1919, causing severe additional hardships.

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The German army opened the war on the Western Front with a modified version of the

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Germany and Propaganda in World War I: Pacifism, Mobilization and Total War

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Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin

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German Soldiers in the Great War: and Savey Letters and Eyewitness Accounts

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C.R.M.F. Cruttwell, A History of the Great War: 1914-1918 (1935) ch 15-29

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Military propaganda postcard: Wounded soldiers cheer the German Emperor

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Supplies that had once come in from Russia and Austria were cut off.

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1916 was characterized by two great battles on the Western front, at

942:(14–24 August). By 12 September, the French with assistance from the 783: 673: 669: 665: 2924: 2813:

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2702:

The Upheaval of War: Family, Work, and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918

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falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions, and pressure from the

751:

arrived in Berlin in response to Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister

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According to biographer Konrad H. Jarausch, a primary concern for

715: 2716:

The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth, and Mobilization in Germany

668:, saw the war as a way to end being surrounded by hostile powers 1530:"Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald Theodore Friedrich Alfred von" 1460:

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p. 166, with 271,000 excess deaths in 1918 and 71,000 in 1919.

1288:

In November 1918, with internal revolution, a stalemated war,

3049:

Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples

1833:

Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps

1521:

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the

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on 28 June 1914, Bethmann Hollweg and his foreign minister,

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The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918

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The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918

2234:

Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I

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of Polish territories by settlement of German colonists.

2156:

The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria-Hungary

1341:" that dominated the French occupied German government. 747:

The crisis came to a head on 5 July 1914 when the Count

1436:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

845:

A few weeks after the war began Bethmann presented the

802:

Mobilization order is read out in Berlin, 1 August 1914

2733:

Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914-1919

2516:

Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1870–1930,

1805:

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how Britain could go to war over a "scrap of paper" ("

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Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands

