78:
603:
44:
645:
511:. Although the French military agreed to withdraw from Algeria within 12 months, Chapter III of the Ăvian Accords granted France "the use of a number of military airfields, the terrains, sites and installations necessary to her." It was because of this stipulation that France was able to continue nuclear testing in Algeria until 1966. With the underground tests the sequence designation was changed to jewel names, starting in November 1961 with
2146:
51:
473:(which yielded <1 kiloton), soldiers were sent within a 1 km radius of the explosion site, where they practiced combat exercises and drove tanks around the area. In total, these subjects were exposed to high levels of radiation for three hours. Following the exercises, the soldiers state that they were given showers as the only means of decontamination.
2157:
356:
while jets flew overhead to take samples of radioactive particles. No journalists were allowed on site; instead, an eyewitness account was given to the French press, saying "the desert was lit up by a vast flash, followed 45 seconds later by an appreciable shock-wave"; an "enormous ball of bluish fire with an orange-red centre" gave way to the typical
636:, which lays claim to the portion of the Sahara where the bomb was detonated, withdrew its ambassador from Paris just two days after the event. Other African nations expressed their disappointment with France's decision to test nuclear weapons in the Sahara, citing fears of radioactive fallout and the safety of their citizens.
468:
had maintained that the radioactive effects on humans present at the site would be "weak", and "well below annual doses." However, persons present at the site have since stated that protection gear was extremely minimal at the time of testing. In addition, ex-military officers have come forward with
437:"Progress in nuclear science and technology in France and Israel remained closely linked throughout the early fifties." Furthermore, according to Farr, "There were several Israeli observers at the French nuclear tests and the Israelis had 'unrestricted access to French nuclear test explosion data.'"
355:
On 13 February 1960 at 7:04:00 UTC, the plutonium filled bomb was detonated atop a steel tower with a height of 100 metres. The command post was located 16 kilometres away from the blast. In order to study the immediate effects, military equipment was placed at varying distances from the epicenter,
742:
surface levels of the four tests of the series, with a residual surface activity between 0.02 and 2.0 MBq/m over a surface area of about 1 km. The same report showed that the fallout of the bomb were contained in a circular area of less than 1 km in diameter. It also stated that these
535:
since late 1958 with the United States and the United
Kingdom. The USSR conducted many improvement tests, starting in September 1961 with a series of 136 large H-bombs. The series included the most powerful bomb ever tested, the 50-megaton (50,000 kt)
491:
in
February 1960, France conducted until April 1961 three additional atmospheric tests in Reggane facility's Saharan Military Experiments Centre. They were only "emergency devices", with yields deliberately reduced to less than 5 kilotons.
1266:
1200:
414:
was a total success, yielding the full designed power. However, because of the bomb's irregularly high yield, some experts believe that the bomb may have been "overfilled with plutonium to assure success".
551:, the United States reactivated its own atmospheric test program with a series of 40 explosions from April 1962 to November 1962. This series included two powerful H-bombs topping 7.45 Mt and 8.3 Mt.
1162:
754:
2193:
268:. It was conducted by the Nuclear Experiments Operational Group (GOEN), a unit of the Joint Special Weapons Command on 13 February 1960, at the Saharan Military Experiments Centre near
703:, as it was feared that the nuclear bomb could fall in the hands of seditious elements. As a result, the bomb yielded less than 1 kiloton, 10 times less than the intended output.
1888:
1567:
1263:
1197:
2976:
2186:
1143:, The Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series, vol. 2, USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base
1170:
761:
blown northwards by strong seasonal winds to France in early 2021 carried measurable levels of radioactive caesium-137 attributable to the
Gerboise tests.
2956:
1634:
632:
were frozen, "until such time as the effects of the present explosion and the future experiments referred to by the French Prime
Minister become known."
