Copland (operating system)

1130:(PPC) native. System 7 had been ported to the PowerPC with great success; large parts of the system run as PPC code, including both high-level functions, such as most of the user interface toolbox managers, and low-level functions, such as interrupt management. There is enough 68k code left in the system to be run in emulation, and especially user applications, however that the operating system must map some data between the two environments. In particular, every call into the Mac OS requires a mapping between the interrupt systems of the 68k and PPC. Removing these mappings would greatly improve general system performance. At WWDC 1996, engineers claimed that system calls would execute as much as 50% faster. 1474:, used the keynote to talk almost exclusively about Copland, now known as System 8. He repeatedly stated that it was the only focus of Apple engineering and that it would ship to developers in a few months, with a full release planned for late 1996. Very few, if any, demos of the running system were shown at the conference. Instead, various pieces of the technology and user interface that would go into the package (such as a new file management dialog) were demonstrated. Little of the core system's technology was demonstrated and the new file system that had been shown a year earlier was absent. 1458:. Simultaneously allegedly being confirmed by Copland engineers while being authoritatively denied by Copland project management, this feature had supposedly been in development for more than three years. One user claimed to have been told about these plans by members of the Copland development team. Some analysts projected that this ability would increase Apple's penetration into the enterprise market, others said it was "game over" and was only a sign of the Mac platform's irrelevancy. 1110: 5218: 5208: 3915: 36: 3906: 1494:

might be 1997. One of the groups most surprised by the announcement was Apple's own hardware team, who had been waiting for Copland to allow the PowerPC to be natively represented, unburdened of software legacy. Members of Apple's software QA team joked that, given current resources and the number of bugs in the system, they could clear the program for shipping sometime around 2030.

1123:, as in most modern operating systems. These separate applications cannot use non-reentrant calls like QuickDraw, however, and thus could have no user interface. Apple suggested that larger programs could place their user interface in a normal Macintosh application, which then start worker threads externally. 1481:

There was a hands-on demo of the current state of OS 8. There were tantalizing glimpses of the goodies to come, but the overall experience was awful. It does not yet support text editing, so you couldn’t actually do anything except open and view documents (any dialog field that needed something typed

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was generating intense interest in the developer world. Features that were originally part of Red were folded into Pink, and the Red project (also known as "Raptor") was eventually canceled. This problem was also common at Apple during this period; to chase the "next big thing", middle managers added

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These limits meant that supporting the multitasking of more than one program at a time would be difficult, without rewriting all of this operating system and application code. Yet doing so would mean the system would run unacceptably slow on existing hardware. Instead, Apple adopted a system known as

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This concept of sharing memory is a significant source of problems and crashes. If an application program writes incorrect data into these shared locations, it could cause QuickDraw to crash, thereby causing the computer to crash. Likewise, any problem in QuickDraw could cause it to overwrite data in

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Launched in 1984, the Macintosh and its operating system were designed from the start as a single-user, single-tasking system, which allowed the hardware development to be greatly simplified. As a side effect of this single application model, the original Mac developers were able to take advantage of

1413:. "There were little groups all over Apple doing fun things that had no earthly application to Apple's product line." What resulted was a vicious cycle: As the addition of features pushed back deadlines, Apple was compelled to promise still more functions to justify the costly delays. Moreover, this 1286:

Infighting at the new joint company was legendary, and the problems with Pink within Apple soon appeared to be minor in comparison. Apple employees made T-shirts graphically displaying their prediction that the result would be an IBM-only project. On December 19, 1995, Apple officially pulled out of

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and its release date continued to slip into the indefinite future. Some of the reason for this can be traced to problems that would become widespread at Apple as time went on; as Pink became delayed, its engineers moved to Blue instead. This left the Pink team constantly struggling for staffing, and

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The Copland runtime architecture includes purple boxes showing threads of control, and the heavy lines show different memory partitions. In the upper left is the Blue Box, running several System 7 applications (blue) and the toolbox code supporting them (green). Two headless applications are running

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In August 1996, "Developer Release 0" was sent to a small number of selected partners. Far from demonstrating improved stability, it often crashed after doing nothing at all, and was completely unusable for development. In October, Apple moved the target delivery date to "sometime", hinting that it

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Given this pressure, the collapse of Taligent, the growing problems with the existing operating system, after the release of System 7.5 in late 1994, Apple management decided that the decade-old operating system had run its course. A new system that did not have these problems was needed, and soon.

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Following Hancock's plan, development continued with System 7.5 receiving integration of several elements of Copland. System 7 was renamed to Mac OS 7 with the release of 7.6, wherein stability and performance were improved. Many Copland features, including the new multithreaded Finder and support

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After a few months on the job, Hancock came to the conclusion that the situation was hopeless; given current development and engineering, she believed Copland would never ship. Instead, she suggested that the various user-facing technologies in Copland be rolled out in a series of staged releases,

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New applications written with Copland in mind, are able to directly communicate with the system servers and thereby gain many advantages in terms of performance and scalability. They can also communicate with the kernel to launch separate applications or threads, which run as separate processes in

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In the first stage, the existing system would be moved on top of a new kernel-based OS with built-in support for multitasking and protected memory. The existing libraries, like QuickDraw, would take too long to be rewritten for the new system and would not be converted to be reentrant. Instead, a

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application rather than in QuickDraw, thus eliminating the need to copy these data between the application and library, the program can make changes to these settings to its own internal storage and QuickDraw finds these data by looking for those values in known locations within the applications.

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stated that Copland was the primary focus of the company, aiming for a late-year release. Internally, however, the development effort was beset with problems due to dysfunctional corporate personnel and project management. Development milestones and developer release dates were missed repeatedly.

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in 1987, which keeps the running application in control of the computer, as before, but allows an application to be rapidly switched to another, normally simply by clicking on its window. Programs that are not in the foreground are periodically given short bits of time to run, but as before, the

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As had happened during the development of Pink, developers within Apple soon started abandoning their own projects in order to work on the new system. Middle management and project leaders fought back by claiming that their project was vital to the success of the system, and moving it into the

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machine, the Blue Box, keeps applications and legacy code such as QuickDraw in a single memory block so they continue to run as they had in the past. Blue Box runs in a distinct Copland memory space, so crashing legacy applications or extensions within Blue Box cannot crash the entire machine.

1318:, and many others. Most of these were larger than the original operating system. Problems with stability, which had existed even with small patches, grew along with the size and requirements of these packages, and by the mid-1990s the Mac had a reputation for instability and constant crashing. 1045:

Because the operating system and applications all share one memory space, it is possible for a bug in any one of them to corrupt the entire operating system, and crash the machine. Under MultiFinder, any crash anywhere will crash all running programs. Running multiple applications potentially

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As the stability of the operating system collapsed, the ready answer was that Taligent would fix this with all its modern foundation of full reentrance, preemptive multitasking, and protected memory. When the Taligent efforts also collapsed, Apple was left with an aging OS and no designated

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for example, this means the system can store state information in the library, things like the current location of the window or the line style, knowing it would only change under control of the running program. Taking this one step further, the engineers left most of this state inside the

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Toolbox calls. A worst-case scenario is that an application in the CPAS environment crashes, taking down the entire environment with it. This does not result in the system as a whole going down, however, and the Cooperative Program Address Space environment is automatically restarted.