1490: 2650:Britain's Economic Blockade of Germany, 1914-1919 2079:(1998) 32#2, 00224529, Winter98, Vol. 32, Issue 2 1051:said would be the "Peace Offensive" in the west. 1269:, in northern Germany, saw the beginning of the 1011:German soldiers operating a flamethrower in 1917 2643:The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation 2590:edited by Jay M. Winter. (Cambridge UP, 1922). 2549:(1999), cultural and economic themes, worldwide 2540:Army, Industry, and Labor in Germany, 1914–1918 1198:Collecting scrap metal for the war effort, 1916 1075:front, but the German army was too optimistic. 1033:). The remaining faction was then known as the 946:halted the German advance east of Paris at the 791: 660:; notions of universal enthusiasm known as the 2846:Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Germany) 2180:Bernd Ulrich said and Benjamin, ed., Ziemann, 1022:Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany 693:before the war. Despite its membership in the 3961: 2940: 2645:(1991), on food supply of Britain and Germany 2469:Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 2038:Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918 1885:Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918 1406:Anonymous Bavarian soldier, 17 October 1914. 555: 8: 2509:Authority and Upheaval in Leipzig, 1910–1920 2458:The German Military in the Age of Total War, 2441:Broadberry, Stephen and Mark Harrison, eds. 2348:Hubatsch, Walther; Backus, Oswald P (1963), 2051:Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914-1918 423: 309: 3059:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) 2894:War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Germany) 2754:War Experiences in Rural Germany, 1914-1923 2578:Facing total war: German society, 1914-1918 2525:Aug2006, Vol. 31, Issue 3, pp. 337–358 1329:; radicals or the far Left helped form the 1036:Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany 3968: 3954: 3946: 3637: 3511: 3383: 3310: 2972: 2947: 2933: 2925: 2352:, Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas, 1981:April 1993, Vol. 11, Issue 2, pp. 161-188. 957:In the east, only one Field Army defended 759:himself was preparing a secret mission to 562: 548: 28: 2731:Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. 2671:The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1914–1916 2390:The German Army on the Somme: 1914 - 1916 2145:April 1996, Vol. 3, Issue 2, pp. 186-207. 1661:. Cornell University Press. p. 233. 1371:German workshop creating artificial limbs 887:by an alliance of the Social Democratic, 2771:Recent Revelations Of European Diplomacy 2427:Bailey, S. "The Berlin Strike of 1918," 2252:Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900-1941 1939:(2001), pp. 1014-49 on Rathenau and KRA. 1216: 797: 770:Following the assassination of Archduke 647: 2864:Organization of War Economies (Germany) 2657:Faust's Metropolis: a History of Berlin 2438:(London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1937) 1968:(1998), 32#2, pp. 371-93, quote p. 380. 1451: 1017:Sozialdemokratische Arbeitsgemeinschaft 652:World War I mobilization, 1 August 1914 42: 31: 2852:Women's Mobilisation for War (Germany) 1937:The First World War: Volume I: To Arms 1924:Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte 2392:. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books Ltd. 2367:(ABC-CLIO, 2015) scholarly analysis. 2307:A History of the Great War: 1914-1918 1989: 1987: 1818:A History of the Great War: 1914-1918 1279:final battle against the British Navy 7: 2778:Fall of the German Empire, 1914–1918 2690:(1978), 28#1, pp. 14–22, online 2614:(University Press of America, 1998). 2464:, 40–70. Leamington Spa: Berg, 1985. 2106:[The Sailors' Revolt 1918]. 1609:. Casemate Publishers. p. 103. 1043:in warfare, in the Battle of Ypres. 18:German home front during World War I 1836:. Simon and Schuster. p. 304. 1497:. Oxford University Press. p. 822:guaranteeing Belgium's neutrality. 2828:Bereavement and Mourning (Germany) 2666:(Cambridge University Press, 1967) 2563:(1996), one third on the homefront 1003:Berlin Conference (March 31, 1917) 701:which were stopped by the British 687:Social Democratic Party of Germany 610:. A tight blockade imposed by the 25: 4362:20th century in Germany by period 2858:Making Sense of the War (Germany) 2154:Leo Grebler and Wilhelm Winkler, 2102:Scriba, Arnulf (15 August 2015). 1527:Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). 