German occupation of north-east France during World War I

486: 587: 157: 86: 398: 340: 668: 729:, created at the start of the occupation, requisitioned supplies, leading to the cessation of industrial activity. This material was then systematically transferred to Germany. Factories emptied of their equipment were sometimes transformed for other uses: hospitals, prisons, stockyards, stables, etc. From the end of 1916, the equipment that remained in place and the buildings themselves were systematically destroyed to suppress competition from French industry after the war. During the retreat of the German army in September and October 1918, the mining installations were dynamited and the galleries flooded. The dismantling of all the breweries in the occupied areas to recover the copper is described in the 718: 908: 887: 827: 899:

Lille and 4,399 in Tourcoing; in total 20,000 in the area, in the proportion of three women for every man. The health inspection imposed on young girls, similar to that imposed on prostitutes, was particularly traumatizing. The deportees were most often employed in agricultural work. Indeed, unlike the cities suffering from massive unemployment following the closure of factories, agriculture lacked manpower due to the departure of the mobilized men. In most cases, the workers (mostly women workers) were taken to the fields and watched by armed soldiers; they were subjected to exhausting work and suffered from malnutrition.

595: 795: 847: 811: 2006: 760: 494: 965:. Economic collaboration was more widespread: voluntary or industrial work accepting orders for the army, mayors diverting food intended for civilians for soldiers, etc. The collaboration also took the form of denunciations, whether of concealed French soldiers, hiding places of weapons, food or objects withdrawn from requisitions. Most of these were motivated by local jealousy and the secret German military police (Geheime Feldpolizei) employed French informants. 583:, France contributed to this aid by making payments to the Belgian government in exile (so that this indirect aid would be officially ignored by German authorities who actually knew about it). The financing of the CRB for a total amount of $ 700,000,000 throughout the war was provided at the level of $ 205,000,000 by the French Treasury $ 386,000,000 by the United States Treasury, $ 109,000,000 by the UK Treasury, and $ 52,000,000 of donations, mainly American). 863: 611:

municipalities paid for the supplies and passed on part of it to the inhabitants. The foodstuffs were transported from Belgium to depots mostly by river, due to rail transport being reserved for the German army. The aid of the CRB alleviated the shortage: its share in the supply is dominant in 1916, 1917 and 1918. The perception among prefects, the returnees, and in the general public was that "without American aid the population would have starved to death."

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situation, the requisitions and the abuses led a large number of inhabitants to escape from the suffering. In December 1915, a convoy of 750 only included five forced evacuees. Subsequently, when the number of desired departures began to outnumber the available spots in the convoys, the German authorities refused some of the requests. Some town hall officials who participated in the preparation of the lists were bribed by applicants to obtain a place.

983: 560:, the Senior Commander of the German Army in Belgium. This convention extended the food aid of the CRB, from which Belgium had benefited since October 22, 1914, to the populations of occupied France. The German army gave assurances that the goods would not be requisitioned. As in Belgium, the German authorities were interested in this aid, which avoided hunger riots and made it possible to continue levies on local agricultural production. 940:

provision of food aid to prisoners. All such acts were punishable with imprisonment. It also included the most active and risky actions of resistance, such as sabotage of railway tracks, aid to soldiers, organization of escape networks, publishing and distributing the underground press (with low circulation, in the best of cases several hundred, the press was sometimes limited to a few copies; the most notable was the newspaper

98: 542:

duration of the war. The Germans seized 80% of the 1915 wheat crop, and 75% of the potato crop. They also took the majority of the eggs and cattle. At the end of 1918, the livestock in the territories was reduced to a quarter compared to before the war. Famine loomed in the fall of 1914 and the question of food supplies was the main concern for the authorities in seeking aid from neutral countries.

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wire, and finally the wool of mattresses and pillows, including those of the hospitals. This last confiscation particularly traumatized a starving population, including many patients, who were already deprived of heating and now of bedding, with the use of straw as a replacement being prohibited as well. These requisitions were accompanied by incessant excavations. Many

434:, each published by the respective municipalities under German control. Even this was limited to practical and commercial information. Hence, news from the front could only filter through via underground newspapers with very low circulation or rumors. In practice, the majority of the population remained completely in the dark about external events. 36: 974:

of supplies. Although it is impossible to assess them, illegitimate births resulting from these unions appear to be quite numerous. Some marriages between soldiers and French women have been accepted by the authorities. Such women were generally stigmatized by part of the occupied population. These "Boche women" were often decried upon liberation.

627:

got their supplies in Belgium; this was a very risky activity, which explains the high prices they charged. At first, some German soldiers and officers helped civilians, which was officially prohibited; but even this source of supply dried up from 1917 on, when the army itself began suffering from a shortage.

708:

The closure of textile factories, the largest employer in the Lille-Roubaix-Tourcoing agglomeration, and metallurgical industries, caused a high rate of unemployment. In 1918, 46,300 inhabitants of Lille received unemployment benefit (36% of the total population), 24,977 in Tourcoing (38%), 23,484 in

679:

Atrocities were committed by the German troops on their entry into France in August and September 1914, which included the destruction of buildings and executions in retaliation for alleged resistance. Approximately 10,000 civilians, who were repatriated in February 1915, were deported to Germany, in

639:

Malnutrition led to epidemics of typhoid in late 1915-early 1916, bacillary dysentery, increased deaths from tuberculosis and contributed to the general excess mortality. The mortality rate in Lille fluctuated according to the supply of food. In December 1915, it stood at 20‰, close to the average of

409:

Within the occupied territory, travel from one municipality to another required authorization from the German authorities and the issuing of a pass. Violations of these traffic rules could be punished with imprisonment or a fine. Such obstacles predictably increased the feeling of confinement for the