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In the next stage of the plan, once the new kernel was in place and this basic upgrade was released, development would move on to rewriting the older libraries into new forms that could run directly on the new kernel. At that point, applications would gain some added modern features.

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that allows data to be easily passed among libraries. Lacking shared memory, the API was instead written so the operating system and application shares all memory, which is what allows QuickDraw to examine the application's memory for settings like the line drawing mode or color.

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into it was blank and dead). Also, it was incredibly fragile and crashed repeatedly, often corrupting system files on the disk in the process. The demo staff reformatted and rebuilt the hard disks at regular intervals. It was incredible that they even let us see the beast.

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Later in August 1996, the situation was no better. Amelio complained that Copland was "just a collection of separate pieces, each being worked on by a different team ... that were expected to magically come together somehow." Hoping to salvage the situation, Amelio hired

1703:-based Macintoshes: 6100/60, 6100/60AV (no AV functions), 6100/66, 6100/66 AV (no AV functions), 6100/66 DOS (no DOS functions), 7100/66, 7100/66 AV (no AV functions), 7100/80, 7100/80 AV (no AV functions), 8100/80/ 8100/100/ 8100/100 AV (no AV functions), 8100/110 1450:

As the "package" grew, testing it became increasingly difficult and engineers were commenting as early as 1995 that Apple's announced 1996 release date was hopelessly optimistic: "There's no way in hell Copland ships next year. I just hope it ships in 1997."

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screensaver package. Because there was no standard for use of these patches, it is not uncommon for several of these add-ons — including Apple's own additions to the OS — to use the same patches, and interfere with each other, leading to more crashing.

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Development officially began in March 1994. Over the next several years, previews of Copland garnered much press, introducing the Mac audience to operating system concepts such as object orientation, crash-proofing, and multitasking. In August 1995,

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was hired to get the project back on track, but quickly concluded it could never ship. In August 1996, it was announced that Copland was canceled and Apple would look outside the company for a new operating system. Among many choices, they selected

893:, and several new underlying operating system features, while retaining compatibility with existing Mac applications. Copland's tentatively planned successor, codenamed Gershwin, was intended to add more advanced features such as application-level 999:

the application, once again leading to crashes. In the case of a single-application operating system this was not a fatal limitation, because in that case a problem in either would require the application, or computer, to be restarted anyway.

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the project. IBM continued working alone with Taligent, and eventually released its application development portions under the new name "CommonPoint". This saw little interest and the project disappeared from IBM's catalogs within months.

1283:". At the time, Sculley summed up his concerns with Apple's own ability to ship Pink when he stated "We want to be a major player in the computer industry, not a niche player. The only way to do that is to work with another major player." 1019:

The Macintosh lacks multitasking but tries to fake it, and it insists on a complicated user interface but leaves much of the work up to the application. These are serious drawbacks, and it is difficult to imagine elegant repairs for

1168:(MB) of RAM, which is a significant portion of the total RAM in most contemporaneous machines. Copland is a hybrid of two systems, as its native foundation also hosts Blue Box with a complete copy of System 7.5. Copland thus uses a 1375:

in May 1995. Apple promised that a beta release of Copland would be ready by the end of the year, for final commercial release in early 1996. Gershwin would follow the next year. Throughout the year, Apple released several

1098:. The Copland system as a whole consists of the combination of Nukernel, various servers, and a suite of application support libraries to provide implementations of the well-known classic Macintosh programming interface. 1380:

to various magazines showing what the new system would look like, and commented continually that the company was fully committed to this project. By the end of the year, however, no Developer Release had been produced.

1299:, a port of System 7 and its basic applications to Intel-compatible x86 machines, which reached internal demo status. But as Taligent was still a concern, it was difficult for new OS projects to gain any traction. 1278:

running on a PC. IBM was extremely interested, and over the next few months, the two companies formed an alliance to further development of the system. These efforts became public in early 1992, under the new name

1581:. This would in effect open the Windows application market to Macintosh developers as they could license the library from Apple for distribution with their product, or depend on an existing installation. 1101:

Application services are offered through a single program known officially as the Cooperative Program Address Space. Mac programs run much as they do under System 7, as cooperative tasks that use the non-

1490:, a feature that would be exceedingly difficult to add to a system due to ship in a few months. After that, Amelio came back on stage and announced that they would be adding that to the feature list. 1405:

Copland development stream. Thus, it could not be canceled along with their employees being removed to work on some other part of Copland anyway. This process took on momentum across the next year.

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started to crescendo, often questioning Apple's ability to respond to the challenge it presented. The press turned on the company, often introducing Apple's new projects as failures in the making.

1214:". Apple intended to have the Blue team release an updated version of the existing Macintosh operating system in the 1990–1991 timeframe, and the Pink team to release an all-new OS around 1993. 1601:

With the return of Jobs, this rebranding to version 8 also allowed Apple to exploit a legal loophole to terminate third-party manufacturers' licenses to System 7 and effectively shut down the

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suffering from the problems associated with high employee turnover. Management ignored these sorts of technical development issues, leading to continual problems delivering working products.

1447:. An industry executive noted that "The game is to cut it down to the three or four most compelling features as opposed to having hundreds of nice-to-haves, I'm not sure that's happening." 1519:

instead of a single big release. Apple officially canceled Copland in August 1996, The CD envelopes for the developer's release had been printed, but the discs had not been mastered.

1359:. In turn, its proposed successor system, Gershwin, would complete the process of moving the entire system to the modern platform, but work on Gershwin would never officially begin. 1302:

Instead, Apple's Blue team continued adding new features to the same basic OS. During the early 1990s, Apple released a series of major new packages to the system; among them are

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To address the aging infrastructure underneath these technologies, Amelio suggested looking outside the company for an unrelated new operating system. Candidates considered were

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were on red cards. Development of the ideas contained on the blue and pink cards was to proceed in parallel, and at first, the two projects were known simply as "blue" and "

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While Taligent efforts continued, very little work addressing the structure of the original OS was carried out. Several new projects started during this time, such as the

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The Rhapsody project was canceled after several Developer Preview releases, support for running on non-Macintosh platforms was dropped, and it was eventually released as

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The fundamental challenge of Copland's development and adoption was getting all of these functions to fit into an ordinary Mac. System 7.5 already uses up about 2.5

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were two of many mentioned). This was a common theme at the time; many companies were forming groups to define standardized platforms to offer an alternative to the "

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area on the left is intended to provide a visual path to the current selection, but this was later abandoned as being too complex. The user is currently using a

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to run applications written for older versions of Mac OS. Several features originally seen in Copland demos, including its advanced Find command, built-in

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in their own spaces, providing file and web services. At the bottom are the OS servers in the same memory space as the kernel, indicating colocation.