2595:The German revolution, 1918-1919 2218:German Soldiers in the Great War 2206:German Soldiers in the Great War 2194:German Soldiers in the Great War 1426:History of German foreign policy 1311:. The new government led by the 1256:Demobilization after World War I 1221:Wartime ration stamps in Bavaria 981:German soldiers digging trenches 920:In this contemporary drawing by 644:German Empire § World War I 528: 514: 53: 3151:German revolutions of 1848–1849 3120:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation) 2907:Germany and the First World War 2605:Journal of Contemporary History 2532:(1976), 3#1, pp. 121–145. 2382:German Air Power in World War I 2275:Chickering, Roger, et al. eds. 1704:(in German). pp. 188–193 . 1568:https://doi.org/10.2307/2538909 1283:workers' and soldiers' councils 1178:Early in the war industrialist 322:German revolutions of 1848–1849 3136:Early modern period, 1500–1800 3024:List of early Germanic peoples 2856:Ungern-Sternberg, Jürgen von: 2804:at Living Museum Online (LeMO) 2621:(1981), 14#2, pp. 142–68. 2570:(1993), 11#2, pp. 161–88 2431:(1980), 13#2, pp. 158–74. 2417:(1998), 32#2, pp. 371–96. 1926:(1978), Issue 11, pp. 118-136. 620:German Revolution of 1918–1919 1: 3259:History of Germany since 1990 2741:vol 2 excerpt and text search 2697:(1985), 13#3, pp. 257–98 2664:The German Revolution of 1918 2588:War and Economic Development, 2554:The First World War 1914-1918 2424:(The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1964) 2158:(Yale University Press, 1940) 2108:Deutsches Historisches Museum 1431:Home front during World War I 1416:German entry into World War I 1359:German trench destroyed by a 807:departing British Ambassador 731:German entry into World War I 640:German entry into World War I 4337:German Empire in World War I 2918:From the Collections at the 2882:Propaganda at Home (Germany) 2840:Food and Nutrition (Germany) 2443:The Economics of World War I 1603:Butler, David Allen (2010). 1271:German Revolution of 1918–19 2888:Warfare 1914-1918 (Germany) 2471:(1998), wide-ranging survey 2104:"Der Matrosenaufstand 1918" 1996:The Economic History Review 1857:Tucker, Spencer C. (2005). 1716:Canadian Journal of History 1583:(1997), pp. 70-89 at p. 71. 1581:The Outbreak of World War I 1315:called for and received an 930:Western Front (World War I) 594:. German forces fought the 4378: 3166:North German Confederation 3146:Confederation of the Rhine 2876:Press/Journalism (Germany) 2530:Armed Forces & Society 2377:(London: Croom Helm, 1976) 2342:A Companion to World War I 1966:Journal of Social History, 1952:(1976), 3#1, pp. 121-145. 1950:Armed Forces & Society 1701:Neue Deutsche Biographie 2 1382: 1348: 1331:Communist Party of Germany 1245: 1058: 1000: 927: 728: 637: 327:North German Confederation 297:Confederation of the Rhine 4352:Modern history of Germany 3900: 3640: 3514: 3386: 3313: 2776:Lutz, Ralph Haswell, ed. 2415:Journal of Social History 2077:Journal of Social History 1755:Fred R. Van Hartesveldt, 1566:15#3 (1990), pp. 120–50, 1475:(1993), 11#2, pp. 161-88 948:First Battle of the Marne 3318:Administrative divisions 2695:Central European History 2659:(1998), pp. 234–83. 2619:Central European History 2429:Central European History 2318:Zeppelins of World War I 1863:ABC-CLIO. p. 1256. 1551:Central European History 1248:Aftermath of World War I 863:Henning von Holtzendorff 608:East Prussia was invaded 2898:Whalen, Robert Weldon: 2682:excerpt and text search 2597:(1938) a brief survey 2337:(1996), mostly military 2294:(2000). Osprey Pub Co. 1830:Millett, Allan (1991). 1462:(Cambridge U.P., 2000). 1394:Dominik Richert, 1914. 1313:German Social Democrats 1185:Kriegsrohstoffabteilung 1156:According to historian 1061:German spring offensive 940:Battle of the Frontiers 4357:World War I by country 3579:Science and technology 3280:History of Brandenburg 3171:Unification of Germany 3161:Frankfurt Constitution 2582:online at ACLS e-books 2388:Sheldon, Jack (2005). 2316:Cross, Wilbur (1991), 1913:(1991 edition) p. 742. 1790:Bruce I. Gudmundsson, 1564:International Security 1536:Encyclopedia Americana 1489:Strachan, Hew (1998). 1372: 1364: 1351:World War I casualties 1257: 1222: 1199: 1138: 1105:Hundred Days Offensive 1095: 1030: 1012: 982: 925: 913: 818:), which was the 1839 803: 796: 721: 653: 424: 310: 179:Linear Pottery culture 3980:by region and country 3216:Flight and expulsions 2911:Spartacus Educational 2874:Altenhöner, Florian: 2870:War Finance (Germany) 2862:Ullmann, Hans-Peter: 2807:Articles relating to 2802:"The First World War" 2798:"Der Erste Weltkrieg" 2593:Lutz, Ralph Haswell. 2250:Cecil, Lamar (1996), 1383:Soldiers' experiences 1370: 1358: 1339:Stab-in-the-back myth 1309:proclaimed a Republic 1277:at the prospect of a 1255: 1220: 1197: 1132: 1089: 1059:Further information: 1010: 980: 954:had limited success. 