973:

Relations between occupiers and occupied, however, were not uniformly hostile. Cohabitation with soldiers in requisitioned housing was often cordial or even supportive and created bonds of friendship as well as romantic relationships, which could be genuine or motivated to facilitate the requisition

898:

Work camps were organized for which young girls and young women, torn from their families, were transported and loaded into cattle wagons for distant destinations; for example, from Lille to the Ardennes. The deportations of April 1916, which might be described as round-ups, affected 9,300 people in

741:

As soon as the Germans arrived, all cars had to be handed over to the occupiers. Various products and objects of daily life were requisitioned, such as bicycles, household items, including copper, tin and alloys (essentially all metal objects), rubber (including bicycle tires), skins, oils, leather,

541:

blockade of her ports, suffered from a lack of food and refused to support the populations of the occupied territories. This included almost all of Belgium, whose population totaled more than 10 million inhabitants. The Germans seized stocks as soon as they arrived and then made requisitions for the

1005:

The memory of the First World War prompted the majority of the population of the northern regions to flee to the south in June 1940. During the occupation of 1940–44, acts of resistance multiplied, collaboration was much weaker than in the rest of France, and the Vichy government was very unpopular

994:

According to the 1923 censuses of the Ministry of Liberated Regions, out of all the municipalities in the affected areas (including in addition to the occupied areas, that of the front), 620 were completely destroyed; 1,334 were destroyed to a degree of more than 50%; 2,349 were partially damaged;

915:

The Germans evacuated the women, children and old people from their homes towards other parts of France, not to feed them, but to recover lodgings to house their own troops. After the inhabitants of Lille, whose homes were destroyed by the bombardments of the siege of October 11 and 12, 1914, were

687:

Heavy monetary contributions were imposed on the municipalities as well. A first contribution of 1,300,000 F was requisitioned from the city of Lille on November 1, 1914 by the German authorities, which was raised to 1,500,000 F per month from January 1915. In total, 184 million F were paid by the

630:

Although subjected to the levies of the enemy, the farmers, who managed to hide part of their production, suffered less from famine. Minors were also relatively privileged in the supply chain. The situation, very difficult in the towns, was particularly dramatic in Lille, which suffered throughout

626:

Trade and catering remained free, but the prohibitive prices of the foodstuffs available made them accessible only to a privileged minority. The development of allotment gardens helped to alleviate the shortage somewhat. Complements were also provided by "go-getters" or "supply men", smugglers who

514:

The Germans requisitioned most of the public buildings for their administration, the "Kommandantur" and for their troops; high schools and colleges were transformed into hospitals. Individual homes could at any time be requisitioned for soldiers. Large restaurants and places to relax were reserved

405:

As soon as they arrived, the Germans hindered the movement of French residents and prevented the flow of information. Automobiles were requisitioned on October 15, 1914; next, bicycles, telephones and radio telegraphs were confiscated. Even pigeons had to be slaughtered for fear of transmission of

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The birth rate, meanwhile, collapsed. The number of births in Lille dropped from 4885 in 1913 to 2154 in 1915, 602 in 1917, and 609 in 1918. Thus the demographic deficit, the excess of deaths over births, amounted to 14317 from October 1914 to February 1917. In 1918, 80% of adolescents were below

622:

and the difficult living situation were chronicled by Yves Congar who was only a child at the time. In his notebooks he describes the high inflation of food prices as well as the shortages affecting the territories occupied by the German army. Congar wrote on November 4, 1914, that "we don't have

614:

The food situation fluctuated; it deteriorated from October 1914 to April 1915; improved from the arrival of aid from the CRB in the spring of 1915; then deteriorated again from 1916. In Lille, the per capita daily rations fell to 1300 calories in 1917, then rose to 1400 in 1918 (intake in normal

998:

According to economist Alfred Sauvy, the cost of lost property and its restoration is estimated at 34 billion gold francs. Some of the equipment brought to Germany was recovered and the industry restarted fairly quickly in the early 1920s, but the slower reconstruction lasted into the mid-1930s.

927:

The first of these "repatriations" were imposed because the inhabitants preferred, initially, to undergo the difficulties of the occupation than to leave their place of life. Thus, the 450 people evacuated by train in March 1915 included only 47 volunteers. As early as 1915, the difficult supply

610:

CANF included seven districts, in Lille, Valenciennes, Saint-Quentin, Marle, Tergnier, Fourmies and Longwy. Each commune had a local committee, warehouses and distribution offices. Lille had 60 offices, most of which were set up in schools, with the whole being managed by 800 civil servants. The

939:

The resistance to the German occupation was evident but varied in degree. It included both passive resistance, such as indifference displayed towards the occupier or refusal to come into contact, and small forms of daily resistance such as opposition to requisitions and forced labor as well as

894:

The inhabitants were subjected to forced labor imposed not only on men but also on women and children starting at the age of 9. Workers were assigned to various jobs such as washing uniforms, earthworks, unloading wagons, and, just as France required for German prisoners, digging trenches and

366:

It would be hard to find war maps with captions to indicate occupied areas. During the duration of the hostilities, the combatants alone commanded the attention of the world. Considered as stolen and usurped, the occupied territories did not give rise to any particular graphic representation.