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In March 1988, technical middle managers at Apple held an offsite meeting to plan the future course of Mac OS development. Ideas were written on

2700: 2462: 1137:, or CHRP, which standardized the Mac hardware to the point where it could be built by different companies and can run other operating systems ( 1633:-aware still has a part that runs in the Blue Box, a task that also runs all single-threaded programs and the only task that can run 68k code. 894: 3030: 2422: 5249: 4112: 3918: 3252: 2492: 1094:. For instance, networking and file services would not be provided by the kernel itself, but by servers that would be sent requests through 5254: 2981: 1454:

In mid-1996, information was leaked that Copland would have the ability to run applications written for other operating systems, including

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several compromising simplifications that allowed great improvements in performance, running even faster than the much more expensive

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and rumors of a merger with Sun Microsystems, many were surprised at Apple's December 1996 announcement that they were purchasing

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There was one way to actually use the new operating system – by signing up for time in the developer labs. This did not go well:

1203:) were written on blue cards; longer-term goals—such as preemptive multitasking—were on pink cards; and long-range ideas like an 929:

in 1997 to obtain it. In the interim period, while NeXTSTEP was ported to the Mac, Apple released the much more legacy-oriented

79: 5013: 3909: 1409:"Anytime they saw something sexy it had to go into the OS." said Jeffrey Tarter, publisher of the software industry newsletter 1372: 291: 2902: 1775:

There is some confusion about the coloring depending on the source, it may be that pink and red are describing the same cards.

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According to the documentation included in the Developer Release, Copland supports the following hardware configurations:

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support appeared also. The feature list grew much faster than the features could be completed, a classic case of creeping

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The prehistory of Copland begins with an understanding of the Mac OS legacy, and its architectural problems to be solved.

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became core components of the system, while completely unrelated technologies like a new file management dialog box (the

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Since so much of the existing system would be difficult to rewrite, Apple developed a two-stage approach to the problem.

4544: 2910: 1534:. Hancock reportedly was in favor of going with Solaris, while Amelio preferred Windows. Amelio even reportedly called 5259: 4466: 4030: 3429: 1562: 1095: 838: 812: 764: 739: 487: 467: 329: 301: 156: 68: 1061:

or Control Panels and Extensions. Third party developers also make use of this mechanism to add features, including

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Soon the project looked less like a new operating system and more like a huge collection of new technologies;

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computers between 1994 and 1996 but never commercially released. It was intended to be released with the name

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in May 1994. Parts of Copland, such as an early version of the new file system, were demonstrated at Apple's

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For DR1 and earlier, the installer requires System 7.5 or later on a hard disk of 250MB or greater capacity.

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Primary sources Erich Ringewald and Mike Potel date the start of Pink as "March 1988" or "early 1988", and

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Several people at the show complained about the microkernel's lack of sophistication, notably the lack of

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By assuming only one program would be running at a time, the engineers were able to ignore the concept of

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on in an advisory role. Amelio quipped that they "choose Plan A instead of Plan Be." The project to port

5269: 5222: 4737: 4668: 4621: 4352: 4163: 4142: 3623: 3491: 3414: 3349: 2795: 2656: 1645: 1384: 1070: 890: 502: 374: 296: 281: 2332: 1852: 3218:, a retrospective analysis of the development cycle and code legacy of Copland into MacOS 8 and Carbon 1594:) were integrated into the unreleased beta of Mac OS 7.7, which was instead rebranded and launched as 1248:. In the case of Pink, development eventually slowed to the point that the project appeared moribund. 93: 5201: 5046: 4708: 4328: 4098: 3434: 2692: 2459: 2337: 1677: 1673: 1232: 1228: 631: 604: 339: 306: 5160: 3573: 3022: 2419: 1688:, respectively, although the implementation and user interface for each feature is very different. 1637: 1426: 616: 569: 334: 2572: 5284: 5069: 4604: 4287: 3935: 3501: 2484: 1669: 1657: 1439: 1340: 1058: 1054: 759: 749: 689: 507: 477: 384: 2973: 1006:(MMU), which precludes the possibility of several fundamental modern features. An MMU provides 5145: 5130: 5110: 4190: 3893: 3639: 3526: 3133: 3112: 3080: 2934: 2635: 2542: 2361: 2309: 2171: 1959: 1681: 1296: 1267: 1199:; features that seemed simple enough to implement in the short term (like adding color to the 1050: 1007: 886: 729: 719: 694: 599: 544: 537: 517: 497: 409: 311: 1010:

to ensure that programs cannot accidentally overwrite other program's memory, and provisions

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new features to their projects with little oversight, leading to enormous problems with

5155: 5140: 5120: 4642: 4258: 4158: 3927: 3546: 3536: 3506: 3481: 3376: 3371: 3358: 1728: 1566: 1307: 1200: 1173: 797: 584: 579: 429: 419: 389: 364: 5238: 5165: 5135: 4306: 3958: 3561: 3551: 3541: 3511: 3466: 3461: 2927: 2771:"Continued Development of the Classic Mac OS - Running Mac OS X Tiger [Book]" 2628: 2114: 1653: 1504: 1356: 1245: 1169: 1069:. Some of these third-party control panels became almost universal, like the popular 1011: 945: 917: 906: 724: 564: 462: 444: 434: 424: 394: 349: 344: 174: 1109: 5170: 4940: 4920: 4550: 4251: 4245: 4079: 3568: 3556: 3531: 3521: 3303: 3076:

Apple Confidential 2.0: The Definitive History of the World's Most Colorful Company

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to discuss the idea, and Gates promised to put Microsoft engineers to work porting

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pattern persisted at a time when the company could scarcely afford to miss a step.

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PCI-based Macintoshes: 7200/70, 7200/90, 7500/100, 8500/120, 9500/120, 9500/132

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CPU architectures, and an implementation of the OpenStep libraries running on

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increases the chances of a crash, making the system potentially more fragile.

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2.x and later, but there is no process separation and the system still uses

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entire process is controlled by the applications, not the operating system.

991: 870: 779: 709: 674: 594: 379: 4090: 2543:"Apple mulls radical shift: Macs may embrace Windows to entice enterprise" 4976: 4933: 4797: 4729: 4537: 4417: 4345: 4313: 4197: 4069: 4042: 3996: 3991: 3868: 3853: 3846: 3654: 3644: 3424: 3419: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3381: 3366: 3293: 3277: 2800: 2598:"Looking for the Future: What did you learn, Dorothy, in the Land of Oz?" 1685: 1595: 1570: 1558: 1280: 1275: 1257: 1240: 1211: 1190: 1165: 1087: 950: 934: 930: 922: 882: 807: 626: 512: 247: 235: 225: 5092: 5019: 4982: 4902: 4879: 4848: 4827: 4802: 4775: 4768: 4677: 4458: 4449: 4364: 4358: 4037: 3863: 3858: 3618: 3226: 1733: 1546: 1430: 1377: 1322:

solutions. By 1994, the press buzz surrounding the upcoming release of

1311: 1142: 1127: 527: 5086: 4963: 4723: 4717: 4690: 4683: 4609: 4598: 4592: 4513: 4482: 4264: 4074: 4008: 3792: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3598: 1876: 1150: 1146: 979:. But this design also led to several problems for future expansion. 532: 2929:

Apple: the inside story of intrigue, egomania, and business blunders

1355:"Mozart", this intended successor is named "Copland" after composer 944:

The Copland development effort has been described as an example of

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mechanism used to add functions to the operating system, known as

938: 267: 1149:" platform that was rapidly becoming dominant — examples include 4520: 4223: 4217: 3841: 3603: 1743: 1550: 926: 909:

that Copland would be released in mid-1996. The following May,

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included Copland on a list of the biggest project failures in

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How to Install Mac OS 8 (D11E4), "Hardware Supported" section

1706:

NuBus-based Performas: 6110CD, 6112CD, 6115CD, 6117CD, 6118CD

1172:-inspired memory management system and relies extensively on 1652:

product. Versions of Mac OS X prior to the Intel release of

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Neuburg, Matt; Magnuson, Chris; George, Jim (August 1996).

