6806:
792:
350 to 550 billion tonnes C. This vast amount is similar to the biomass of carbon in all plants. The vast majority of bacteria and archaea were estimated to be in sediments deep below the seafloor or in the deep terrestrial biosphere (in deep continental aquifers). However, updated measurements reported in a 2012 study reduced the calculated prokaryotic biomass in deep subseafloor sediments from the original ≈300 billion tonnes C to ≈4 billion tonnes C (range 1.5–22 billion tonnes). This update originates from much lower estimates of both the prokaryotic abundance and their average weight.
7502:
1038:
494:
1110:
933:
49:
1080:
894:
1836:
63:
7528:
7516:
187:
275:
478:
465:
968:
1003:
7134:
831:
1102:, such as lanternfish, spending most of the day in the deep, dark waters. Marine mammals such as whales and dolphins account for about 0.006 billion tonnes C. Land animals account for about 500 million tonnes C, or about 20% of the biomass of animals on Earth. Terrestrial arthropods account for about 150 million tonnes C, most of which is found in the
434:
805:
biomass was estimated to be found in the deep subsurface. The estimated number of prokaryotic cells globally was estimated to be 11–15 × 10. With this information, the authors of the May 2018 PNAS article revised their estimate for the global biomass of prokaryotes to ≈30 billion tonnes C, similar to the Deep Carbon
Observatory estimate.
416:
366:
791:
The estimates for the global biomass of prokaryotes had changed significantly over recent decades, as more data became available. A much-cited study from 1998 collected data on abundances (number of cells) of bacteria and archaea in different natural environments, and estimated their total biomass at
314:
In a temperate grassland, grasses and other plants are the primary producers at the bottom of the pyramid. Then come the primary consumers, such as grasshoppers, voles and bison, followed by the secondary consumers, shrews, hawks and small cats. Finally the tertiary consumers, large cats and wolves.
265:
When energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, typically only ten percent is used to build new biomass. The remaining ninety percent goes to metabolic processes or is dissipated as heat. This energy loss means that productivity pyramids are never inverted, and generally limits food
804:
published in 2018 reported a much larger dataset of measurements, and updated the total biomass estimate in the deep terrestrial biosphere. It used this new knowledge and previous estimates to update the global biomass of bacteria and archaea to 23–31 billion tonnes C. Roughly 70% of the global
1106:. Land mammals account for about 180 million tonnes C, most of which are humans (about 80 million tonnes C) and domesticated mammals (about 90 million tonnes C). Wild terrestrial mammals account for only about 3 million tonnes C, less than 2% of the total mammalian biomass on land.
128:, the salmon biomass might be regarded as the total wet weight the salmon would have if they were taken out of the water. In other contexts, biomass can be measured in terms of the dried organic mass, so perhaps only 30% of the actual weight might count, the rest being
605:
Marine environments can have inverted biomass pyramids. In particular, the biomass of consumers (copepods, krill, shrimp, forage fish) is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton which are
2582:"Life in deep Earth totals 15 to 23 billion tons of carbon -- hundreds of times more than humans - Deep Carbon Observatory collaborators, exploring the 'Galapagos of the deep,' add to what's known, unknown, and unknowable about Earth's most pristine ecosystem"
799:
in May 2018 estimated global bacterial biomass at ≈70 billion tonnes C, of which ≈60 billion tonnes are in the terrestrial deep subsurface. It also estimated the global biomass of archaea at ≈7 billion tonnes C. A later study by the
3914:
IPCC 2006, 2006 IPCC Guidelines for
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T. and Tanabe K. (eds). Published: IGES,
808:
These estimates convert global abundance of prokaryotes into global biomass using average cellular biomass figures that are based on limited data. Recent estimates used an average cellular biomass of about 20–30
6965:
1870:
primary production for the Earth is about 104.9 billion tonnes C/yr. This translates to about 426 gC/m/yr for land production (excluding areas with permanent ice cover), and 140 gC/m/yr for the oceans.