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The Food Committee of Northern France (CANF) was created under the patronage of the CRB and the National Relief and Food Committee (Belgian) for the distribution of food. Its administrative headquarters were in Brussels, and its executive committee chaired by Louis Guérin, a member of the

944:, which changed its name several times and whose group was dismantled by the Germans in 1916). It also entailed the collection of military intelligence communicated to the allies, activity organized in networks, with the best known being that of Jacquet, Trulin and Louise de Bettignies. 563:

The CRB, funded by donations and grants from the United States Government, purchased food from the United States (42%), the British colonies (25%), Great Britain (24%), the Netherlands (9%) and a small quantity from France itself. Food imported into Belgium remained the property of the

684:. In most localities, major personalities were taken hostage. Thus, upon their arrival in Lille, the Germans took 19 hostages, the Mayor, the Prefect, the Bishop, and 8 municipal councilors, who were summoned daily to the Kommandantur and forced to report every 6 days to the Citadel. 515:

exclusively for German troops, and military parades and concerts were organized. The proximity of the front (Lille was only fifteen kilometers away) generated constant troop movements. The larger cities became places of relaxation for soldiers on leave and, in Lille, those of the

556:, at first contacted Switzerland, on the advice of the Commander of the place, General von Heinrich. After this unsuccessful attempt, further steps led to an agreement signed on April 13, 1915 in Brussels between the Commission for Relief in Belgium, or CRB, and General 413:

Connections with unoccupied France were prohibited until April 1916. Only correspondence with relatives who were prisoners of war was authorized. It was limited to one card per month, and was also subject to censorship. Only half of the cards that passed through the

319:

For the whole of the occupied territory, the statistics of the Food Committee of the North of France indicate 2,235,467 inhabitants in 1915, but only 1,663,340 as of June 30, 1918; the decrease over the entire period beginning in the autumn of 1914 was even higher.

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Active collaboration was more limited than that experienced in occupied France during World War II. Collaboration inspired by intellectual or ideological support was practically non-existent except for correspondents of the propaganda periodical

316:'s population fell from 82,644 to 58,674. Some localities near the front and some towns in the Ardennes were emptied of the majority of their population. At the end of the war, Rethel had only 1,600 inhabitants, compared to 5,187 in 1911. 497:

Leisure and entertainment at the Front: German troops relax outside their billet between Lens and Arras on the Western Front. Two are amusing themselves with a piano while a third is preparing food. In the background, a sentry keeps

473:. Partly because of its proximity to the front, occupied north-east France was ruled by the military, rather than by a civilian occupation administration. Economic exploitation of the occupied zone increased throughout the war. 300:. The population of this area greatly decreased during this period due to both the excessive mortality relative to births as well as deportations and voluntary migration to unoccupied France. Thus, the department of the 615:

periods is on average of the order of 2800, a state of undernourishment is reached at below 2000). This insufficient amount of food was, moreover, unbalanced with severe deficiencies, particularly in vitamins.

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Roubaix (38%). In 1916, only 35,000 inhabitants of Lille out of 150,000 could support themselves; three-quarters of the inhabitants of Tourcoing subsisted on relief; 80% of those in Valenciennes alone.

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Perceived as an area of the front, nothing designated them as occupied. This "unthinkable" has been perpetuated in memory. Hence physical violence has been erased from both physical and mental maps.

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the pre-war period, during one of the very rare periods when the supply is approaching normal. It rose to 42‰ in March 1916, fluctuated between 41 and 55‰ in 1917, and between 41 and 55‰ in 1918.

931:

In total, nearly 500,000 people out of a population of around 2 million in 1914 were repatriated via Switzerland from October 1914 until the end of the war. This represented a high rate of 25%.

700:. Small towns were not spared, either. Responding to the request of the municipalities, the French government granted loans through complex financial circuits to the major cities of the region. 826: 1002:

The German government refused to extradite those responsible for the abuses and the open trials were unsuccessful. This impunity contributed to the feeling of injustice among the inhabitants.

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of 1907, which defined the rules applicable to the occupation of a territory by an enemy army, due to looting and the imposition of forced labor that contributed to their own war effort.

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Connolly, James (2014). "Fresh Eyes, Dead Topic? Writing the History of the Occupation of Northern France in the First World War". In Broch, Ludivine; Carrol, Alison (eds.).

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of Lille, at the Prefecture of the Nord département. Foodstuffs intended exclusively for distribution could not be traded. Offenses were punished with fines or imprisonment.

565: 3970: 3660: 3611: 3526: 1971: 3814: 251:, which were part of the German Reich from 1871 until their return to France at the end of the war in November 1918, are not included among the occupied territories. 3655: 3013: 1961: 4200: 846: 1294: 3284: 2506: 886: 3715: 3645: 2496: 2407: 362:

While the stories of the battlefield gained notoriety after the end of the war, the suffering of the occupied populations was often relegated to obscurity.

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was located in the zone, representing a major setback for the French industry. A number of important towns and cities were situated within it too, notably

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installing barbed wire, in violation of the Hague Conventions, which prohibited the employment of civilians for the war effort against their homeland.

2637: 1924: 339: 551: 2289: 717: 667: 85: 3314: 3023: 2925: 280:

The occupied zone was under military administration but some territories were assigned a particular status. The northern part of the valley of the

4205: 3897: 3735: 3722: 3679: 3588: 3116: 2683: 2330: 1993: 4079: 4089: 3947: 1717:

Connolly, James (2014). "Mauvaise Conduite: Complicity and Respectability in the Occupied Nord, 1914-1918". In De Schaepdrijver, Sophie (ed.).

907: 3861: 3795: 3632: 3511: 3184: 2203: 2059: 2028: 1894: 1875: 1852: 1814: 1795: 1510: 1278: 355:

in September 1914, the Germans gained control of a portion of French territory, which remained under German occupation behind the stabilized

4210: 4036: 3456: 2241: 1917: 3807: 2005: 54: 46: 4021: 2759: 2264: 389:

Interest in the German occupation was in practice limited to the inhabitants of the affected areas in the years following the conflict.