2119:
400:
1413:
2179:
2996:
1580:
793:
482:
1898:
746:
In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims who had been exposed to nuclear radiation as a result of the testing in
Algeria and
43:
2202:
1490:
449:/h at 0.8 km from ground zero one hour after the blast, 10 rad/h at 28.5 km and 3 rad/h at 570 km. Monitoring at Fort Lamy (now
120:
2253:
2005:
1905:
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979:
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916:
859:
500:
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427:
2210:
1993:
1957:
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92:
1036:"Nuclear Device exploded in the Sahara. - Afro-Asian Reactions. - Ghana freezes French Assets.- Moroccan Ambassador withdrawn from Paris"
2032:
1727:
798:
1940:
2037:
731:
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1988:
1978:
1766:
1701:
2700:
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469:
stories of being used as test subjects to study the effects of nuclear radiation on humans. Immediately following the explosion of
2103:
1590:
434:
2228:
1983:
1808:
218:
1739:
743:
levels were not enough to warrant intervention and did not pose a threat to visitors of the area or inhabitants of
Reggane.
2098:
2000:
1629:
2922:
1650:
113:
2928:
1457:
1354:
Radiological
Conditions at the Former French Nuclear Test Sites in Algeria: Preliminary Assessment and Recommendations
1327:
Radiological
Conditions at the Former French Nuclear Test Sites in Algeria: Preliminary Assessment and Recommendations
1722:
1463:
730:
In 2005, the
Algerian government asked for a study to assess the radioactivity of former nuclear testing sites. The
2044:
1530:
1525:
1483:
808:
803:
265:
1451:
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2793:
2129:
1923:
1813:
685:
was followed by a joint exercise, in which infantry, helicopters and armour reconnoitered the contaminated area.
349:
2934:
1866:
750:. The government also agreed to release additional documents which detailed how the tests had been carried out.
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779:
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345:
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1928:
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20:
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289:
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1325:
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392:
1756:
1360:(Technical report). Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency. 1 March 2005. p. 10
1235:
985:
624:
However, the nation faced many international critics following the nuclear test, especially from
555:
395:" (25 kt). The yield was 70 kilotons, bigger than these three bombs put together; In comparison,
1604:
1380:
1333:(Technical report). Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency. 1 March 2005. p. 9
1163:"Essais nucléaires : Gerboise verte, la bombe et le scoop qui font plouf... (actualisé-3)"
2269:
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was intended to yield between 6 and 18 kilotonnes, but effectively yielded less than 1. Like
614:
s success was generally met with satisfaction and national pride. President De Gaulle stated:
2171:
1893:
1846:
1839:
967:
747:
644:
591:
580:
508:
1464:
Podcast BBC Witness
History: Franceâs nuclear tests in Algeria (9 minutes, 19 January 2023)
1198:
Essais nucléaires : Gerboise verte, la bombe et le scoop qui font plouf... (actualisé)
1008:
1745:
1597:
1270:
1204:
787:
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from 1966 to 1996. The last bomb, Xouthos (<120 kt), was detonated on 27 January 1996.
240:
531:
A-bomb, the Soviet Union responded by breaking its atmospheric tests moratorium, settled
2242:
2235:
1935:
1559:
1542:
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368:
1952:
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720:
504:
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384:
372:
285:
1623:
1312:"France-Algeria relations: The lingering fallout from nuclear tests in the Sahara"
1138:
450:
383:
was by far the largest first test bomb up to that date, larger than the American "
1311:
2054:
1610:
1585:
1414:"Irony as Saharan dust returns radiation from French nuclear tests in the 1960s"
1253:
Hourra pour la France ! Depuis ce matin, elle est plus forte et plus fiĂšre.
1114:
The nuclear express : a political history of the bomb and its proliferation
1100:
879:
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407:
320:
1071:
971:
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537:
446:
281:
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135:
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699:. The test had been patched up hastily and fired prematurely because of the
406:
As the atomic yield of a new bomb design cannot be precisely predicted, the
1468:
854:. Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army War College Press. p. 31.
418:
Only two other A-bombs tested in the Sahara facilities were more powerful:
379:. Prior to this test, there had been no nuclear detonations for 15 months.
695:, it was followed by a joint exercise in the contaminated area, codenamed
1670:
261:
1239:
606:
Students from Mali protesting in Leipzig against the French nuclear test
1013:(Technical report). Natural Defense Resources Council. 1989. p. 25
827:
Physician Pierre Billaud reported a yield of 60 kt. See External links.