7457:
4060:
Joint
Research Centre (European Commission); Johnson, Nancy C.; Scheu, Stefan; Ramirez, Kelly S.; Lemanceau, Philippe; Eggleton, Paul; Jones, Arwyn; Moreira, Fatima M. S.; Barrios, Edmundo (2016).
1113:
The global biomass broken down by kingdom and into taxonomic groups for animals. The estimates for bacteria and archaea have been updated to 30 billion tonnes C combined since this figure was made.
254:). The primary producers take energy from the environment in the form of sunlight or inorganic chemicals and use it to create energy-rich molecules such as carbohydrates. This mechanism is called
452:
Ocean or marine biomass, in a reversal of terrestrial biomass, can increase at higher trophic levels. In the ocean, the food chain typically starts with phytoplankton, and follows the course:
194:
illustrates how much energy is needed as it flows upward to support the next trophic level. Only about 10% of the energy transferred between each trophic level is converted to biomass.
6960:
2635:
2957:
Kettler GC, Martiny AC, Huang K, Zucker J, Coleman ML, Rodrigue S, Chen F, Lapidus A, Ferriera S, Johnson J, Steglich C, Church GM, Richardson P, Chisholm SW (December 2007).
4422:
Johnson, Brett M.; Pate, William M.; Hansen, Adam G. (2017). "Energy
Density and Dry Matter Content in Fish: New Observations and an Evaluation of Some Empirical Models".
3467:
Greenspoon, Lior; Krieger, Eyal; Sender, Ron; Rosenberg, Yuval; Bar-On, Yinon M.; Moran, Uri; Antman, Tomer; Meiri, Shai; Roll, Uri; Noor, Elad; Milo, Ron (7 March 2023).
2364:
6805:
6990:
1839:
Globally, terrestrial and oceanic habitats produce a similar amount of new biomass each year (56.4 billion tonnes C terrestrial and 48.5 billion tonnes C oceanic).
5665:
4918:
3125:
Magnabosco, C.; Lin, L.-H.; Dong, H.; Bomberg, M.; Ghiorse, W.; Stan-Lotter, H.; Pedersen, K.; Kieft, T. L.; van
Heerden, E.; Onstott, T. C. (24 September 2018).
610:
that grow and reproduce rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production. In contrast, terrestrial primary producers, such as forests, are
6482:
1117:
Most of the global biomass is found on land, with only 5 to 10 billion tonnes C found in the oceans. On land, there is about 1,000 times more plant biomass (
5809:
3266:"Distribution patterns of attached and suspended bacteria in pristine and contaminated shallow aquifers studied with an in situ sediment exposure microcosm"
6830:
2191:
2339:
5879:
132:. For other purposes, only biological tissues count, and teeth, bones and shells are excluded. In some applications, biomass is measured as the mass of
5416:
3653:
6980:
1090:
represent less than 0.5% of the total biomass on Earth, with about 2 billion tonnes C in total. Most animal biomass is found in the oceans, where
682:, and their biomass is commonly estimated together. The global biomass of prokaryotes is estimated at 30 billion tonnes C, dominated by bacteria.
5889:
5617:
4869:
4847:
4653:
4606:
4551:
4151:
4079:
2609:
2349:
5894:
6995:
5451:
3638:
3314:
266:
chains to about six levels. However, in oceans, biomass pyramids can be wholly or partially inverted, with more biomass at higher levels.
7093:
6955:
6082:
4505:
5499:
1098:, account for about 1 billion tonnes C and fish for another 0.7 billion tonnes C. Roughly half of the biomass of fish in the world are
7557:
5835:
5658:
4911:
4891:
4596:
318:
Changes in plant species in the terrestrial ecosystem can result in changes in the biomass of soil decomposer communities. Biomass in
6985:
5171:
4543:
4397:
639:
on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater can contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide, there are estimated to be several
6620:
6475:
2902:"Soybean photosynthetic and biomass responses to carbon dioxide concentrations ranging from pre-industrial to the distant future"
1083:
Humans and their livestock represent 96% of all mammals on earth in terms of biomass, whereas all wild mammals represent only 4%.