4006: 3296: 2698: 1726: 1688: 3391: 2444: 1985: 3881: 3575: 2663: 2134: 1833: 1772: 1707: 348: 72: 1018:

local narratives and studies were published, but subsequently these territories were neglected by the French historiography of the

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The publication of the prewar newspapers was also stopped, so the only periodicals available were the German propaganda newspaper

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was temporarily liberated in 1917 but the border area remained under German domination for four years: Lille for 1,465 days,

236:

These territories constituted 3.7% of the area and 8.2% of the population of France itself with about 2 million inhabitants.

323:

The majority of the population was made up of women, children and the elderly, with most of the men having been mobilized.

3965: 3907: 3902: 3866: 3800: 3692: 3538: 3121: 2511: 2439: 2370: 2139: 2109: 2104: 3131: 3856: 3483: 3423: 3320: 3225: 2988: 2774: 2478: 2317: 2216: 1981: 594: 3091: 17: 4094: 3531: 3516: 3374: 3326: 2642: 2516: 2429: 2193: 2181: 2176: 1989: 356: 3308: 2703: 1787: 869: 4074: 4031: 3066: 3051: 2953: 2822: 2390: 2302: 2259: 1956: 1033:

Those who were under occupation considered their experience too difficult to be understood by other French people.

785: 681: 4016: 3356: 2963: 2817: 1147:. Publications de la fondation Carnegie pour la paix internationale. Presses universitaires de France. p. 56. 304:, which had 319,000 inhabitants before the war, counted only 175,000 at the time of liberation. The population of 3784: 3368: 3111: 3096: 2708: 2402: 2380: 2129: 2119: 2052: 352: 3397: 3338: 3278: 4195: 3991: 3478: 3468: 3350: 3086: 3081: 3003: 2412: 2385: 2089: 173: 2807: 1036:

Those who lived through the occupations of the two world wars consider the first to be infinitely harder than

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French children being instructed by a German teacher during the World War I occupation, Champagne, March 1917.

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Meanwhile, the occupied zone included some of the most industrialized parts of France: 64 percent of France's

296:

was placed under German civil authority until December 1916, and was then subject to the military governor of

916:

deported, the first evacuations began in January 1915. The trip via Switzerland with re-entry into France at

4062: 4054: 3996: 3756: 3451: 3214: 3126: 3041: 3036: 3008: 2968: 2827: 2812: 2787: 2668: 2545: 1666: 648: 503: 3829: 3553: 3488: 3344: 3071: 2998: 2948: 2933: 2915: 2888: 2802: 2769: 2434: 2395: 2375: 2186: 2079: 833: 659:, a high school. During this period the Charité hospital remained the only civilian hospital in the city. 426: 187: 3362: 3819: 3473: 3138: 3101: 3031: 2978: 2900: 2868: 2842: 2792: 2723: 2625: 2578: 2424: 2362: 2231: 2114: 1067: 114: 2764: 546: 537:

The shortage of food began shortly after the arrival of the occupying army. Germany itself, due to the

837: 4169: 4084: 2738: 2713: 2688: 2045: 516: 343:

German troops wearing the Stahlhelm, advancing through a French town during World War I (c. 1916–18).

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Map of devastation of northeastern France. Zones totally destroyed: red. Significant damage: yellow.

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in 1914, fighting reached French soil early in the war. Though their advance was stopped at the

1077:

is set in German-occupied France where the protagonist works in the occupation administration.

995:

423 remained intact; 293,043 buildings were completely destroyed and 148,948 severely damaged.

4144: 4138: 4099: 4001: 3834: 3417: 3272: 3255: 3056: 2878: 2858: 2693: 2678: 2608: 2596: 2456: 2297: 2274: 2221: 1890: 1871: 1848: 1829: 1810: 1791: 1768: 1722: 1703: 1684: 1506: 1274: 1080: 377: 308:

fell from 217,000 inhabitants at the beginning of 1914 to 112,000 in October 1918 and that of

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France in an Era of Global War, 1914-1945: Occupation, Politics, Empire and Entanglements

647:

Most of the hospitals were requisitioned by the German army; in Lille, this included the

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Pabert - Journal d'un officier-brasseur dans la France occupée de la Grande Guerre

326: 266:. However, the Franco-Belgian border was maintained and the crossings controlled. 3616: 3521: 3219: 2647: 2068: 1945: 672: 446: 442: 134: 1045: 952: 743: 122: 489:

German military parade on the Place de la République in Lille, December 1914.

3411: 3178: 1022:. However, two accounts of this "forgotten" history were published in 2010, 1019: 917: 697: 418: 415: 313: 244: 3671: 1976: 1845:

La guerre des bouches (1914-1918). Ravitaillement et alimentation à Lille

466: 438: 301: 259: 240: 229: 90: 1269:

Committee for the economic and financial history of France, ed. (2016).

277:

for 1,502 days, and Roubaix from October 14, 1914, to October 17, 1918.

1847:(in French). Villeneuve d'Ascq: Presses universitaires du Septentrion. 769: 693: 689: 470: 458: 309: 270: 255: 118: 1083:

is a 2017 novel about a real allied spy ring of the same name, set in

688:

city of Lille to the occupier in 4 years, 12.9 million by the city of

258:

was also occupied, with the exception of the western part of maritime

520: 292:) was attached to the General Government of Belgium; the district of 102: 1044:

compared to what was suffered in other parts of France, both in the

911:

French citizens evacuating Bapaume, ca. 1917, in horse-drawn wagons.

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The territory occupied by Germany at the end of 1914 included 10

1037: 801: 297: 274: 2041: 1913: 1681:

The Long Silence: The Tragedy of Occupied France in World War I

721:

View of an artillery machine shop, Lille, France, 1917 or 1918.