712:
633:
426:(<150 kt, 25 February 1965). Both were detonated underground at the
396:
269:
102:
1226:"Algeria: France-Algeria independence agreements (Evian agreements)".
554:
China also launched its own nuclear program, resulting in the A-bomb "
1441:
1264:
Il y a cinquante ans, la France réalisait son premier essai nucléaire
625:
312:
308:
277:
191:
82:
77:
1047:
619:
Hurray for France! Since this morning, she is stronger and prouder.
2124:
1079:(Technical report). Government of the French Republic. p. 118
908:
Historical Dictionary of Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Warfare
724:
643:
629:
601:
433:
According to Lieutenant Colonel Warner D. Farr in a report to the
388:
880:"French Senate report #179: The first French tests in the Sahara"
548:
464:
tests remained heavily classified by the French government. The
2175:
1472:
340:
ordered a nuclear test in the first quarter of 1960. President
292:
was instrumental in the endeavour, and earned the nickname of
711:
After the tests, nuclear fallout was detected as far away as
966:, Princeton University Press, pp. 127â175, 2020-12-31,
1140:
The Third Temple's holy of holies: Israel's nuclear weapons
503:
region, which housed an underground facility. In 1962, the
499:
the French moved their nuclear testing to the mountainous
851:
Nuclear Weapons Security Crises: What Does History Teach?
319:) adjuncted is said to come from the first colour of the
517:(<20 kt). On 1 May 1962, during the second test, the
1442:
Report of Pierre Billaud, physician present at the test
1193:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1073:
Rapport sur les essais nucléaires français (1960-1996)
1889:
1961 French referendum on Algerian self-determination
50:
558:" (22 kt) tested on 16 October 1964, and the H-bomb
367:, France became the fourth nuclear power, after the
2915:
2699:
2518:
2356:
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2209:
2112:
2063:
2025:
2018:
1966:
1914:
1881:
1832:
1797:
1721:
1714:
1663:
1558:
1514:
1507:
524:occurred, which was declassified many years later.
445:Initial monitoring reported a radiation dose of 10
209:
197:
187:
179:
169:
151:
112:
98:
88:
71:
66:
30:
1452:Les premiers essais français au Sahara (1960â1966)
878:Senate of the French Republic (15 December 1997).
453:), around 2,400 km from Reggane, reported 10
628:. Just days after the test, all French assets in
960:"The Sprinters: Soviet Union, France, and China"
1458:The failed atomic destiny of the French Algeria
616:
586:All other French atomic-bomb tests, including
2187:
1484:
8:
1096:
1094:
848:Sokolski, Henry D.; Tertrais, Bruno (2013).
16:1960 weapons test in Reggane, French Algeria
410:planned an explosion between 60 and 70 kt.
245:
2194:
2180:
2172:
2022:
1963:
1718:
1555:
1511:
1491:
1477:
1469:
403:, was 22 kilotons, one-third as powerful.
2203:Nuclear weapons tests conducted by France
2120:Defectors from the French army to the ALN
1046:(2): 17279. February 1960. Archived from
911:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 124.
336:On April 11, 1958, French Prime Minister
873:
871:
1293:Sahara: les cobayes de «Gerboise verte»
840:
820:
794:List of nuclear weapons tests of France
495:Shortly after the final Gerboise bomb (
483:List of nuclear weapons tests of France
1161:Merchet, Jean-Dominique (2010-02-16).
1112:Reed, Thomas; Stillman, Danny (2009).
738:explosion site had the second highest
27:
2006:Memorial to the Liberation of Algeria
734:published the report suggesting that
315:found in the Sahara. The color blue (
239:
7:
2156:
1381:"France to Pay Nuclear Test Victims"
1030:
1028:
565:In 1968, France detonated its first
2923:Saharan Military Experiments Centre
1066:
1064:
799:List of states with nuclear weapons
422:(<100 kt, 20 October 1963), and
19:For the 2009 documentary film, see
1301:, Vincent Jauvert, 5 February 1998
732:International Atomic Energy Agency
460:For decades, documentation of the
344:reaffirmed the decision after the
14:
2977:AlgeriaâFrance military relations
2957:French nuclear testing in Algeria
2929:Oasis Military Experiments Centre
1702:Massacre of 14 July 1953 in Paris
1137:Farr, Warner D (September 1999),
1010:French Nuclear Testing, 1960-1988
783:(French first atmospheric H-bomb)
775:(French first underground A-bomb)
575:(2.6 Mt), at the new facility at
2155:
2145:
2144:
1040:Keesing's Record of World Events
648:Synthesis of the aerial tests ()
435:USAF Counterproliferation Center
76:
49:
42:
562:(3.3 Mt), tested 17 June 1967.