1274:. Though the system was not fully functional, it resembled 1231:

on May 13, 1991, but the Pink team's efforts suffered from

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Copland was designed to consist of the Mac OS on top of a

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became Apple's next-generation operating system in 2001.

2017: 2015: 1861:(Adam Webber was the programmer responsible for porting 1718:

Display set to 256 colors (8-bit) or Thousands (16-bit).

1672:, have reappeared in subsequent releases of Mac OS X as 2167:

Apple T-shirts: a yearbook of history at Apple computer

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In the musical code-naming pattern where System 7.5 is

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performed a secret demonstration of Pink running on an

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in 1997 based upon adding components from Copland, and

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Adding greatly to the severity of the problem is the

2354:"PERSONAL COMPUTERS; Intriguing Promises From Apple" 1918: 1916: 1914: 1176:, with the goal of being about 50% larger than 7.5. 5101: 5068: 4919: 4888: 4838: 4812: 4758: 4748: 4707: 4667: 4582: 4529: 4402: 4392: 4381: 4234: 4207: 4179: 4141: 4132: 3881: 3834: 3791: 3688: 3678: 3632: 3591: 3584: 3405: 3357: 3348: 3276: 1133:Copland is also based on the then-recently defined 241: 231: 221: 208: 198: 188: 180: 170: 162: 152: 140: 60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2926: 2627: 3200:Apple's Copland project: An OS for the common man 2485:"Lessons Learned: IT's Biggest Project Failures" 2331:Bortman, Henry; Pittelkau, Jeff (January 1997). 2304:Bortman, Henry; Pittelkau, Jeff (January 1997). 1573:'s existing support for PowerPC, Intel x86, and 1392:dialog box has a preview area on the right. The 1217:The Blue team, who came to call themselves the " 1002:The other main issue was that early Macs lack a 2998:"OS Directions: Marconi, Copland, and Gershwin" 2903:"Apple's Copland: New! Improved! Not Here Yet!" 2721:Dawn Kawamoto, Mike Yamamoto and Jeff Pelline, 1952:"Why Apple Sees Next as a Match Made in Heaven" 1798:"Apple's 12 worst product failures of all time" 1479: 1407: 1017: 877:, and later after changing their naming style, 2626:Amelio, Gilbert F.; Simon, William L. (1998). 1822:"30 years of the Apple Lisa and the Apple IIe" 1569:operating system strategy. This would inherit 5213:Category: Microkernel-based operating systems 4106: 3943: 3253: 1859:. Vol. 11, no. 9. pp. 249–256. 1640:. In 2001 this foundation was coupled to the 881:. Planned as a modern successor to the aging 839: 8: 2804:. Vol. 14, no. 10. pp. 34–36. 135: 2974:"Copland: The Mac OS Moves Into the Future" 2341:. Vol. 13, no. 1. pp. 64–72. 1515:and get Copland development back on track. 1367:The Copland project was first announced by 4755: 4399: 4389: 4138: 4113: 4099: 4091: 3950: 3936: 3928: 3905: 3685: 3588: 3354: 3260: 3246: 3238: 1629:between processes. Even a process that is 846: 832: 258: 134: 2883: 2871: 2745: 2693:"The Rise and Fall of Apple's Gil Amelio" 2573:"Mac's new OS: Seven years in the making" 2420:"Mac's new OS: Seven years in the making" 2201: 2151: 2139: 1239:At this same time, the recently released 986:, which is the ability for a program (or 120:Learn how and when to remove this message 2415: 2413: 2411: 2409: 2407: 2224:. Vol. 16, no. 28. p. 6. 905:, a senior vice president, announced at 3222:Apple's Copland Reference Documentation 2679: 2553:from the original on September 19, 2022 2528: 2455: 2453: 2271:Miller, Michael J. (October 24, 1995). 2084: 2072: 2060: 2033: 2021: 2006: 1994: 1982: 1937: 1905: 1788: 1755: 266: 3108:Mac OS X internals: a systems approach 2859: 2847: 2816:"Apple's Mac OS X to Ship on March 24" 2513: 2444: 2285:from the original on November 13, 2016 1922: 1851:Webber, Adam Brooks (September 1986). 1609:finally added the new file system and 3212:article with screenshots from Copland 3206:"A Time Machine trip to the mid-'90s" 3023:"Planning for Mac OS 8 Compatibility" 3008:from the original on November 3, 2021 2796:"Mac OS 8 Ships with No License Deal" 2757: 2495:from the original on November 5, 2012 2096: 2048: 7: 2901:Burrows, Peter (December 18, 1995). 2703:from the original on August 13, 2020 2248:"OS 8 Adds New Life to Mac Platform" 2228:from the original on October 2, 2021 1832:from the original on August 19, 2020 1561:to the Macintosh platform was named 58:adding citations to reliable sources 5265:Microkernel-based operating systems 2996:Duncan, Geoff (December 12, 1994). 1887:from the original on July 17, 2011 1648:user interface to form the modern 1565:and was to be the core of Apple's 1135:Common Hardware Reference Platform 25: 5280:Object-oriented operating systems 2541:Picarille, Lisa (July 29, 1996). 1877:"After Dark Returns for Mac OS X" 1712:Drives formatted with Drive Setup 1227:, delivered what became known as 5217: 5216: 5207: 5206: 3914: 3913: 3904: 2483:Widman, Jake (October 9, 2008). 34: 3233:Businessweek article on Copland 3227:Computer Chronicles: Mac Clones 3166:from the original on 2010-06-19 3146:from the original on 2017-11-22 3093:from the original on 2020-05-12 3061:from the original on 2012-03-21 3033:from the original on 2011-06-04 3021:Falkenburg, Steve (June 1996). 2984:from the original on 2005-10-23 2960:from the original on 2022-09-19 2933:. Times Business/Random House. 2913:from the original on 2013-01-19 2608:from the original on 2022-09-19 2394:from the original on 2022-02-11 2184:from the original on 2020-07-29 2122:from the original on 2020-07-29 1875:Engst, Adam C. (June 9, 2003). 1545:After lengthy discussions with 1373:Worldwide Developers Conference 1221:" after characters in the film 1096:interapplication communications 937:in 1999 to transition forward. 69:"Copland" operating system 45:needs additional citations for 2794:Beale, Steven (October 1997). 2352:Lewis, Peter H. (1995-08-22). 2216:"Apple set to ship System 7.5" 2214:Quinlan, Tom (July 11, 1994). 1617:to handle limited support for 1511:to take over engineering from 1155:Advanced Computing Environment 287:Transition to Intel processors 1: 3609:AIX for Apple Network Servers 2956:. Vol. 11, no. 12. 2948:Crabbe, Don (December 1995). 1796:Tracy, Phillip (2023-12-27). 1262:On April 12, 1991, Apple CEO 5250:Apple Inc. operating systems 2604:. Vol. 12, no. 9. 2387:WWDC 1994 Dave Nagel Keynote 2170:. Pomo Pub. pp. 44–48. 2110:"'Pink' may get a pink slip" 1950:Markoff, John (1996-12-23). 