671:

German troops photographed on a Sturmpanzerwagen (A7V tank) in

140:

This entailed various impositions on the population, including

27:

Occupation of French territory by Germany between 1914 and 1918

2037: 598:

French peasants and a German guard, northeastern France, 1915.

29: 89:

German soldiers resting during the occupation of the town of

160:

Scene in front of the cathedral of Laon, France, March 1917.

1887:

La grande guerre dans le Nord et le Pas-de-Calais 1914-1918

924:

was at different times made by train, car or cattle wagon.

800:

Monument to the teachers Debordeaux, Poulette and Leroy in

990:, France, showing the devastation of World War I fighting. 816:

Commemorative monument to the national defense in 1870 in

631:

the occupation more severely than the region as a whole.

890:

Families separated in Lille during the First World War.

401:

French citizens in Lille reading war reports, ca. 1917.

101:

German occupation of the city hall (hôtel de ville) of

18:

German occupation of northern France during World War I

1784:

Les cicatrices rouges 14-18 France et Belgique occupés

148:, and requisitions of property, services, and goods. 1102: 1100: 4124: 4045: 3984: 3946: 3890: 3879: 3783: 3755: 3703: 3625: 3599: 3551: 3504: 3444: 3437: 3265: 3147: 3022: 2924: 2851: 2752: 2656: 2618: 2553: 2544: 2487: 2361: 2350: 2316: 2288: 2250: 2202: 2155: 2148: 675:, France, 21 March 1918, during Operation Michael. 477:became increasingly common as the war dragged on. 254:The vast majority of the territory of neighboring 1749:International Encyclopedia of the First World War 1745:"Occupations during the War (France and Belgium)" 1501:Denisse, Albert; Le Cars, Franck (October 2020). 523:with some 15,000 soldiers for 6,600 inhabitants. 3014:Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers 364: 1719:Military Occupations in First World War Europe 2053: 1925: 330:Front in 1914. Click to see enlarged version. 8: 572:, until its distribution to the population. 3887: 3596: 3501: 3441: 2550: 2358: 2152: 2060: 2046: 2038: 1932: 1918: 1910: 1293:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1264: 1262: 502:The German occupation did not respect the 1488: 1464: 1368: 1271:Public finances in times of war 1914-1918 1193: 73:Learn how and when to remove this message 3303:Revolutions and interventions in Hungary 1440: 1416: 1205: 750:were likewise unbolted and melted down. 117:territory, mostly along the border with 3680:Occupied Enemy Territory Administration 1169: 1096: 752: 1428: 1404: 1392: 1344: 1332: 1286: 1253: 1241: 1217: 1145:Le ravitaillement de la France occupée 1106: 1006:in the north-east from November 1940. 111:German occupation of north-east France 3633:Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia 2969:Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) 2029:Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia 1765:The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers 1683:(2nd ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. 1621: 1609: 1597: 1585: 1573: 1561: 1549: 1537: 1525: 1476: 1452: 1380: 1356: 1320: 1308: 1229: 1181: 1157: 1130: 1118: 7: 4037:Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne 3966:Ottomans against the Triple Entente 2760:Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes 1040:, and in itself more trying in the 754:Bronze statues demounted and melted 623:half a gram of bread left to eat." 2699:First Battle of the Masurian Lakes 1143:Paul Collinet; Paul Stahl (1928). 359:for much of the rest of the war. 45:tone or style may not reflect the 25: 4201:France–Germany military relations 1273:(in French). Paris. p. 213. 3062:Second Battle of the Piave River 2684:Russian invasion of East Prussia 2004: 1905:Journal de la Guerre (1914-1918) 1826:Lille dans les serres allemandes 861: 845: 825: 809: 793: 784:Monument to the dead of 1870 in 777: 758: 533:Commission for Relief in Belgium 55:guide to writing better articles 34: 4133:Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo 3333:Lithuanian Wars of Independence 1662:Nord-Pas de Calais Mining Basin 168:in part or in full, includingː 4206:Military occupations of France 3956:Austria-Hungary against Serbia 3815:Deportations from East Prussia 3612:1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia 1702:. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 1505:(in French). Editeurs divers. 618:The occupation of the city of 566:American Ambassador to Belgium 312:from 122,723 to 77,824, while 113:refers to the period in which 1: 3867:Ukrainian Canadian internment 1889:(in French). Lille: La Voix. 903:Evacuations and repatriations 725:An administration called the 105:, France, during World War I. 4022:Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement 3321:Estonian War of Independence 2989:Southern Palestine offensive 1864:La France occupée. 