919: 911: 801: 719: 651: 105:Territorial evolution 3888:World Heritage Sites 3566:German states by GDP 3156:German Confederation 2900:War Losses (Germany) 2844:Oppelland, Torsten: 2780:(2 vol 1932). 868pp 2305:Cruttwell, C.R.M.F. 1911:The Rise of the West 1909:William H. McNeill, 1820:(1935), pp. 505-35r. 1816:C.R.M.F. Cruttwell, 1400:Hermann Baur, 1915. 967:German General Staff 963:Battle of Tannenberg 763:. He wrote to Count 695:Second International 626:and established the 622:which overthrew the 441:Expulsion of Germans 407:Contemporary Germany 305:German Confederation 3524:Automobile industry 3110:Carolingian dynasty 3044:History of the Huns 2920:Library of Congress 2832:Bruendel, Steffen: 2818:Hirschfeld, Gerhard 2752:Ziemann, Benjamin. 2655:Richie, Alexandra. 2624:Moeller, Robert G. 2467:Chickering, Roger. 2232:Watson, Alexander. 2092:(1998), pp. 277-80. 1860:World War I: A - D. 1807:(2011), pp. 30-111. 1794:(1989), pp. 155-70. 1306:Philipp Scheidemann 1302:German High Command 1072:Paul von Hindenburg 874:Wolfgang J. Mommsen 851:Paul von Hindenburg 836:Polish Border Strip 703:blockade of Germany 255:Early Modern period 242:Eastward settlement 3594:Telecommunications 3275:History of Prussia 3191:Revolution of 1918 3186:War guilt question 3105:Carolingian Empire 3074:Sack of Rome (410) 2983:History of Germany 2892:Löffelbein, Nils: 2886:Pöhlmann, Markus: 2826:Fehlemann, Silke: 2714:Verhey, Jeffrey. 2635:2016-03-09 at the 2607:(1978) 12: 467–98. 2559:Herwig, Holger H. 2501:2020-11-17 at the 2333:Herwig, Holger H. 2090:Faust's Metropolis 2088:Alexandra Richie, 2036:Roger Chickering, 1898:Faust's Metropolis 1883:Roger Chickering, 1777:Holger H. Herwig, 1759:(1996), pp. 26-27. 1743:The Guns of August 1718:2.2 (1967): 49-61. 1639:The Guns of August 1590:2022-01-29 at the 1553:2.1 (1969): 48-76. 1421:History of Germany 1373: 1365: 1281:, and by means of 1258: 1223: 1200: 1158:William H. MacNeil 1151:Hindenburg Program 1139: 1137:, who is in a car. 1096: 1070:and Field Marshal 1013: 983: 952:Battle of Mulhouse 926: 914: 881:Matthias Erzberger 834:of Poles from the 804: 780:Gottlieb von Jagow 722: 682:Bernhard von Bülow 654: 535:History portal 521:Germany portal 272:Kingdom of Prussia 232:Kingdom of Germany 204:Barbarian kingdoms 4324: 4323: 4033:Southern Rhodesia 4028:South West Africa 3943: 3942: 3896: 3895: 3627: 3626: 3541:Chemical Triangle 3501: 3500: 3488:Political parties 3436:Foreign relations 3373: 3372: 3300: 3299: 3211:Allied occupation 3115:Holy Roman Empire 2909:article index at 2850:Stibbe, Matthew: 2784:, primary sources 2728:(IB Tauris, 2014) 2610:McKibbin, David. 2556:(1977), economics 2538:Feldman, Gerald. 2489:Davis, Belinda J. 2434:Bell, Archibald. 2420:Armeson, Robert. 2399:978-1-84415-269-8 2373:Kitchen, Martin. 2340:Horne, John, ed. 2327:978-1-55778-382-0 2320:, Paragon House, 2261:978-0-8078-2283-8 2008:10.1111/ehr.12070 1803:David Stevenson, 1740:Barbara Tuchman, 1636:Barbara Tuchman, 1296:suing for peace, 1242:Defeat and revolt 1090:German troops in 847:Septemberprogramm 813:ein Fetzen Papier 753:Leopold Berchtold 572: 571: 503: 502: 397: 396: 237:Holy Roman Empire 114:Holy Roman Empire 16:(Redirected from 4369: 4342:1910s in Germany 3970: 3963: 3956: 3947: 3923: 3916: 3909: 3873:Prussian virtues 3638: 3546:Economic history 3512: 3406: 3384: 3335:Cities and towns 3311: 3291:Baden Revolution 3095:Treaty of Verdun 3064:Marcomannic Wars 3019:Migration Period 3014:Germanic peoples 2998:Military history 2973: 2949: 2942: 2935: 2926: 2868:Gross, Stephen: 2838:Davis, Belinda: 2796: 2545:Ferguson, Niall 2403: 2360: 2330: 2309:(1935) ch 15-29 2272: 2221: 2215: 2209: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2185: 2178: 2172: 2165: 2159: 2152: 2146: 2139: 2133: 2126: 2120: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2099: 2093: 2086: 2080: 2073: 2067: 2064:Imperial Germany 2060: 2054: 2047: 2041: 2040:(2004) p. 141-42 2034: 2028: 2027: 1991: 1982: 1975: 1969: 1962: 1956: 1946: 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3939: 3926: 3919: 3912: 3905: 3892: 3756: 3707:Life expectancy 3623: 3497: 3468:Law enforcement 3404: 3369: 3296: 3263: 3242: 3226:Divided Germany 3196:Weimar Republic 3124: 3090:Frankish Empire 3078: 3002: 2968: 2962: 2953: 2880:Ther, Vanessa: 2794: 2791: 2773:(1940). pp3–100 2766: 2764:Primary sources 2669:Siney, Marion. 2648:Osborne, Eric. 2637:Wayback Machine 2576:Kocka, Jürgen. 