1668:of folders, and support for 330:Rhapsody (Developer Release) 5255:Macintosh operating systems 4467:Multi-Environment Real-Time 2723:"Apple acquires Next, Jobs" 2460:"The Long and Winding Road" 1865:to the Amiga and Macintosh) 292:Transition to Apple silicon 5301: 3185:Copland retrospectives at 3129:Inside Taligent Technology 2950:"Copland, Where Are Thee?" 1590:for themes (defaulting to 1466:At WWDC 1996, Apple's new 1255: 1188: 5275:PowerPC operating systems 5179: 3972: 3902: 2972:Dierks, Tim (June 1995). 2308:. MacUser. Archived from 2164:Thygeson, Gordon (1997). 1488:symmetric multiprocessing 246: 27:Operating system by Apple 18:Gershwin operating system 3229:, with a demo of Copland 3073:Linzmayer, Owen (2004). 1631:Multiprocessing Services 1627:cooperative multitasking 1623:Multiprocessing Services 3462:Mac OS X 10.0 (Cheetah) 1191:Taligent § History 891:preemptive multitasking 755:Remote Install Mac OS X 670:Bluetooth File Exchange 5223:Category: Microkernels 3045:Francis, Tony (1996). 2657:"Apple OS chief quits" 1509:National Semiconductor 1484: 1419: 1401: 1115: 1034: 1004:memory management unit 956:information technology 242:Articles in the series 3624:PowerOpen Environment 3268:Operating systems by 3202:, development history 3126:Cotter, Sean (1995). 2925:Carlton, Jim (1997). 1853:"Amiga vs. Macintosh" 1692:Hardware requirements 1387: 1270:to a delegation from 1112: 885:, Copland introduced 5202:Open-source software 4709:Java virtual machine 3502:10.8 (Mountain Lion) 3105:Singh, Amit (2007). 2118:. 1993. p. 40. 1883:. Ithaca, New York. 1828:. January 18, 2013. 1233:second-system effect 1025:Adam Brooks Webber, 385:Mountain Lion (10.8) 340:Kodiak (Public Beta) 307:List of applications 147:Apple Computer, Inc. 54:improve this article 5161:Andrew S. Tanenbaum 3574:Mac OS X Server 1.0 3527:10.13 (High Sierra) 3492:10.6 (Snow Leopard) 3372:Systems 2, 3, and 4 3079:. No Starch Press. 2699:. August 10, 2013. 2473:, September 1, 2000 2273:"Beyond Windows 95" 2252:archive.nytimes.com 2154:, pp. 70, 230. 1638:Mac OS X Server 1.0 1621:. Its interface is 1427:System Object Model 1065:and a hierarchical 740:Migration Assistant 570:Notification Center 410:High Sierra (10.13) 375:Snow Leopard (10.6) 262:Part of a series on 137: 5260:Macintosh platform 3517:10.11 (El Capitan) 3132:. Addison-Wesley. 3111:. Addison-Wesley. 3054:. Addison-Wesley. 2728:2012-09-19 at the 2655:staff, CNET News. 2630:On the Firing Line 2465:2009-06-18 at the 2425:2016-10-03 at the 2358:The New York Times 2281:. pp. 75–76. 2009:, pp. 19, 20. 1956:The New York Times 1766:says "March 1987". 1764:Apple Confidential 1670:video-conferencing 1402: 1400:location shortcut. 1116: 765:System Information 760:System Preferences 750:ODBC Administrator 690:DigitalColor Meter 400:El Capitan (10.11) 5232: 5231: 5146:James G. Mitchell 5131:Per Brinch Hansen 4950: 4949: 4785: 4784: 4578: 4577: 4274: 4273: 4191:Mac OS nanokernel 4088: 4087: 3966:operating systems 3925: 3924: 3877: 3876: 3847:Apple TV Software 3674: 3673: 3670: 3669: 3158:Hertzfeld, Andy. 3048:Mac OS 8 Revealed 2736:December 20, 1996 2634:. HarperCollins. 2036:, pp. 96–98. 1462:Developer Release 1297:Star Trek project 1291:Business as usual 1126:Copland is fully 1008:memory protection 856: 855: 695:Directory Utility 613: 541: 335:Hera (Server 1.0) 257: 256: 130: 129: 122: 104: 16:(Redirected from 5292: 5220: 5219: 5210: 5209: 4756: 4584:Capability-based 4400: 4390: 4139: 4115: 4108: 4101: 4092: 3952: 3945: 3938: 3929: 3917: 3916: 3908: 3907: 3686: 3589: 3537:10.15 (Catalina) 3512:10.10 (Yosemite) 3507:10.9 (Mavericks) 3355: 3262: 3255: 3248: 3239: 3174: 3172: 3171: 3154: 3152: 3151: 3122: 3101: 3099: 3098: 3069: 3067: 3066: 3060: 3053: 3041: 3039: 3038: 3017: 3015: 3013: 2992: 2990: 2989: 2968: 2966: 2965: 2944: 2932: 2921: 2919: 2918: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2826: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2791: 2785: 2784: 2782: 2781: 2767: 2761: 2755: 2749: 2743: 2737: 2719: 2713: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2689: 2683: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2668: 2667: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2633: 2623: 2617: 2616: 2614: 2613: 2593: 2587: 2586: 2584: 2583: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2538: 2532: 2526: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2480: 2474: 2457: 2448: 2442: 2433: 2432:, March 21, 2001 2417: 2402: 2401: 2400: 2399: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2373: 2372: 2349: 2343: 2342: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2312:on June 18, 2006 2301: 2295: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2268: 2262: 2261: 2259: 2258: 2244: 2238: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2211: 2205: 2199: 2193: 2192: 2190: 2189: 2161: 2155: 2149: 2143: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2128: 2127: 2106: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2082: 2076: 2070: 2064: 2058: 2052: 2046: 2037: 2031: 2025: 2019: 2010: 2004: 1998: 1992: 1986: 1985:, p. 9, 18. 1980: 1974: 1973: 1971: 1970: 1947: 1941: 1935: 1926: 1920: 1909: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1872: 1866: 1860: 1848: 1842: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1818: 1812: 1811: 1809: 1808: 1793: 1776: 1773: 1767: 1760: 1662:Internet browser 1619:preemptive tasks 1224:Yellow Submarine 1174:shared libraries 1121:protected memory 1032: 1031:(September 1986) 887:protected memory 863:operating system 848: 841: 834: 775:Universal Access 700:DiskImageMounter 665:Audio MIDI Setup 650:Activity Monitor 607: 535: 420:Catalina (10.15) 395:Yosemite (10.10) 390:Mavericks (10.9) 259: 181:Marketing target 138: 132:Operating system 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 103: 62: 38: 30: 21: 5300: 5299: 5295: 5294: 5293: 5291: 5290: 5289: 5235: 5234: 5233: 5228: 5205: 5175: 5116:Thomas Bushnell 5097: 5064: 4946: 4915: 4884: 4834: 4808: 4781: 4744: 4703: 4663: 4574: 4525: 4384: 4377: 4270: 4230: 4203: 4175: 4128: 4119: 4089: 4084: 3968: 3956: 3926: 3921: 3898: 3873: 3830: 3787: 3666: 3628: 3580: 3401: 3344: 3272: 3266: 3182: 3177: 3169: 3167: 3157: 3149: 3147: 3140: 3125: 3119: 3104: 3096: 3094: 3087: 3072: 3064: 3062: 3058: 3051: 3044: 3036: 3034: 3029:. 