1914-1918 744:works of art in public space 445:and 40 percent of the total 406:messages by carrier pigeon. 4211:German military occupations 3976:USA against Austria-Hungary 3375:Turkish War of Independence 3327:Latvian War of Independence 3052:Treaty of Bucharest of 1918 2643:Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo 766:L'Aveugle et le Paralytique 510:Omnipresence of the Germans 239:The current departments of 4227: 4059:Treaties of Brest-Litovsk 3607:1899–1923 cholera pandemic 3067:Second Battle of the Marne 2954:Second battle of the Aisne 2823:Second Battle of Champagne 2664:German invasion of Belgium 680:particular to the camp of 530: 421:reached their recipients. 349:German invasion of Belgium 347:Owing to the speed of the 4165: 3840:Assyrian genocide (Sayfo) 3369:Irish War of Independence 3112:Armistice of Villa Giusti 3097:Battle of Vittorio Veneto 2709:First Battle of the Marne 2075: 2013: 2002: 1952: 1843:Lembré, Stéphane (2016). 353:First Battle of the Marne 3992:Constantinople Agreement 3285:Armenian–Azerbaijani War 3148:Co-belligerent conflicts 3117:Second Romanian campaign 3087:Third Transjordan attack 2798:Gorlice–Tarnów offensive 2704:Battle of Grand Couronné 1862:Nivet, Philippe (2011). 1805:Buffetaud, Yves (2014). 1782:Becker, Annette (2010). 1743:Wegner, Larissa (2014). 696:, 25 million by that of 692:, 48 million by that of 4055:Modus vivendi of Acroma 4007:Bulgaria–Germany treaty 3315:Greater Poland Uprising 3215:National Protection War 3092:Meuse–Argonne offensive 3042:German spring offensive 3037:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 2813:Siege of Novogeorgievsk 2788:Second Battle of Artois 2669:Battle of the Frontiers 1885:Le Maner, Yves (2011). 1679:McPhail, Helen (2001). 1667:World War I reparations 1060:Much of the 1928 novel 963:La Gazette des Ardennes 427:La Gazette des Ardennes 376:, Paris: Fayard, 2010, 49:used on Knowledge (XXG) 4080:Paris Peace Conference 4068:Ukraine–Central Powers 3862:Massacres of Albanians 3830:Late Ottoman genocides 3637:Bulgarian occupations 3345:Third Anglo-Afghan War 3309:Hungarian–Romanian War 3127:Naval Victory Bulletin 3122:Armistice with Germany 3072:Hundred Days Offensive 2999:Battle of La Malmaison 2949:Second battle of Arras 2916:Battle of Transylvania 2770:Second Battle of Ypres 2638:Sarajevo assassination 2527:South African Republic 1940:Countries occupied by 1824:Deruyck, René (1992). 1763:Kennedy, Paul (1989). 1335:, pp. 24, 56, 57. 1026:by Philippe Nivet and 991: 957: 912: 891: 722: 676: 649:Saint-Sauveur hospital 599: 591: 499: 490: 402: 387: 344: 331: 161: 106: 94: 53:See Knowledge (XXG)'s 4191:France in World War I 4090:Treaty of St. Germain 4063:Russia–Central Powers 4017:Sykes–Picot Agreement 3845:Pontic Greek genocide 3820:Destruction of Kalisz 3796:Eastern Mediterranean 3357:Polish–Lithuanian War 3139:Armistice of Belgrade 3102:Armistice of Salonica 3032:Operation Faustschlag 2979:Third Battle of Oituz 2901:Baranovichi offensive 2869:Lake Naroch offensive 2843:Battle of Robat Karim 2818:Vistula–Bug offensive 2793:Battles of the Isonzo 2724:First Battle of Ypres 1721:. London: Routledge. 1540:, p. 133 to 141. 1028:Les Cicatrices Rouges 985: 955: 910: 889: 720: 670: 597: 589: 579:'s intervention with 496: 488: 400: 374:Les Cicatrices Rouges 342: 329: 159: 100: 88: 4085:Treaty of Versailles 3801:Mount Lebanon famine 3716:in the United States 3684:Russian occupations 3398:Turkish–Armenian War 3339:Polish–Ukrainian War 3279:Ukrainian–Soviet War 3226:Central Asian Revolt 3009:Armistice of Focșani 2739:Battle of Sarikamish 2689:Battle of Tannenberg 2085:Military engagements 1866:(in French). Paris: 1786:(in French). Paris: 1323:, pp. 158, 159. 1133:, pp. 311, 312. 834:François André-Bonte 786:Charleville-Mézières 545:The Mayor of Lille, 517:German General Staff 447:coal mining capacity 441:, 24 percent of its 4152:They shall not pass 4075:Treaty of Bucharest 4032:Treaty of Bucharest 3971:USA against Germany 3948:Declarations of war 3652:German occupations 3565:British casualties 3424:Soviet–Georgian War 3351:Egyptian Revolution 3291:Armeno-Georgian War 3155:Somaliland campaign 3107:Armistice of Mudros 2984:Battle of Caporetto 2974:Battle of Mărășești 2944:Zimmermann telegram 2939:February Revolution 2884:Battle of the Somme 2808:Bug-Narew Offensive 2783:Battle of Gallipoli 2775:Sinking of the RMS 2567:Scramble for Africa 2561:Franco-Prussian War 2217:Sinai and Palestine 1828:. La Voix du Nord. 1635:"The Alice Network" 1588:, pp. 365–368. 