2997:February 1960 events in Africa
1740:Declaration of 1 November 1954
932:Kutchesfahani, Sara Z (2018).
507:ended with the signing of the
1:
1862:Proposed partition of Algeria
1447:French Assembly report n°3571
1228:International Legal Materials
1116:. Zenith Press. p. 111.
905:Garrett, Benjamin C. (2017).
1953:Effects in Algerian politics
1234:(2): 214â230. October 1962.
753:According to the French NGO
540:", which was detonated over
466:Ministry of the Armed Forces
1568:Algerian popular resistance
1379:Cowell, Alan (2009-03-24).
527:Five months after the last
391:" (22 kt), or the British "
3018:
2935:Pacific Experiments Centre
2104:Organisation armée secrÚte
2045:Algerian National Movement
1767:Hijacking of the FLN plane
1526:French conquest of Algeria
1314:. BBC News. 26 April 2021.
809:History of nuclear weapons
804:Nuclear weapons and France
678:("green jerboa"): <1 kt
664:("white jerboa"): <5 kt
480:
296:("father of the A-bomb").
18:
2142:
2033:National Liberation Front
1975:1 November 1954 Stadiums
1814:Killing of Saadia Mebarek
1651:SĂ©tif and Guelma massacre
972:10.1515/9780691223063-006
214:
58:Location of the test site
37:
2987:1960 in military history
2972:1960 in the Algerian War
2050:Algerian Communist Party
2038:National Liberation Army
1819:Charonne subway massacre
1676:Decolonisation of Africa
671:("red jerboa"): <5 kt
2099:Front Algérie Française
1752:Battle of Philippeville
610:In France, the news of
598:International reactions
387:" (20 kt), the Soviet "
307:is the French word for
1684:Brazzaville Conference
1275:Jean-Dominique Merchet
1209:Jean-Dominique Merchet
657:("blue jerboa"): 70 kt
649:
622:
607:
590:, were carried out in
346:French Fourth Republic
157:; 64 years ago
1929:French Fifth Republic
1906:Algerian independence
1298:Le Nouvel Observateur
647:
605:
280:desert region of the
155:13 February 1960
21:Gerboise bleue (film)
1946:1962 Algerian crisis
1941:Aftermath in Algeria
1857:Manifesto of the 121
1841:Communauté française
1573:Algerian nationalism
1101:French Senate report
935:Global Nuclear Order
579:, a desert atoll in
567:thermonuclear weapon
290:Pierre Marie Gallois
241:[ÊÉÊbwazblĂž]
136:26.31167°N 0.05722°W
2082:Commandos de Chasse
2076:French Armed Forces
1690:First Indochina War
1531:Invasion of Algiers
266:French nuclear test
132: /
1777:Week of barricades
1757:Soummam conference
1577:Attempted reforms
1412:Cereceda, Rafael.