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Later, 1603:Macintosh clone 1587: 1500: 1464: 1394:stacked folders 1365: 1341:paravirtualized 1332: 1293: 1260: 1254: 1205:object-oriented 1193: 1187: 1182: 1080: 1033: 1024: 969: 964: 852: 823: 822: 793: 785: 784: 745:Network Utility 735:Keychain Access 660:Archive Utility 655:AirPort Utility 645: 637: 636: 610:version history 458: 450: 449: 325: 317: 316: 277: 203:Power Macintosh 184:Macintosh users 133: 126: 115: 109: 106: 63: 61: 51: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5298: 5296: 5288: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5237: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5226: 5197: 5189: 5187:= discontinued 5180: 5177: 5176: 5174: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5156:Richard Rashid 5153: 5148: 5143: 5141:Jochen Liedtke 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5121:David Cheriton 5118: 5113: 5107: 5105: 5099: 5098: 5096: 5090: 5084: 5078: 5076: 5066: 5065: 5063: 5062: 5056: 5050: 5031: 5023: 5017: 5010: 5004: 4998: 4992: 4986: 4980: 4974: 4968: 4960: 4951: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4944: 4925: 4923: 4917: 4916: 4914: 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(Leopard) 3484: 3479: 3477:10.3 (Panther) 3474: 3469: 3464: 3456: 3455: 3454: 3453: 3452: 3439: 3438: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3411: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3400: 3399: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3363: 3361: 3359:Classic Mac OS 3352: 3346: 3345: 3343: 3342: 3341: 3340: 3335: 3325: 3324: 3323: 3313: 3312: 3311: 3306: 3301: 3290: 3288: 3274: 3273: 3267: 3265: 3264: 3257: 3250: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3230: 3224: 3219: 3213: 3203: 3197: 3181: 3180:External links 3178: 3176: 3175: 3155: 3138: 3123: 3117: 3102: 3085: 3070: 3042: 3018: 2993: 2969: 2945: 2939: 2922: 2897: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2888: 2884:Linzmayer 2004 2876: 2872:Linzmayer 2004 2864: 2852: 2840: 2831: 2820:Apple Newsroom 2807: 2786: 2762: 2750: 2748:, p. 277. 2746:Linzmayer 2004 2738: 2714: 2684: 2682:, p. 402. 2672: 2647: 2640: 2618: 2588: 2564: 2533: 2518: 2506: 2475: 2449: 2434: 2403: 2377: 2344: 2323: 2296: 2263: 2239: 2206: 2202:Linzmayer 2004 2194: 2176: 2156: 2152:Linzmayer 2004 2144: 2140:Linzmayer 2004 2132: 2101: 2089: 2077: 2075:, p. 169. 2065: 2063:, p. 167. 2053: 2038: 2026: 2011: 1999: 1987: 1975: 1942: 1927: 1910: 1898: 1867: 1843: 1813: 1787: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1777: 1768: 1754: 1753: 1751: 1748: 1747: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1729:Classic Mac OS 1724: 1721: 1720: 1719: 1716: 1713: 1710: 1707: 1704: 1693: 1690: 1586: 1583: 1567:cross-platform 1499: 1496: 1463: 1460: 1364: 1361: 1331: 1328: 1308:Open Transport 1292: 1289: 1256:Main article: 1253: 1250: 1201:user interface 1186: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1079: 1078:Copland design 1076: 1022: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958:(IT) history. 925:and purchased 895:multithreading 854: 853: 851: 850: 843: 836: 828: 825: 824: 821: 820: 815: 810: 805: 800: 798:Classic Mac OS 794: 791: 790: 787: 786: 783: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 685:Crash Reporter 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 646: 643: 642: 639: 638: 635: 634: 629: 624: 619: 614: 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 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5136:Gernot Heiser 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5108: 5106: 5104: 5100: 5094: 5091: 5088: 5085: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5060: 5057: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5048: 5043: 5042: 5037: 5036: 5032: 5029: 5028: 5024: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5015: 5011: 5008: 5005: 5002: 4999: 4996: 4993: 4990: 4987: 4984: 4981: 4978: 4975: 4972: 4969: 4966: 4965: 4961: 4958: 4957: 4953: 4952: 4943: 4942: 4937: 4935: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4924: 4922: 4918: 4912: 4911: 4907: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4887: 4881: 4878: 4873: 4870: 4867: 4864: 4861: 4858: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4837: 4831: 4829: 4824: 4823: 4819: 4817: 4815: 4811: 4804: 4800: 4799: 4795: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4787: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4771: 4770: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4761: 4757: 4754: 4751: 4747: 4740: 4739: 4735: 4732: 4731: 4727:^ integrates 4726: 4725: 4720: 4719: 4715: 4714: 4712: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4685: 4682: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4654: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4638: 4637: 4633: 4631: 4630: 4626: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4617: 4613: 4611: 4607: 4606: 4601: 4600: 4595: 4594: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4581: 4570: 4567: 4564: 4561: 4558: 4555: 4552: 4549: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4539: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4522: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4503: 4499: 4496: 4493: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4484: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4468: 4464: 4461: 4460: 4456: 4451: 4448: 4445: 4442: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4433: 4429: 4427: 4426: 4422: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4413: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4401: 4398: 4395: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4380: 4374: 4373: 4369: 4366: 4363: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4354: 4350: 4348: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4337: 4333: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4324: 4320: 4315: 4312: 4311: 4309: 4308: 4304: 4302:Little Kernel 4301: 4298: 4297: 4293: 4290: 4289: 4285: 4282: 4281: 4277: 4276: 4267: 4266: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4253: 4250: 4249: 4248: 4247: 4243: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4233: 4226: 4225: 4220: 4219: 4215: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4206: 4200: 4199: 4195: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4178: 4171: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4160: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4111: 4109: 4104: 4102: 4097: 4096: 4093: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4054: 4051: 4050: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4023: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4010: 4007: 4006: 4005: 4002: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3989: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3974: 3971: 3967: 3964: 3960: 3953: 3948: 3946: 3941: 3939: 3934: 3933: 3930: 3920: 3911: 3901: 3895: 3894:iPod software 3892: 3890: 3887: 3886: 3884: 3880: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3848: 3845: 3844: 3843: 3840: 3839: 