1564:, pp. 293–298. 1552:, pp. 210–248. 1383:, pp. 164–168. 1030:by Annette Becker. 605:Chamber of Commerce 443:steel manufacturing 439:pig-iron production 410:French population. 127:military occupation 4112:Treaty of Lausanne 4027:Paris Economy Pact 3961:UK against Germany 3891:Entry into the war 3857:Urkun (Kyrgyzstan) 3576:Ottoman casualties 3386:Franco-Turkish War 3266:Post-War conflicts 3250:Russian Revolution 3232:Invasion of Darfur 3197:Kelantan rebellion 3185:Kurdish rebellions 3161:Mexican Revolution 2994:October Revolution 2959:Kerensky offensive 2934:Capture of Baghdad 2911:Monastir offensive 2896:Brusilov offensive 2734:Battle of Kolubara 2573:Russo-Japanese War 1479:, pp. 96–107. 1160:, pp. 15, 24. 1068:Hans Herbert Grimm 1056:In popular culture 992: 958: 935:Acts of resistance 913: 892: 723: 713:Industrial plunder 677: 600: 592: 581:President Poincaré 500: 491: 403: 393:Isolated territory 345: 332: 216:Meurthe-et-Moselle 162: 152:Territory occupied 107: 95: 4178: 4177: 4161: 4160: 4145:The Golden Virgin 4139:Mutilated victory 4120: 4119: 4100:Treaty of Trianon 4095:Treaty of Neuilly 4002:Damascus Protocol 3875: 3874: 3835:Armenian genocide 3792:Allied blockades 3764:Belgian refugees 3547: 3546: 3457:Strategic bombing 3433: 3432: 3418:Franco-Syrian War 3392:Greco-Turkish War 3380:Anglo-Turkish War 3363:Polish–Soviet War 3297:German Revolution 3273:Russian Civil War 3256:Finnish Civil War 3082:Battle of Megiddo 3057:Battle of Goychay 3004:Battle of Cambrai 2964:Battle of Mărăști 2879:Battle of Jutland 2859:Erzurum offensive 2714:Siege of Przemyśl 2694:Siege of Tsingtao 2679:Battle of Galicia 2609:Second Balkan War 2597:Italo-Turkish War 2554:Pre-War conflicts 2540: 2539: 2430:Portuguese Empire 2346: 2345: 2308:German New Guinea 2290:Asian and Pacific 2035: 2034: 1896:978-2-84393-181-9 1877:978-2-200-35094-9 1854:978-2-7574-1280-0 1816:978-2-84673-193-5 1809:. Ysec éditions. 1807:Le Nord en guerre 1797:978-2-213-65551-2 1767:. Vintage Books. 1528:, pp. 85–96. 1512:979-10-699-5337-6 1455:, pp. 15–24. 1280:978-2-11-129404-2 1184:, pp. 33–36. 1172:, pp. 265–6. 1081:The Alice Network 1024:La France Occupée 986:Postcard view of 731:Journal de Pabert 547:Charles Delesalle 481:Living conditions 432:Bulletin de Lille 382:978 2 213 65551 2 284:River (including 83: 82: 75: 47:encyclopedic tone 16:(Redirected from 4218: 4105:Treaty of Sèvres 3997:Treaty of London 3888: 3666:Northeast France 3597: 3569:Parliamentarians 3502: 3464:Chemical weapons 3442: 3203:Senussi campaign 3173:Muscat rebellion 3167:Maritz rebellion 3135: 3077:Vardar offensive 2906:Battle of Romani 2874:Battle of Asiago 2864:Battle of Verdun 2828:Kosovo offensive 2603:First Balkan War 2551: 2450:Russian Republic 2359: 2153: 2095:Economic history 2062: 2055: 2048: 2039: 2008: 1934: 1927: 1920: 1911: 1900: 1881: 1858: 1839: 1820: 1801: 1778: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1732: 1713: 1694: 1649: 1648: 1646: 1645: 1631: 1625: 1619: 1613: 1607: 1601: 1595: 1589: 1583: 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Uprising 3143: 3129: 3018: 2920: 2847: 2765:Battle of Łomża 2748: 2744:Christmas truce 2719:Race to the Sea 2652: 2614: 2536: 2507:Austria-Hungary 2483: 2418:Empire of Japan 2355: 2353: 2342: 2326:U-boat campaign 2312: 2284: 2246: 2198: 2144: 2125:Popular culture 2071: 2066: 2036: 2031: 2009: 2000: 1967:Northern France 1948: 1938: 1897: 1884: 1878: 1861: 1855: 1842: 1836: 1823: 1817: 1804: 1798: 1781: 1775: 1762: 1753: 1751: 1742: 1739: 1729: 1716: 1710: 1697: 1691: 1678: 1675: 1673:Further reading 1658: 1653: 1652: 1643: 1641: 1633: 1632: 1628: 1620: 1616: 1608: 1604: 1596: 1592: 1584: 1580: 1572: 1568: 1560: 1556: 1548: 1544: 1536: 1532: 1524: 1520: 1513: 1500: 1499: 1495: 1487: 1483: 1475: 1471: 1463: 1459: 1451: 1447: 1439: 1435: 1427: 1423: 1415: 1411: 1403: 1399: 1391: 1387: 1379: 1375: 1367: 1363: 1355: 1351: 1343: 1339: 1331: 1327: 1319: 1315: 1307: 1303: 1285: 1281: 1268: 1267: 1260: 1252: 1248: 1240: 1236: 1228: 1224: 1216: 1212: 1204: 1200: 1192: 1188: 1180: 1176: 1168: 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1902: 1898: 1892: 1888: 1883: 1879: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1837: 1835:2-208-26023-6 1831: 1827: 1822: 1818: 1812: 1808: 1803: 1799: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1776: 1774:0-679-72019-7 1770: 1766: 1761: 1750: 1746: 1741: 1740: 1736: 1730: 1724: 1720: 1715: 1711: 1709:9781137443489 1705: 1701: 1696: 1692: 1686: 1682: 1677: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1655: 1640: 1636: 1630: 1627: 1623: 1618: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1591: 1587: 1582: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1555: 1551: 1546: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1519: 1514: 1508: 1504: 1497: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1470: 1466: 1461: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1446: 1443:, p. 50. 