2552:Hardach, Gerd. 2547:The Pity of War 2523:Social History, 2503:Wayback Machine 2410: 2400: 2387: 2363:Karau, Mark D. 2347: 2328: 2315: 2290:Cowin, Hugh W. 2262: 2249: 2246: 2229: 2227:Further reading 2224: 2216: 2212: 2204: 2200: 2192: 2188: 2179: 2175: 2166: 2162: 2153: 2149: 2143:War in History, 2140: 2136: 2127: 2123: 2113: 2111: 2101: 2100: 2096: 2087: 2083: 2074: 2070: 2061: 2057: 2048: 2044: 2035: 2031: 1993: 1992: 1985: 1979:German History, 1976: 1972: 1963: 1959: 1947: 1943: 1934: 1930: 1921: 1917: 1908: 1904: 1895: 1891: 1882: 1878: 1871: 1856: 1855: 1851: 1844: 1829: 1828: 1824: 1815: 1811: 1802: 1798: 1789: 1785: 1781:(1997) ch. 4-6. 1776: 1772: 1767: 1763: 1754: 1750: 1739: 1735: 1726: 1722: 1713: 1709: 1697: 1696: 1692: 1687: 1683: 1673: 1671: 1669: 1653:Hull, Isabel V. 1651: 1650: 1646: 1635: 1631: 1621: 1619: 1617: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1592:Wayback Machine 1578: 1574: 1561: 1557: 1548: 1544: 1526: 1520: 1516: 1509: 1488: 1487: 1483: 1470: 1466: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1412: 1385: 1353: 1347: 1298:Austria-Hungary 1250: 1244: 1180:Walter Rathenau 1172: 1127: 1122: 1063: 1057: 1005: 999: 975: 936:Schlieffen Plan 932: 906: 898:Georg Michaelis 815: 772:Franz Ferdinand 742:Schlieffen Plan 733: 727: 646: 638:Main articles: 636: 628:Weimar Republic 592:Austria-Hungary 582:was one of the 568: 529: 527: 526: 515: 513: 512: 505: 504: 486: 465: 432: 409: 399: 398: 369:Weimar Republic 342: 332: 331: 318: 287: 277: 276: 257: 247: 246: 222: 214: 213: 209:Frankish Empire 184:Únětice culture 174: 166: 165: 110:Historic states 65: 45: 38: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4375: 4373: 4365: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4329: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4319: 4318: 4313: 4307: 4305: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4286:United Kingdom 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4236:Ottoman Empire 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4147: 4145: 4141: 4140: 4138: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4115:Ottoman Empire 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4076: 4074: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3989: 3987: 3983: 3982: 3975: 3973: 3972: 3965: 3958: 3950: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3937: 3932: 3925: 3924: 3917: 3910: 3902: 3901: 3898: 3897: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3804:Cultural icons 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3766: 3764: 3758: 3757: 3755: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3683: 3682: 3677: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3628: 3625: 3624: 3622: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3584:Stock exchange 3581: 3576: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3537: 3536: 3526: 3521: 3515: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3459: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3398: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3374: 3371: 3370: 3368: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3331: 3330: 3325: 3314: 3308: 3302: 3301: 3298: 3297: 3295: 3294: 3288: 3282: 3277: 3271: 3269: 3265: 3264: 3262: 3261: 3256: 3250: 3248: 3244: 3243: 3241: 3240: 3239: 3238: 3233: 3223: 3221:Denazification 3218: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3178: 3173: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3132: 3130: 3126: 3125: 3123: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3107: 3102: 3097: 3092: 3086: 3084: 3080: 3079: 3077: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3036: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3010: 3008: 3004: 3003: 3001: 3000: 2995: 2993:Historiography 2990: 2985: 2979: 2977: 2970: 2964: 2963: 2954: 2952: 2951: 2944: 2937: 2929: 2923: 2922: 2913: 2904: 2903: 2902: 2896: 2890: 2884: 2878: 2872: 2866: 2860: 2854: 2848: 2842: 2836: 2830: 2824: 2805: 2790: 2789:External links 2787: 2786: 2785: 2774: 2765: 2762: 2761: 2760: 2758:online edition 2750: 2743: 2729: 2724:Welch, David. 2722: 2712: 2705: 2698: 2691: 2684: 2676:Steege, Paul. 2674: 2667: 2660: 2653: 2646: 2641:Offer, Avner. 2639: 2630:online edition 2622: 2615: 2608: 2601: 2591: 2584: 2574: 2568:German History 2564: 2557: 2550: 2543: 2536: 2526: 2519: 2512: 2507:Dobson, Sean. 2505: 2496:online edition 2486: 2479: 2472: 2465: 2454: 2439: 2432: 2425: 2418: 2409: 2406: 2405: 2404: 2398: 2385: 2380:Morrow, John. 2378: 2371: 2361: 2345: 2338: 2331: 2326: 2313: 2303: 2288: 2273: 2260: 2245: 2242: 2241: 2240: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2222: 2210: 2198: 2186: 2173: 2169:German History 2160: 2147: 2134: 2121: 2094: 2081: 2068: 2066:, pp. 140-145. 2055: 2042: 2029: 2002:(2): 600–631. 