3837: 3833: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3790: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3687: 3684: 3681: 3677: 3663: 3660: 3656: 3653: 3652: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3637: 3635: 3631: 3625: 3622: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3590: 3587: 3583: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3570: 3567: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3547:12 (Monterey) 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3473: 3472:10.2 (Jaguar) 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3459: 3457: 3451: 3448: 3447: 3446: 3443: 3442: 3440: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3417: 3416: 3413: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3404: 3398: 3395: 3393: 3390: 3388: 3385: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3364: 3362: 3360: 3356: 3353: 3351: 3347: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3330: 3329: 3326: 3322: 3319: 3318: 3317: 3314: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3296: 3295: 3292: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3263: 3258: 3256: 3251: 3249: 3244: 3243: 3240: 3234: 3231: 3228: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3217: 3216:The Long View 3214: 3211: 3207: 3204: 3201: 3198: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3183: 3179: 3165: 3161: 3156: 3145: 3141: 3139:0-201-40970-4 3135: 3131: 3130: 3124: 3120: 3118:9780132702263 3114: 3110: 3109: 3103: 3092: 3088: 3086:1-59327-010-0 3082: 3078: 3077: 3071: 3057: 3050: 3049: 3043: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3019: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2940:0-8129-2851-2 2936: 2931: 2930: 2923: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2898: 2893: 2886:, p. 47. 2885: 2880: 2877: 2874:, p. 35. 2873: 2868: 2865: 2861: 2856: 2853: 2849: 2844: 2841: 2835: 2832: 2821: 2817: 2811: 2808: 2803: 2802: 2797: 2790: 2787: 2776: 2772: 2766: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2724: 2718: 2715: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2688: 2685: 2681: 2676: 2673: 2662: 2658: 2651: 2648: 2643: 2637: 2632: 2631: 2622: 2619: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2592: 2589: 2578: 2574: 2568: 2565: 2552: 2549:. p. 1. 2548: 2547:Computerworld 2544: 2537: 2534: 2530: 2525: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2507: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2479: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2461: 2456: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2428: 2424: 2421: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2393: 2389: 2388: 2381: 2378: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2348: 2345: 2340: 2339: 2334: 2327: 2324: 2311: 2307: 2300: 2297: 2284: 2280: 2279: 2274: 2267: 2264: 2253: 2249: 2243: 2240: 2227: 2223: 2222: 2217: 2210: 2207: 2204:, p. 81. 2203: 2198: 2195: 2183: 2179: 2177:9780966139341 2173: 2169: 2168: 2160: 2157: 2153: 2148: 2145: 2142:, p. 69. 2141: 2136: 2133: 2121: 2117: 2116: 2115:Business Week 2111: 2105: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2090: 2087:, p. 99. 2086: 2081: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2066: 2062: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2027: 2024:, p. 96. 2023: 2018: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1976: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1919: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1908:, p. 32. 1907: 1902: 1899: 1891:September 11, 1886: 1882: 1878: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1858: 1854: 1847: 1844: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1817: 1814: 1803: 1799: 1792: 1789: 1782: 1772: 1769: 1765: 1759: 1756: 1749: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1726: 1722: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1697: 1691: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1654:Mac OS X 10.4 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1584: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1553:and bringing 1552: 1548: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1505:Ellen Hancock 1497: 1495: 1491: 1489: 1483: 1478: 1475: 1473: 1469: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1452: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1441: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1418: 1416: 1412: 1406: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1386: 1382: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1362: 1360: 1358: 1357:Aaron Copland 1354: 1349: 1345: 1342: 1336: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1319: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1282: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1268:PS/2 Model 70 1265: 1259: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1246:feature creep 1242: 1237: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1192: 1185:Pink and Blue 1184: 1179: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1131: 1129: 1124: 1122: 1111: 1107: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1043: 1040: 1030: 1029: 1021: 1016: 1013: 1012:shared memory 1009: 1005: 1000: 996: 993: 989: 985: 980: 978: 972: 967:Mac OS legacy 966: 961: 959: 957: 953: 952: 947: 946:feature creep 942: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 919: 918:Ellen Hancock 915: 912: 908: 907:Macworld Expo 904: 898: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 865:developed by 864: 860: 849: 844: 842: 837: 835: 830: 829: 827: 826: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 806: 804: 801: 799: 796: 795: 789: 788: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 743: 741: 738: 736: 733: 731: 728: 726: 725:Image Capture 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 647: 641: 640: 633: 630: 628: 625: 623: 620: 618: 615: 611: 606: 603: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 578: 576: 573: 571: 568: 566: 563: 561: 558: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 539: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 460: 454: 453: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 430:Monterey (12) 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 355:Jaguar (10.2) 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 327: 321: 320: 313: 312:List of games 310: 308: 305: 303: 302:Built-in apps 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 279: 273: 272: 269: 265: 261: 260: 253: 249: 245: 240: 237: 234: 230: 227: 224: 220: 217: 214: 211: 207: 204: 201: 197: 193: 191: 187: 183: 179: 176: 175:Closed source 173: 169: 165: 163:Working state 161: 158: 155: 151: 148: 