1385:The New York Times
1283:, 13 February 2010
1269:2010-02-16 at the
1203:2014-11-29 at the
667:27 December 1960:
653:13 February 1960:
650:
608:
294:pĂšre de la bombe A
141:26.31167; -0.05722
2944:
2943:
2169:
2168:
2138:
2137:
2064:Anti-independence
2014:
2013:
2001:Martyrs' Memorial
1877:
1876:
1852:FLN football team
1772:Operation Corsica
1762:Battle of Algiers
1710:
1709:
1696:Malagasy Uprising
1659:
1658:
1123:978-0-7603-3502-4
981:978-0-691-22306-3
945:978-1-3519-9962-5
918:978-1-5381-0684-6
861:978-1-5848-7574-1
348:collapsed in the
342:Charles de Gaulle
228:
227:
3009:
2992:1960 in politics
2229:Gerboise Blanche
2196:
2189:
2182:
2173:
2159:
2158:
2148:
2147:
2026:Pro-independence
2023:
1964:
1870:
1847:Constantine Plan
1785:
1731:
1719:
1638:
1556:
1512:
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1255:
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1181:
1179:
1178:
1169:. Archived from
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1134:
1128:
1127:
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1103:
1098:
1089:
1088:
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1056:
1055:
1032:
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1005:
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998:
997:
996:
964:Seeking the Bomb
956:
950:
949:
929:
923:
922:
902:
896:
895:
893:
891:
875:
866:
865:
845:
828:
825:
748:French Polynesia
662:Gerboise Blanche
592:French Polynesia
581:French Polynesia
497:Gerboise Verte),
477:Subsequent tests
259:
256:
253:
250:
247:
243:
238:
219:Gerboise Blanche
165:
163:
158:
147:
146:
144:
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137:
133:
130:
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128:
125:
81:
80:
53:
52:
46:
28:
3017:
3016:
3012:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3007:
3006:
2982:1960 in science
2967:1960 in Algeria
2947:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2911:
2695:
2514:
2352:
2254:In Ekker series
2248:
2205:
2200:
2170:
2165:
2134:
2108:
2059:
2010:
1968:
1962:
1924:May 1958 crisis
1916:
1910:
1873:
1864:
1828:
1801:
1799:
1793:
1779:
1746:Toussaint Rouge
1732:
1725:
1706:
1680:
1655:
1632:
1605:Crémieux Decree
1598:Divide and rule
1554:
1517:
1503:
1497:
1438:
1433:
1432:
1422:
1420:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1397:
1395:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1291:
1287:
1271:Wayback Machine
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1258:
1251:
1247:
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1224:
1220:
1205:Wayback Machine
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832:
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788:Force de Frappe
767:
709:
674:25 April 1961:
642:
600:
485:
479:
443:
350:May 1958 crisis
334:
329:
302:
257:
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236:
224:
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210:Test chronology
161:
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75:
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60:
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24:
17:
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5:
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3002:Adrar Province
2999:
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2962:1960 in France
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2932:
2926:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2902:
2895:
2888:
2881:
2874:
2867:
2860:
2853:
2846:
2839:
2832:
2825:
2818:
2811:
2804:
2797:
2790:
2783:
2776:
2769:
2762:
2755:
2748:
2741:
2734:
2727:
2720:
2713:
2705:
2703:
2701:1975â78 series
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2651:
2644:
2637:
2630:
2623:
2616:
2609:
2602:
2595:
2588:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2560:
2553:
2546:
2539:
2532:
2524:
2522:
2520:1971â74 series
2516:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2505:
2498:
2491:
2484:
2477:
2470:
2463:
2456:
2449:
2440:
2433:
2426:
2419:
2412:
2405:
2398:
2391:
2384:
2377:
2370:
2362:
2360:
2358:1966â70 series
2354:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2343:
2336:
2329:
2322:
2315:
2308:
2301:
2294:
2287:
2280:
2273:
2266:
2258:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2243:Gerboise Verte
2239:
2236:Gerboise Rouge
2232:
2225:
2221:Gerboise Bleue
2215:
2213:
2211:Reggane series
2207:
2206:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2191:
2184:
2176:
2167:
2166:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2116:
2114:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2029:
2027:
2020:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1997:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1972:
1970:
1969:commemorations
1961:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1938:
1936:Year of Africa
1933:
1932:
1931:
1920:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1908:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1891:
1885:
1883:
1882:End of the war
1879:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1826:
1824:Paris massacre
1821:
1816:
1811:
1805:
1803:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1791:
1789:Algiers putsch
1786:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1742:
1736:
1734:
1716:
1712:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1704:
1699:
1693:
1687:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1657:
1656:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1620:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1608:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1591:1943 manifesto
1588:
1583:
1575:
1570:
1564:
1562:
1560:French Algeria
1553:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1543:Mokrani Revolt
1540:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1522:
1520:
1509:
1505:
1504:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1488:
1481:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1444:
1437:
1436:External links
1434:
1431:
1430:
1404:
1371:
1344:
1317:
1303:
1285:
1256:
1245:
1218:
1183:
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897:
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818:
816:
813:
812:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
784:
776:
766:
763:
736:Gerboise Bleue
708:
705:
701:Algiers putsch
693:Gerboise Rouge
689:Gerboise Verte
683:Gerboise Rouge
680:
679:
676:Gerboise Verte
672:
669:Gerboise Rouge
665:
660:1 April 1960:
658:
655:Gerboise Bleue
641:
638:
612:Gerboise Bleue
599:
596:
547:Following the
489:Gerboise Bleue
481:Main article:
478:
475:
471:Gerboise Verte
442:
439:
412:Gerboise Bleue
381:Gerboise Bleue
377:United Kingdom
365:Gerboise Bleue
358:mushroom cloud
338:FĂ©lix Gaillard
333:
330:
328:
325:
301:
298:
274:French Algeria
232:Gerboise Bleue
226:
225:
216:
215:
212:
211:
207:
206:
199:
195:
194:
189:
185:
184:
181:
177:
176:
171:
167:
166:
153:
149:
148:
116:
110:
109:
107:French Algeria
100:
96:
95:
93:Reggane series
90:
86:
85:
73:
69:
68:
64:
63:
57:
48:
47:
41:
40:
39:
38:
35:
34:
32:Gerboise Bleue
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3014:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
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2958:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2936:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2916:Testing areas
2914:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2894:
2893:
2889:
2887:
2886:
2882:
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2721:
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2712:
2711:
2707:
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2702:
2698:
2692:
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2680:
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2673:
2671:
2670:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2652:
2650:
2649:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2615:
2614:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2545:
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2538:
2537:
2533:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2485:
2483:
2482:
2478:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2450:
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2447:
2446:
2441:
2439:
2438:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2425:
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2413:
2411:
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2406:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2397:
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2389:
2385:
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2382:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2371:
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2364:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2231:
2230:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2197:
2192:
2190:
2185:
2183:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2164:
2163:
2154: /
2153:
2152:
2141:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2111:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2091:La Main Rouge
2088:
2084:
2083:
2079:
2078:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2017:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1967:Monuments and
1965:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1894:Ăvian Accords
1892:
1890:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1868:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1796:
1790:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1733:of key events
1729:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1664:Other factors
1662:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1636:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1581:1920 petition
1579:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1513:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1494:
1489:
1487:
1482:
1480:
1475:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
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1440:
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1435:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1405:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1372:
1356:
1355:
1348:
1345:
1329:
1328:
1321:
1318:
1313:
1307:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1249:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1199:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1173:on 2018-01-21
1172:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1154:
1142:
1141:
1133:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1115:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1075:
1074:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1050:on 2018-04-08
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1012:
1011:
1004:
1001:
991:
987:
983:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
955:
952:
947:
941:
938:. Routledge.