117:
How biomass is measured depends on why it is being measured. Sometimes, the biomass is regarded as the natural mass of organisms
4886:
5914:
5627:
5494:
5206:
4463:
1866:/yr (53.8%), for terrestrial primary production, and 48.5 billion tonnes C/yr for oceanic primary production. Thus, the total
7447:
6172:
2043:
1847:
is the rate at which new biomass is generated, mainly due to photosynthesis. Global primary production can be estimated from
6299:
5944:
6345:
5899:
5651:
4904:
4877:
3537:
Rosenberg, Yuval; Bar-On, Yinon M.; Fromm, Amir; Ostikar, Meital; Shoshany, Aviv; Giz, Omer; Milo, Ron (3 February 2023).
3329:"The rise to dominance of lanternfishes (Teleostei: Myctophidae) in the oceanic ecosystems: a paleontological perspective"
151:
was once thought to be about the same as plants, but recent studies suggest it is significantly less. The total number of
5777:
575:
A fourth trophic level can consist of predatory fish, marine mammals and seabirds that consume forage fish. Examples are
114:, plants or animals. The mass can be expressed as the average mass per unit area, or as the total mass in the community.
7552:
7467:
7452:
6575:
3932:
Schultheiss, Patrick; Nooten, Sabine; Wang, Runxi; Wong, Mark; Brassard, François; Benoit, Guénard (19 September 2022).
3014:
635:, is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across. In terms of individual numbers, Prochlorococcus is possibly the most plentiful
2900:
Drag, David W; Slattery, Rebecca; Siebers, Matthew; DeLucia, Evan H; Ort, Donald R; Bernacchi, Carl J (12 March 2020).
178:. Anthropogenic mass (human-made material) is expected to exceed all living biomass on earth at around the year 2020.
7562:
7462:
6468:
6134:
5025:
4711:
the tundra is a vast and treeless land which covers about 20% of the Earth's surface, circumnavigating the North pole.
7572:
6770:
6199:
5919:
5123:
5020:
2159:
1037:
842:
The total global biomass has been estimated at 550 billion tonnes C. A breakdown of the global biomass is given by
143:
at about 550 billion (5.5×10) tonnes C, most of it in plants. In 1998 Field et.al. estimated the total annual net
7078:
6972:
6380:
5992:
5884:
5742:
5727:
5722:
5113:
4567:
54:
The total global live biomass has been estimated at 550 billion tonnes carbon, most of which is found in forests.
6139:
4095:
Fierer, Noah; Strickland, Michael S.; Liptzin, Daniel; Bradford, Mark A.; Cleveland, Cory C. (13 October 2009).
2717:
1125:). About 18% of this plant biomass is eaten by the land animals. However, marine animals eat most of the marine
614:
that grow and reproduce slowly, so a much larger mass is needed to achieve the same rate of primary production.
7531:
7324:
7319:
6615:
6370:
6365:
6335:
5602:
5484:
4787:"Quantifying and mapping the human appropriation of net primary production in earth's terrestrial ecosystems"
527:. They are then consumed by zooplankton that range in size from a few micrometers in diameter in the case of
7232:
7043:
6937:
6665:
6655:
6214:
6077:
5987:
5855:
5737:
5707:
5564:
5529:
5249:
5216:
5191:
4782:
3603:
801:
602:
can consume zooplankton and krill directly, leading to a food chain with only three or four trophic levels.
834:
7058:
7048:
6750:
6735:
6360:
6304:
6239:
6102:
6037:
5972:
5632:
5534:
5322:
5030:
5010:
2153:
2753:
Elhacham, Emily; Ben-Uri, Liad; et al. (2020). "Global human-made mass exceeds all living biomass".