145: 143: 139: 124: 121: 113: 110:December 2023 102: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 81: 78: 74: 71: – 70: 66: 65:Find sources: 59: 55: 49: 48: 43:This article 41: 37: 32: 31: 19: 5270:Microkernels 5221: 5211: 5199: 5191: 5186: 5183: 5171:William Wulf 5045: 5039: 5033: 5025: 5012: 4962: 4954: 4941:Workplace OS 4939: 4932: 4928: 4921:AIM alliance 4908: 4826: 4820: 4796: 4790: 4789: 4774: 4767: 4736: 4728: 4722: 4716: 4689: 4656: 4641: 4634: 4627: 4614: 4603: 4597: 4591: 4551:Nucleus RTOS 4536: 4519: 4512: 4500: 4481: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4457: 4430: 4423: 4410: 4370: 4351: 4344: 4334: 4321: 4305: 4294: 4286: 4278: 4263: 4244: 4222: 4216: 4196: 4189: 4157: 4151: 4122:Microkernels 4080:Workplace OS 3981: 3649: 3562:15 (Sequoia) 3552:13 (Ventura) 3542:11 (Big Sur) 3482:10.4 (Tiger) 3209: 3168:. Retrieved 3148:. Retrieved 3128: 3107: 3095:. Retrieved 3075: 3063:. Retrieved 3047: 3035:. Retrieved 3026: 3010:. Retrieved 3001: 2986:. Retrieved 2977: 2962:. Retrieved 2953: 2928: 2915:. Retrieved 2907:BusinessWeek 2906: 2894:Bibliography 2879: 2867: 2862:, p. 6. 2855: 2843: 2834: 2823:. Retrieved 2819: 2810: 2799: 2789: 2778:. Retrieved 2774: 2765: 2760:, p. 6. 2753: 2741: 2733: 2717: 2705:. Retrieved 2696: 2687: 2680:Carlton 1997 2675: 2664:. Retrieved 2660: 2650: 2629: 2621: 2610:. Retrieved 2601: 2591: 2580:. Retrieved 2576: 2567: 2555:. Retrieved 2546: 2536: 2529:Burrows 1995 2509: 2497:. Retrieved 2488: 2478: 2470: 2429: 2396:, retrieved 2386: 2380: 2369:. Retrieved 2357: 2347: 2336: 2326: 2314:. Retrieved 2310:the original 2299: 2287:. Retrieved 2276: 2266: 2255:. Retrieved 2251: 2242: 2230:. Retrieved 2219: 2209: 2197: 2186:. Retrieved 2166: 2159: 2147: 2135: 2124:. Retrieved 2113: 2104: 2099:, p. 4. 2092: 2085:Carlton 1997 2080: 2073:Carlton 1997 2068: 2061:Carlton 1997 2056: 2051:, p. 2. 2034:Carlton 1997 2029: 2022:Carlton 1997 2007:Francis 1996 2002: 1997:, p. 9. 1995:Francis 1996 1990: 1983:Francis 1996 1978: 1967:. Retrieved 1955: 1945: 1938:Francis 1996 1906:Francis 1996 1901: 1889:. Retrieved 1880: 1870: 1856: 1846: 1834:. Retrieved 1825: 1816: 1805:. Retrieved 1801: 1791: 1771: 1763: 1758: 1739:Workplace OS 1695: 1665: 1644:library and 1635: 1613:updated the 1600: 1588: 1544: 1521: 1517: 1501: 1498:Cancellation 1492: 1485: 1480: 1476: 1465: 1453: 1449: 1438: 1434: 1423:QuickDraw GX 1420: 1410: 1408: 1403: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1366: 1350: 1346: 1337: 1333: 1320: 1304:QuickDraw GX 1301: 1294: 1285: 1264:John Sculley 1261: 1238: 1222: 1219:Blue Meanies 1216: 1194: 1163: 1159:AIM alliance 1132: 1125: 1117: 1100: 1091: 1081: 1063:screensavers 1048: 1044: 1035: 1026: 1018: 1001: 997: 988:code library 981: 973: 970: 949: 943: 916: 899: 878: 874: 858: 857: 802: 705:Disk Utility 632:Time Machine 457:Applications 445:Sequoia (15) 435:Ventura (13) 425:Big Sur (11) 365:Tiger (10.4) 297:Architecture 232:Succeeded by 190:Available in 171:Source model 166:Discontinued 116: 107: 97: 90: 83: 76: 64: 52:Please help 47:verification 44: 5111:Gordon Bell 5001:OpenComRTOS 4898:Singularity 4724:Chorus/Jazz 4647:OpenHarmony 4126:nanokernels 4070:Taligent OS 3698:iPhone OS 1 3682:derivatives 3557:14 (Sonoma) 3497:10.7 (Lion) 3467:10.1 (Puma) 3435:Public Beta 3160:"Mea Culpa" 3012:November 3, 2860:Cotter 1995 2848:Cotter 1995 2697:Low End Mac 2514:Duncan 1994 2499:October 23, 2445:Crabbe 1995 2278:PC Magazine 1923:Dierks 1995 1435:open dialog 1429:(SOM), and 1369:David Nagel 1363:Development 1330:Another try 1208:file system 1197:index cards 1084:microkernel 1039:MultiFinder 948:. In 2008, 903:David Nagel 720:Help Viewer 575:Photo Booth 523:Game Center 440:Sonoma (14) 380:Lion (10.7) 350:Puma (10.1) 222:Preceded by 216:Microkernel 5239:Categories 5103:Developers 5070:Frameworks 5007:Phantom OS 4971:ChibiOS/RT 4329:µ-velOSity 4323:MicroEmpix 4075:UNICOS MAX 4053:Tru64 UNIX 3170:2019-04-08 3150:2017-09-27 3097:2016-10-10 3065:2012-02-22 3037:2009-11-25 2988:2005-10-07 2964:2020-08-27 2917:2021-02-08 2825:2024-03-07 2780:2024-03-07 2758:Singh 2007 2707:August 28, 2666:2022-11-28 2641:0887309186 2612:2020-08-27 2582:2024-03-07 2398:2022-02-11 2371:2024-03-07 2257:2024-03-07 2232:October 2, 2188:2016-10-10 2126:2016-10-10 2097:Singh 2007 2049:Singh 2007 1969:2024-03-07 1836:August 28, 1807:2024-03-07 1783:References 1615:nanokernel 1611:Mac OS 8.6 1607:Mac OS 8.1 1579:Windows NT 1555:Steve Jobs 1536:Bill Gates 1532:Windows NT 1507:away from 1472:Gil Amelio 1456:Windows NT 1445:featuritis 1411:Softletter 1388:Copland's 1353:code-named 1324:Windows 95 1189:See also: 1157:, and the 1071:After Dark 1067:Apple menu 984:reentrancy 911:Gil Amelio 508:DVD Player 503:Dictionary 478:Calculator 80:newspapers 5285:Vaporware 5194:Real-time 5151:Ike Nassi 5126:Dan Dodge 4890:Microsoft 4760:Unix-like 4750:Macintosh 4658:HarmonyOS 4545:Integrity 4444:Minix-vmd 4404:Unix-like 4383:Operating 4181:Macintosh 3963:Mach-like 3889:Newton OS 3640:Star Trek 3633:Cancelled 3316:Apple III 3299:Apple DOS 2366:0362-4331 2333:"Plan Be" 2306:"Plan Be" 2221:InfoWorld 1964:0362-4331 1863:TrueBASIC 1674:Spotlight 1575:DEC Alpha 1540:QuickDraw 1513:Ike Nassi 1415:Sisyphean 1390:open file 1316:PowerTalk 1166:megabytes 1103:reentrant 992:QuickDraw 871:Macintosh 780:VoiceOver 730:Installer 710:Font Book 675:ColorSync 644:Utilities 600:Reminders 595:QuickTime 545:Launchpad 498:Dashboard 468:Automator 463:App Store 199:Platforms 157:Macintosh 153:OS family 142:Developer 4977:FreeRTOS 4934:Taligent 4866:Broadway 4860:AspireOS 4730:ChorusOS 4651:Oniro OS 4538:ChorusOS 4418:GNU Hurd 4372:Vanguard 4314:GNU Mach 4198:NuKernel 4043:NeXTSTEP 4031:Rhapsody 3919:Category 3869:bridgeOS 3854:visionOS 3662:Vanguard 3655:Nukernel 3645:Taligent 3458:Desktop 3430:Rhapsody 3425:OpenStep 3420:NeXTSTEP 3397:Mac OS 9 3392:Mac OS 8 3387:System 7 3382:System 6 3377:System 5 3367:System 1 3338:MacWorks 3294:Apple II 3278:Apple II 3210:MacWorld 3164:Archived 3144:Archived 3091:Archived 3056:Archived 3031:Archived 3006:Archived 2982:Archived 2958:Archived 2911:Archived 2801:Macworld 2726:Archived 2701:Archived 2606:Archived 2557:July 17, 2551:Archived 2493:Archived 2471:MacWorld 2463:Archived 2423:Archived 2392:archived 2316:July 23, 2289:July 23, 2283:Archived 2226:Archived 2182:Archived 2120:Archived 1885:Archived 1830:Archived 1826:Macworld 1723:See also 1686:iChat AV 1650:Mac OS X 1596:Mac OS 8 1592:Platinum 1571:OpenStep 1563:Rhapsody 1559:NeXTSTEP 1398:favorite 1378:mock-ups 1281:Taligent 1276:System 7 1258:Taligent 1252:Taligent 1241:NeXTSTEP 1229:System 7 1088:Nukernel 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