937:
936:
928:
925:
920:
914:
910:
909:
901:
898:
885:
881:
874:
872:
868:
863:
857:
853:
852:
844:
841:
834:
824:
821:
814:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
789:
785:
782:
781:
777:
774:
773:
769:
768:
764:
762:
760:
756:
751:
749:
744:
741:
737:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
714:
707:Later effects
706:
704:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
684:
677:
673:
670:
666:
663:
659:
656:
652:
651:
646:
639:
637:
635:
631:
627:
621:
620:
615:
613:
604:
597:
595:
593:
589:
584:
582:
578:
574:
573:
568:
563:
561:
557:
552:
550:
545:
543:
542:Novaya Zemlya
539:
534:
530:
525:
523:
521:
516:
515:
510:
509:Ăvian Accords
506:
502:
498:
493:
490:
484:
476:
474:
472:
467:
463:
458:
456:
452:
448:
440:
438:
436:
431:
429:
425:
421:
416:
413:
409:
404:
402:
401:Nagasaki bomb
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
369:United States
366:
361:
359:
353:
351:
347:
343:
339:
331:
326:
324:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
299:
297:
295:
291:
287:
284:, during the
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
264:of the first
263:
242:
234:
233:
222: →
221:
220:
213:
208:
204:
200:
196:
193:
190:
186:
182:
180:Test altitude
178:
175:
172:
168:
154:
150:
145:
117:
115:
111:
108:
104:
101:
97:
94:
91:
87:
84:
79:
74:
70:
65:
45:
36:
33:
29:
26:
22:
2904:
2897:
2890:
2883:
2876:
2869:
2862:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2834:
2827:
2820:
2813:
2806:
2799:
2794:Clytemnestre
2792:
2785:
2778:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2729:
2722:
2715:
2708:
2688:
2681:
2674:
2667:
2660:
2653:
2646:
2639:
2632:
2625:
2618:
2611:
2604:
2597:
2590:
2583:
2576:
2569:
2562:
2555:
2548:
2541:
2534:
2527:
2507:
2500:
2493:
2486:
2479:
2472:
2465:
2458:
2451:
2443:
2442:
2435:
2428:
2421:
2414:
2407:
2400:
2393:
2386:
2379:
2372:
2365:
2345:
2338:
2331:
2324:
2317:
2310:
2303:
2296:
2289:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2261:
2241:
2234:
2227:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2160:
2149:
2113:Other groups
2089:
2080:
1840:
1800:human rights
1798:War crimes /
1744:
1643:
1630:Legal status
1622:
1618:French Union
1603:
1548:Deportations
1500:Algerian War
1421:. Retrieved
1417:
1407:
1396:. Retrieved
1384:
1374:
1362:. Retrieved
1353:
1347:
1335:. Retrieved
1326:
1320:
1306:
1296:
1288:
1278:
1259:
1252:
1248:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1212:
1175:. Retrieved
1171:the original
1166:
1156:
1145:, retrieved
1139:
1132:
1113:
1107:
1081:. Retrieved
1072:
1052:. Retrieved
1048:the original
1043:
1039:
1015:. Retrieved
1009:
1003:
993:, retrieved
963:
954:
934:
927:
907:
900:
888:. Retrieved
883:
850:
843:
823:
786:
778:
770:
759:Saharan dust
752:
745:
735:
729:
721:Burkina Faso
710:
696:
692:
688:
687:
682:
681:
675:
668:
661:
654:
623:
618:
617:
611:
609:
585:
570:
564:
553:
546:
532:
528:
526:
519:
512:
505:Algerian War
496:
494:
488:
486:
470:
461:
459:
444:
432:
430:facilities.
423:
419:
417:
411:
405:
380:
373:Soviet Union
364:
362:
354:
335:
316:
304:
303:
293:
286:Algerian War
231:
230:
229:
217:
31:
25:
2055:Oujda Group
1865: [
1780: [
1726: [
1633: [
1611:Kabyle myth
1586:Jonnart Law
1518:colonialism
1502:(1954â1962)
886:(in French)
740:caesium-137
717:Ivory Coast
408:French army
321:French Flag
311:, a desert
255:Blue Jerboa
205:(292.88 TJ)
188:Device type
174:Atmospheric
139: /
114:Coordinates