1983: 1970: 1957: 1941: 1935:Hew Strachan, 1928: 1915: 1902: 1889: 1876: 1869: 1849: 1842: 1822: 1809: 1796: 1783: 1770: 1761: 1748: 1733: 1720: 1707: 1690: 1681: 1667: 1644: 1629: 1615: 1595: 1572: 1555: 1542: 1514: 1507: 1481: 1473:German History 1464: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1444: 1443: 1441:Central Powers 1438: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1411: 1408: 1384: 1381: 1361:mine explosion 1349:Main article: 1346: 1343: 1294:Ottoman Empire 1243: 1240: 1171: 1168: 1167: 1166: 1143:spirit of 1914 1126: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1056: 1053: 998: 995: 974: 971: 944:British forces 928:Main article: 922:Heinrich Zille 905: 902: 859:Woodrow Wilson 809:Edward Goschen 765:Sergey Sazonov 729:Main article: 726: 723: 662:Spirit of 1914 658:United Kingdom 635: 632: 584:Central Powers 570: 569: 567: 566: 559: 552: 544: 541: 540: 539: 538: 524: 507: 506: 501: 500: 497: 495:Modern history 491: 490: 487: 485: 484: 479: 473: 470: 469: 466: 464: 463: 450: 447: 446: 443: 437: 436: 435:1945–1949/1952 433: 431: 430: 421: 415: 410: 405: 404: 401: 400: 395: 394: 391: 385: 384: 381: 375: 374: 371: 365: 364: 361: 355: 354: 351: 343: 338: 337: 334: 333: 330: 329: 324: 319: 317: 316: 307: 301: 299: 294: 288: 283: 282: 279: 278: 275: 274: 269: 264: 258: 253: 252: 249: 248: 245: 244: 239: 234: 229: 223: 220: 219: 216: 215: 212: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 175: 172: 171: 168: 167: 164: 163: 117: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 75:Historiography 72: 66: 63: 62: 59: 58: 50: 49: 40: 39: 32: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4374: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4347:German Empire 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4308: 4306: 4302: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4216:Liechtenstein 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4148: 4146: 4142: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4077: 4075: 4071: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4059:United States 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3991: 3990: 3988: 3984: 3979: 3971: 3966: 3964: 3959: 3957: 3952: 3951: 3948: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3927: 3922: 3918: 3915: 3911: 3908: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3759: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3747:Social issues 3745: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3675:Ethnic groups 3673: 3672: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3630: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3580: 3577: 3575: 3573: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3535: 3532: 3531: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3516: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3504: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3447: 3444: 3443: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3389: 3388: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3376: 3366: 3363: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 3336: 3333: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3320: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3303: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3283: 3281: 3278: 3276: 3273: 3272: 3270: 3266: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3254:Reunification 3252: 3251: 3249: 3245: 3237: 3234: 3232: 3229: 3228: 3227: 3224: 3222: 3219: 3217: 3214: 3212: 3209: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3189: 3187: 3184: 3182: 3179: 3177: 3176:German Empire 3174: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3133: 3131: 3127: 3121: 3118: 3116: 3113: 3111: 3108: 3106: 3103: 3101: 3098: 3096: 3093: 3091: 3088: 3087: 3085: 3081: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3067: 3065: 3062: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3052: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3040: 3037: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3025: 3022: 3020: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3011: 3009: 3005: 2999: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2980: 2978: 2974: 2971: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2945: 2943: 2938: 2936: 2931: 2930: 2927: 2921: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2908: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2895: 2891: 2889: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2877: 2873: 2871: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2859: 2855: 2853: 2849: 2847: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2835: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2816: 