2133: – Biological material from either living (see ecology) or recently living organisms (see bioenergy)
7477:
7404:
7204:
7179:
7154:
7038:
6785:
6565:
6264:
6209:
6072:
6057:
5840:
5797:
5787:
5782:
5539:
5519:
5375:
5365:
5307:
5302:
5138:
4990:
4694:
1109:
80:, can be as productive as forests, generating similar amounts of new biomass each year on a given area.
493:
340:
plant species have been observed to increase in biomass in response to increasing concentrations of CO
7212:
7174:
6505:
6390:
6355:
6350:
6274:
6269:
6224:
6122:
6092:
6087:
5939:
5802:
5792:
5337:
5176:
4965:
4798:
4741:
4478:
4431:
4370:
4311:
4254:
4108:
4019:
3945:
3550:
3480:
3400:
3340:
3138:
2858:
2764:
2636:"Massive 'deep life' study reveals billions of tonnes of microbes living far beneath Earth's surface"
2531:
2469:
2410:
2275:
2142:
1886:
4896:
3181:
2581:
7567:
7434:
7088:
6897:
6855:
6625:
6585:
6440:
6415:
6279:
6249:
6194:
6107:
5997:
5982:
5929:
5762:
5697:
5579:
5509:
5040:
1947:
595:
159:
5643:
4298:
Pershing AJ, Christensen LB, Record NR, Sherwood GD, Stetson PB (August 2010). Humphries S (ed.).
1079:
48:
7354:
7349:
7217:
7159:
7053:
6902:
6820:
6705:
6685:
6595:
6538:
6451:
6400:
6395:
6204:
6167:
5865:
5830:
5687:
5612:
5514:
5446:
5436:
5370:
5317:
5128:
5073:
5035:
4960:
4204:
4035:
3813:
3758:
3750:
3366:
3246:
3162:
3082:
2882:
2827:
2788:
2165:
1875:
1844:
326:
319:
255:
232:
209:
199:
144:
5909:
2847:"Interactive Effects of Diversity, Nutrients and Elevated CO2 on Experimental Plant Communities"
932:
7364:
7339:
7242:
7189:
7108:
6775:
6740:
6680:
6640:
6580:
6491:
6340:
6309:
6097:
5924:
5732:
5597:
5574:
5431:
5312:
5088:
5000:
4985:
4950:
4843:
4826:
4769:
4649:
4643:
4602:
4547:
4339:
4280:
4242:
4196:
4188:
4147:
4124:
4075:
3981:
3963:
3867:
3805:
3797:
3584:
3566:
3514:
3496:
3434:
3416:
3358:
3287:
3238:
3230:
3182:"Life in deep Earth totals 15 to 23 billion tons of carbon—hundreds of times more than humans"
3154:
3064:
2990:
2939:
2921:
2874:
2780:
2725:
2695:
2559:
2497:
2426:
2345:
2303:
1139:
893:
843:
2808:"Plant diversity effects on soil heterotrophic activity in experimental grassland ecosystems"
7472:
7164:
7068:
7020:
6932:
6825:
6765:
6523:
6294:
6157:
6149:
6067:
5949:
5934:
5870:
5850:
5767:
5757:
5752:
5717:
5549:
5489:
5360:
5161:
5103:
5015:
4975:
4816:
4806:
4759:
4749:
4520:
4486:
4439:
4378:
4329:
4319:
4270:
4262:
4180:
4116:
4067:
4027:
4008:"A Comparative Analysis of Soil Fauna Populations and Their Role in Decomposition Processes"
3971:
3953:
3857:
3847:
3789:
3742:
3574:
3558:
3504:
3488:
3424:
3408:
3387:
Hatton, Ian A.; Heneghan, Ryan F.; Bar-On, Yinon M.; Galbraith, Eric D. (12 November 2021).