89:Test series
67:Information
2951:Categories
2780:Andromaque
2634:Capricorne
2613:Parthenope
2388:BĂ©telgeuse
2340:Tourmaline
1994:Tizi Ouzou
1915:Legacy and
1899:referendum
1802:violations
1723:Chronology
1536:Atrocities
1508:Background
1398:2018-04-08
1280:Libération
1214:Libération
1177:2018-04-08
1167:Libération
1054:2018-04-08
995:2022-01-20
835:References
697:Garigliano
577:Fangataufa
560:Test No. 6
538:Tsar Bomba
375:, and the
288:. General
282:Tanezrouft
260:) was the
162:1960-02-13
127:00°03âČ26âłW
124:26°18âČ42âłN
2878:Aphrodite
2822:PolyphĂšme
2599:Melpomene
2467:Cassiopée
2460:AndromĂšde
2367:Aldébaran
2312:Turquoise
2284:Améthyste
1917:aftermath
1833:Reactions
1698:(1947â49)
1692:(1946â54)
1645:Pied noir
1624:Indigénat
1600:policies
1393:0362-4331
1364:10 August
1337:10 August
1083:10 August
1017:10 August
990:245890893
640:Programme
451:N'Djamena
393:Hurricane
332:Explosion
170:Test type
99:Test site
2871:Schédios
2864:Idoménée
2759:Ulysse B
2752:Astyanax
2745:Ulysse A
2724:Patrocle
2676:Scorpion
2655:Centaure
2536:Encelade
2416:Arcturus
2381:GanymĂšde
2333:Corindon
2277:Ămeraude
2151:Category
1671:Cold War
1418:euronews
1267:Archived
1240:20689578
1201:Archived
890:8 August
884:senat.fr
765:See also
533:de facto
529:Gerboise
522:incident
501:In Ekker
462:Gerboise
428:In Ekker
305:Gerboise
262:codename
2899:ĂtĂ©ocle
2850:Xanthos
2815:Laocoon
2738:Calypso
2731:Ménélas
2710:Achille
2690:Verseau
2683:Taureau
2648:GĂ©meaux
2592:Euterpe
2571:Titania
2564:Umbriel
2488:Licorne
2453:Procyon
2445:Canopus
2423:Capella
2374:Tamouré
2162:Commons
1989:El Oued
1979:Algiers
1809:Torture
1516:Settler
1423:3 March
1147:July 2,
780:Canopus
713:Senegal
634:Morocco
588:Canopus
572:Canopus
441:Fallout
397:Fat Man
385:Trinity
276:in the
270:Reggane
249:
237:French:
160: (
103:Reggane
72:Country
2931:(CEMO)
2925:(CSEM)
2843:HĂ©cube
2836:Pylade
2829:Dindon
2801:Oreste
2766:Nestor
2717:Hector
2669:Persée
2662:Maquis
2641:BĂ©lier
2620:Tamara
2606:Pallas
2578:Oberon
2550:Phoebe
2509:Toucan
2495:PĂ©gaze
2481:Eridan
2474:Dragon
2437:Pollux
2430:Castor
2409:AltaĂŻr
2402:Sirius
2347:Grenat
2319:Saphir
2305:Topaze
2125:Harkis
2071:France
2019:Groups
1686:(1944)
1391:
1238:
1120:
988:
978:
942:
915:
858:
626:Africa
487:After
424:Saphir
399:, the
371:, the
313:rodent
309:jerboa
278:Sahara
192:A-bomb
83:France
2937:(CEP)
2906:Eumée
2892:Dolon
2885:Priam
2773:Ćdipe
2627:Vesta
2585:Ariel
2543:Japet
2529:Dioné
2502:Orion
2395:Rigel
2298:Opale
2291:Rubis
2270:BĂ©ryl
2263:Agate
2130:Women
1984:Batna
1958:Films
1869:]
1784:]
1730:]
1637:]
1358:(PDF)
1331:(PDF)
1236:JSTOR
1077:(PDF)
986:S2CID
815:Notes
772:Agate
725:Sudan
630:Ghana
520:BĂ©ryl
514:Agate
420:Rubis
389:RDS-1
363:With
317:Bleue
198:Yield
183:100 m
2857:ArĂšs
2808:ĂnĂ©e
2787:Ajax
2557:Rhéa
2326:Jade
1460:(fr)
1454:(fr)
1425:2021
1389:ISSN
1366:2020
1339:2020
1149:2006
1118:ISBN
1085:2020
1019:2020
976:ISBN
940:ISBN
913:ISBN
892:2020
856:ISBN
755:ACRO
723:and
549:USSR
457:/m.
327:Test
300:Name
246:lit.
152:Date
1715:War
968:doi
556:596
447:rad
201:70
2953::
1867:fr
1782:fr
1728:fr
1635:fr
1416:.
1387:.
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1295:,
1277:,
1273:,
1230:.
1211:,
1207:,
1186:^
1165:.
1093:^
1063:^
1042:.
1038:.
1027:^
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272:,
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164:)
23:.
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