2815: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2803: 2800:(in English) 2799: 2793: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2782:online review 2779: 2775: 2772: 2769:Gooch, P. G. 2768: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2756:(Berg, 2007) 2755: 2751: 2748: 2745:Winter, Jay. 2744: 2742: 2738: 2737:vol 1 excerpt 2734: 2730: 2727: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2703: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2689: 2688:History Today 2685: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2672: 2668: 2665: 2662:Ryder, A. J. 2661: 2658: 2654: 2651: 2647: 2644: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2620: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2606: 2602: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2589: 2585: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2562: 2558: 2555: 2551: 2548: 2544: 2541: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2520: 2517: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2504: 2500: 2497: 2493: 2490: 2487: 2484: 2480: 2477: 2474:Daniel, Ute. 2473: 2470: 2466: 2463: 2462:Wilhelm Deist 2459: 2455: 2452: 2451:0-521-85212-9 2448: 2444: 2440: 2437: 2433: 2430: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2416: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2383: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2346: 2343: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2329: 2323: 2319: 2314: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2301: 2300:1-84176-069-2 2297: 2293: 2289: 2286: 2285:0-521-77352-0 2282: 2278: 2274: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2257: 2253: 2248: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2230: 2226: 2219: 2214: 2211: 2207: 2202: 2199: 2195: 2190: 2187: 2183: 2177: 2174: 2170: 2164: 2161: 2157: 2151: 2148: 2144: 2138: 2135: 2131: 2128:A. J. Ryder, 2125: 2122: 2109: 2105: 2098: 2095: 2091: 2085: 2082: 2078: 2072: 2069: 2065: 2059: 2056: 2052: 2049:David Welch, 2046: 2043: 2039: 2033: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1990: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1974: 1971: 1967: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1945: 1942: 1938: 1932: 1929: 1925: 1919: 1916: 1912: 1906: 1903: 1900:, pp. 272-75. 1899: 1893: 1890: 1886: 1880: 1877: 1872: 1870:9781851094202 1866: 1862: 1861: 1853: 1850: 1845: 1843:9780029215968 1839: 1835: 1834: 1826: 1823: 1819: 1813: 1810: 1806: 1800: 1797: 1793: 1787: 1784: 1780: 1774: 1771: 1765: 1762: 1758: 1752: 1749: 1745: 1744: 1737: 1734: 1730: 1727:Jeff Lipkes, 1724: 1721: 1717: 1711: 1708: 1703: 1702: 1694: 1691: 1685: 1682: 1670: 1664: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1640: 1633: 1630: 1618: 1616:9781935149576 1612: 1608: 1607: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1589: 1586: 1582: 1576: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1559: 1556: 1552: 1546: 1543: 1538: 1537: 1531: 1524: 1523:public domain 1518: 1515: 1510: 1508:9780198206149 1504: 1500: 1495: 1494: 1485: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1468: 1465: 1461: 1455: 1452: 1446: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1413: 1409: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1380: 1377: 1369: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1327: 1321: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1263:United States 1254: 1249: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1228: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1209: 1204: 1196: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1169: 1163: 1162: 1161: 1159: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1136: 1131: 1124: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1108: 1106: 1100: 1093: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1073: 1069: 1062: 1054: 1052: 1050: 1047:what General 1044: 1042: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1023: 1018: 1009: 1004: 996: 994: 992: 988: 979: 972: 970: 968: 964: 960: 955: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 931: 923: 918: 910: 903: 901: 899: 894: 890: 886: 882: 877: 875: 872:According to 870: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 843: 841: 840:Germanisation 837: 833: 829: 828:Fritz Fischer 826:to historian 823: 821: 814: 810: 800: 795: 790: 787: 785: 781: 777: 773: 768: 766: 762: 761:St Petersburg 758: 754: 750: 749:Hoyos Mission 745: 743: 738: 732: 724: 718: 714: 712: 708: 704: 698: 696: 692: 688: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 650: 645: 641: 633: 631: 629: 625: 621: 617: 616:Turnip Winter 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 590:by its