1442: 1441:Le Maner 2011 1437: 1434: 1431:, p. 39. 1430: 1425: 1422: 1418: 1417:Le Maner 2011 1413: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1398: 1394: 1389: 1386: 1382: 1377: 1374: 1370: 1365: 1362: 1358: 1353: 1350: 1347:, p. 91. 1346: 1341: 1338: 1334: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1314: 1310: 1305: 1302: 1296: 1290: 1282: 1276: 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172:70% of the 135:World War I 4185:Categories 3985:Agreements 3785:War crimes 3661:Luxembourg 3554:Casualties 2425:Montenegro 2260:South West 2140:Technology 2130:Propaganda 2120:Opposition 1972:Luxembourg 1644:2024-02-10 1622:Nivet 2011 1610:Nivet 2011 1598:Nivet 2011 1586:Nivet 2011 1574:Nivet 2011 1562:Nivet 2011 1550:Nivet 2011 1538:Nivet 2011 1526:Nivet 2011 1477:Nivet 2011 1453:Nivet 2011 1381:Nivet 2011 1357:Nivet 2011 1321:Nivet 2011 1309:Nivet 2011 1230:Nivet 2011 1182:Nivet 2011 1158:Nivet 2011 1131:Nivet 2011 1119:Nivet 2011 868:Statue of 852:Statue of 832:Statue of 682:Holzminden 655:, and the 575:Following 123:Luxembourg 3882:Diplomacy 3589:Olympians 3512:Australia 3479:Logistics 3412:Vlora War 3341:(1918–19) 3317:(1918–19) 3311:(1918–19) 3299:(1918–19) 3246:(1916–17) 3228:(1916–17) 3179:Zaian War 3169:(1914–15) 2889:first day 2777:Lusitania 2605:(1912–13) 2599:(1911–12) 2587:(1908–09) 2581:(1905–06) 2563:(1870–71) 2352:Principal 2212:Gallipoli 2115:Memorials 2100:Geography 2090:Aftermath 2016:See also: 1990:Lithuania 1754:6 October 1639:Goodreads 1289:cite book 1020:Great War 978:Aftermath 918:Annemasse 856:in Lille. 840:in Lille. 698:Tourcoing 419:Red Cross 416:Frankfurt 314:Tourcoing 262:, around 245:Haut-Rhin 4170:Category 3757:Refugees 3723:Italians 3712:Germans 3672:Ober Ost 3452:Aviation 2546:Timeline 2517:Bulgaria 2298:Tsingtao 2275:Togoland 2222:Caucasus 2157:European 2149:Theatres 1994:Courland 1957:Moresnet 1656:See also 988:Marville 942:Patience 746:made of 467:Maubeuge 430:and the 370:— 302:Ardennes 269:Part of 260:Flanders 241:Bas-Rhin 230:Ardennes 228:100% of 221:4.8% of 91:Hautmont 3908:Germany 3808:Germany 3736:Germany 3656:Belgium 3641:Albania 3600:Disease 3580:Sports 3532:Ireland 3445:Warfare 3438:Aspects 2626:Origins 2619:Prelude 2522:Senussi 2502:Germany 2497:Leaders 2435:Romania 2376:Belgium 2371:Leaders 2270:Kamerun 2252:African 2187:Romania 2165:Balkans 2080:Outline 1962:Belgium 1944:during 1942:Germany 1063:Schlump 1014:In the 870:Brennus 836:on the 770:Cambrai 694:Roubaix 690:Cambrai 471:Avesnes 459:Cambrai 384:, p. 10 335:History 310:Roubaix 271:Picardy 256:Belgium 249:Moselle 214:25% of 207:30% of 200:12% of 179:25% of 133:during 129:by the 119:Belgium 3928:Russia 3903:France 3731:Canada 3646:Serbia 3517:Canada 3474:Horses 3426:(1921) 3420:(1920) 3414:(1920) 3408:(1920) 3400:(1920) 3353:(1919) 3347:(1919) 3293:(1918) 3258:(1918) 3252:(1917) 3240:(1916) 3234:(1916) 3199:(1915) 2611:(1913) 2593:(1911) 2575:(1905) 2532:Darfur 2457:Serbia 2440:Russia 2403:Greece 2391:France 2381:Brazil 2227:Persia 2170:Serbia 1986:Poland 1982:Warsaw 1893: 1874: 1851: 1832: 1813: 1794: 1788:Fayard 1771: 1725: 1706: 1687: 1509: 1277: 1010:Legacy 748:bronze 663:Abuses 651:, the 521:Carvin 498:watch. 380: 247:, and 223:Vosges 115:French 103:Caudry 4125:Other 3918:Japan 3913:Italy 3740:camps 3584:Rugby 3134:] 2413:Japan 2408:Italy 2386:China 2280:North 1091:Notes 1085:Lille 1075:] 922:Évian 818:Lille 620:Sedan 554:] 455:Douai 451:Lille 306:Lille 294:Briey 290:Fumay 286:Givet 282:Meuse 264:Ypres 209:Meuse 202:Marne 195:Aisne 188:Somme 3705:POWs 3024:1918 2926:1917 2852:1916 2753:1915 2657:1914 2462:Siam 2265:East 1891:ISBN 1872:ISBN 1849:ISBN 1830:ISBN 1811:ISBN 1792:ISBN 1769:ISBN 1756:2015 1723:ISBN 1704:ISBN 1685:ISBN 1507:ISBN 1295:link 1275:ISBN 1048:and 1046:free 802:Laon 673:Roye 469:and 378:ISBN 298:Metz 288:and 275:Laon 174:Nord 121:and 109:The 1066:by 920:or 872:in 768:in 4187:: 3132:It 2027:• 2021:• 1992:• 1988:• 1984:• 1870:. 1790:. 1747:. 1637:. 1299:. 1291:}} 1287:{{ 1261:^ 1099:^ 1087:. 1073:de 1052:. 733:. 568:, 552:fr 465:, 461:, 457:, 453:, 243:, 144:, 137:. 3556:/ 2061:e 2054:t 2047:v 1933:e 1926:t 1919:v 1899:. 1880:. 1857:. 1838:. 1819:. 1800:. 1777:. 1758:. 1731:. 1712:. 1693:. 1647:. 1515:. 1297:) 1283:. 1109:. 876:. 820:. 804:. 788:. 772:. 232:. 225:; 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Index