3348:
3277:
3222:
3146:
3054:
3046:
2980:
2970:
2929:
2913:
2866:
2819:
2772:
2755:
2685:
2675:
2549:
2539:
2487:
2477:
2418:
2378:
2293:
2283:
2136:
2023:
1867:
1134:
1099:
512:
236:
35:
31:
7442:
7409:
7270:
7222:
7098:
7073:
6882:
6835:
6760:
6605:
6590:
6430:
6289:
6259:
6254:
6244:
6177:
6162:
6042:
6022:
5904:
5772:
5678:
5569:
5479:
5421:
5406:
5005:
4931:
4881:
2640:
2181:
2176:
1835:
1711:
1138:, human-made materials, or anthropogenic mass, outweigh all living biomass on earth, with
651:(nutrient poor) regions of the oceans. The bacterium accounts for an estimated 20% of the
631:
618:
499:
483:
355:
4524:
3265:
3264:
Griebler, Christian; Mindl, Birgit; Slezak, Doris; Geiger-Kaiser, Margot (26 June 2002).
4802:
4745:
4482:
4435:
4382:
4374:
4315:
4258:
4223:
Biomass of termites and their emissions of methane and carbon dioxide: A global database
4168:
4112:
4023:
3949:
3554:
3509:
3484:
3468:
3404:
3344:
3142:
2862:
2806:
Spehn, Eva M.; Joshi, Jasmin; Schmid, Bernhard; Alphei, Jörn; Körner, Christian (2000).
2768:
2535:
2473:
2414:
2279:
7306:
7260:
7255:
7227:
7194:
7063:
6922:
6850:
6840:
6690:
6635:
6553:
6548:
6543:
6410:
6234:
6187:
6117:
6112:
6007:
5874:
5747:
5554:
5544:
5524:
5401:
5327:
5292:
5231:
5108:
5063:
4955:
4821:
4786:
4764:
4729:
4334:
4299:
3976:
3933:
3862:
3835:
3579:
3538:
3429:
3388:
2985:
2958:
2934:
2901:
2690:
2663:
2554:
2519:
2298:
2263:
2171:
2147:
1863:
626:
569:
560:
In turn, small zooplankton are consumed by both larger predatory zooplankters, such as
520:
469:
438:
191:
133:
111:
2870:
299:
are grasses, trees and shrubs. These have a much higher biomass than the animals that
62:
7546:
7520:
7414:
7379:
7280:
7275:
7250:
6780:
6745:
6720:
6570:
6533:
6435:
5411:
5385:
5342:
5332:
5287:
5274:
5254:
5146:
4980:
4935:
4208:
4120:
4007:
3834:
Walpole SC, Prieto-Merino D, Edwards P, Cleland J, Stevens G, Roberts I (June 2012).
3817:
3370:
3166:
3059:
3034:
2959:"Patterns and implications of gene gain and loss in the evolution of Prochlorococcus"
2792:
2492:
2399:"Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components"
1790:
622:
611:
607:
508:
457:
420:
379:
303:, such as deer, zebras and insects. The level with the least biomass are the highest
292:
259:
213:
4892:
Biomass distributions for high trophic-level fishes in the North
Atlantic, 1900–2000
4870:
The mass of all life on Earth is staggering — until you consider how much we've lost
3762:
3250:
3210:
3126:
2831:
2374:
7515:
7506:
7285:
7265:
7169:
6907:
6790:
6710:
6670:
6660:
6630:
6420:
6405:
6062:
6032:
5977:
5860:
5825:
5702:
5201:
4781:
Haberl H, Erb KH, Krausmann F, Gaube V, Bondeau A, Plutzar C, Gingrich S, Lucht W,
3050:
2807:
2713:
2082:
1796:
599:
488:
Compared to terrestrial biomass pyramids, aquatic pyramids are inverted at the base
274:
4443:
186:
4324:
3308:
2975:
2680:
2454:
2422:
7419:
7394:
7389:
7359:
7142:
7118:
7083:
6892:
6795:
6715:
6675:
6528:
5712:
5441:
5259:
5221:
5196:
5186:
5151:
5098:
5078:
3630:
2586:
2520:"Global distribution of microbial abundance and biomass in subseafloor sediment"
2369:
1856:
1759:
967:
565:
538:
532:
447:
392:
300:
244:
27:
Total mass of living organisms in a given area (all species or selected species)
4874:
4791:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4734:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4142:
Edwards, Clive A.; Normal, Arancon Q. (27 April 2022). "Earthworm
Physiology".