ally, 589: 585: 581: 580:German Empire 577: 565: 560: 558: 553: 551: 546: 545: 543: 542: 536: 525: 522: 511: 510: 509: 508: 498: 496: 493: 492: 488: 483: 480: 478: 477:Reunification 475: 474: 472: 471: 467: 462: 459: 455: 452: 451: 449: 448: 444: 442: 439: 438: 434: 428: 427: 422: 420: 417: 416: 414: 413: 408: 403: 402: 392: 390: 387: 386: 382: 380: 377: 376: 372: 370: 367: 366: 362: 360: 357: 356: 352: 350: 349:German Empire 347: 346: 341: 336: 335: 328: 325: 323: 320: 314: 313: 308: 306: 303: 302: 300: 298: 295: 293: 292:Mediatisation 290: 289: 286: 281: 280: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 259: 256: 251: 250: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 224: 218: 217: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 176: 173:Early history 170: 169: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 118: 115: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 81: 78: 76: 73: 71: 68: 67: 61: 60: 56: 52: 51: 48: 41: 36: 30: 27: 19: 4190: 4023:South Africa 3921:Bibliography 3795:Coat of arms 3775:Architecture 3752:Trade unions 3732:Prostitution 3692:Homelessness 3655:Demographics 3604:Trade unions 3571: 3561:German model 3534:Central bank 3478:Conservatism 3441:Human rights 3426:Court system 3421:Constitution 3401: 3247:Contemporary 3236:West Germany 3231:East Germany 3206:World War II 3201:Nazi Germany 3180: 3141:18th-century 3100:East Francia 3054:Cimbrian War 2777: 2770: 2753: 2746: 2732: 2725: 2715: 2708: 2701: 2694: 2687: 2677: 2670: 2663: 2656: 2649: 2642: 2625: 2618: 2611: 2604: 2594: 2587: 2577: 2567: 2560: 2553: 2546: 2539: 2529: 2522: 2515: 2508: 2491: 2482: 2475: 2468: 2457: 2442: 2435: 2428: 2421: 2414: 2389: 2381: 2374: 2364: 2349: 2341: 2334: 2317: 2306: 2291: 2276: 2251: 2233: 2217: 2213: 2205: 2201: 2193: 2189: 2181: 2176: 2171:(1993) p 162 2168: 2163: 2155: 2150: 2142: 2137: 2129: 2124: 2112:. 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First 634:Overview 624:monarchy 461:division 120:Monarchs 80:Military 35:a series 33:Part of 4304:Oceania 4294:Ireland 4281:Ukraine 4251:Romania 4206:Ireland 4201:Hungary 4191:Germany 4181:Estonia 4176:Denmark 4171:Croatia 4161:Belgium 4151:Albania 4130:Vietnam 4018:Morocco 4013:Liberia 3907:Outline 3813:Fashion 3800:Cuisine 3762:Culture 3727:Poverty 3670:Germans 3633:Society 3614:Welfare 3599:Tourism 3556:Exports 3529:Banking 3507:Economy 3411:Cabinet 3350:Islands 3345:Geology 3268:Regions 3034:Teutons 3007:Ancient 2969:History 2956:Germany 2822:Germany 2809:Germany 2720:excerpt 2718:(2006) 2680:(2008) 2511:(2000). 2494:(2000) 2445:(2005) 2369:excerpt 2238:excerpt 1622:30 July 1525:: 1170:Economy 711:Germany 678:Britain 666:Junkers 604:western 600:eastern 574:During 148:Prussia 144:Bavaria 140:Austria 95:Judaism 85:Economy 46:Germany 4271:Sweden 4261:Serbia 4256:Russia 4241:Poland 4231:Norway 4196:Greece 4186:France 4144:Europe 4054:Canada 4049:Brazil 3993:Angola 3986:Africa 3935:Portal 3790:Cinema 3770:Anthem 3737:Racism 3551:Energy 3365:Rivers 3323:States 3293:, 1848 3129:Modern 2958: 2749:(1995) 2673:(1957) 2652:(2004) 2572:online 2542:(1966) 2534:online 2478:(1997) 2449: 2396: 2356: 2344:(2012) 2324: 2298: 2283: 2268: 2258: 2132:(2008) 2022: 2014: 1954:online 1867: 1840: 1746:(1962) 1731:(2007) 1674:7 July 1665: 1613: 1585:online 1505: 1477:online 1363:, 1917 1227:ersatz 1027:German 987:Verdun 893:Centre 891:, and 784:Serbia 674:Russia 670:France 596:Allies 588:Serbia 578:, the 152:Saxony 124:Queens 64:Topics 37:on the 4290:Wales 4266:Spain 4211:Italy 4135:Yemen 4110:Japan 4095:India 4085:China 4003:Egypt 3914:Index 3878:Sport 3863:Names 3858:Music 3853:Media 3808:Dance 3680:Women 3645:Crime 3619:Women 3355:Lakes 3029:Goths 2220:, 51. 2208:, 64. 2196:, 77. 2020:S2CID 1447:Notes 1141:The " 100:Women 4125:Siam 4105:Iraq 4100:Iran 4073:Asia 3828:Flag 3785:Arts 3451:LGBT 2447:ISBN 2394:ISBN 2354:OCLC 2322:ISBN 2296:ISBN 2281:ISBN 2266:OCLC 2256:ISBN 2116:2024 2012:ISSN 1865:ISBN 1838:ISBN 1676:2009 1663:ISBN 1624:2012 1611:ISBN 1503:ISBN 1267:Kiel 1092:Kiev 1055:1918 997:1917 989:and 973:1916 853:and 676:and 642:and 602:and 489:1990 458:East 454:West 132:1918 90:LGBT 3780:Art 3463:Law 2811:at 2004:doi 1499:125 883:'s 865:'s 774:in 4333:: 4292:, 2820:: 2739:; 2264:, 2018:. 2010:. 2000:68 1998:. 1986:^ 1533:. 1501:. 1333:. 1273:. 1160:: 1029:: 900:. 672:, 630:. 158:, 154:, 150:, 146:, 142:, 138:, 134:, 130:, 126:, 4296:) 4288:( 3969:e 3962:t 3955:v 2948:e 2941:t 2934:v 2402:. 2118:. 2026:. 2006:: 1873:. 1846:. 1678:. 1626:. 1570:. 1539:. 1511:. 1337:" 1183:( 1025:( 816:" 563:e 556:t 549:v 456:– 162:) 122:( 116:) 112:( 20:)

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