2524:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2462:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2398:
2268:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2194: – Aquatic animals that are harvested commercially in the greatest amounts
1129:, and the biomass of marine animals is greater than that of marine autotrophs.
7399:
7334:
7123:
7103:
6887:
6860:
6645:
6558:
6425:
6002:
5967:
5607:
5559:
5504:
5474:
5380:
5297:
5241:
5118:
5068:
4669:
4490:
4464:"A re-appraisal of the total biomass and annual production of Antarctic krill"
4266:
4169:"Ant-termite interactions: an important but under-explored ecological linkage"
3777:
3679:"Anthropogenic mass: Comparing human-made mass to the living Biomass on earth"
3226:
3150:
2823:
2776:
1967:
1603:
679:
660:
656:
648:
542:
524:
516:
477:
464:
308:
77:
17:
4192:
3967:
3852:
3801:
3570:
3500:
3420:
3362:
3291:
3234:
3158:
2925:
2878:
2729:
2373:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
7424:
7329:
7113:
6877:
6870:
6845:
6755:
6330:
6284:
6012:
5456:
5426:
5226:
5181:
5156:
5093:
5083:
5058:
5050:
4995:
4811:
4754:
4243:"Soil nematode abundance and functional group composition at a global scale"
4096:
3958:
3683:
Anthropogenic mass: Comparing human-made mass to the living Biomass on earth
3492:
3035:"Prochlorococcus, a marine photosynthetic prokaryote of global significance"
2610:"Scientists Reveal a Massive Biosphere of Life Hidden Under Earth's Surface"
2544:
2482:
2382:
2288:
1879:
1848:
1478:
1126:
1091:
1002:
810:
640:
576:
296:
251:
205:
204:
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation that shows, for a given
155:
99:
73:
7133:
4830:
4773:
4343:
4284:
4200:
4128:
3985:
3890:
3871:
3809:
3588:
3562:
3518:
3438:
3412:
3242:
3068:
3009:
2994:
2943:
2784:
2699:
2563:
2307:
147:
of biomass at just over 100 billion tonnes C/yr. The total live biomass of
4361:
Jelmert A, Oppen-Berntsen DO (1996). "Whaling and Deep-Sea Biodiversity".
4061:
3793:
3731:"How Many Times Has the Human Population Doubled? Comparisons with Cancer"
2917:
2518:
Kallmeyer J, Pockalny R, Adhikari RR, Smith DC, D'Hondt S (October 2012).
2501:
2430:
7374:
7184:
6730:
6725:
6650:
6385:
6314:
5845:
5352:
5264:
5211:
5166:
3634:
1560:
905:
671:
580:
304:
148:
95:
4300:"The impact of whaling on the ocean carbon cycle: why bigger was better"
4275:
3754:
3730:
433:
7384:
7344:
7314:
7292:
6912:
6700:
6600:
6375:
6182:
6052:
6047:
5674:
5622:
5282:
4927:
4039:
3746:
3353:
3328:
2886:
2846:
2130:
2005:
1753:
1519:
1386:
1103:
1095:
979:
909:
675:
636:
546:
528:
125:
69:
4184:
3778:"Water as an essential nutrient: the physiological basis of hydration"
3704:
3282:
1878:—while accounting for almost half of total annual production, oceanic
1036:
1001:
966:
931:
892:
258:. The pyramid then proceeds through the various trophic levels to the
7369:
6695:
6460:
4625:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press and UNEP/WCMC.
2102:
2063:
1254:
1180:
1087:
1014:
944:
652:
584:
122:
4031:
1892:
Some global producers of biomass in order of productivity rates are
415:
332:
plant species can change in response to altered concentrations of CO
110:, which is the mass of all species in the community. It can include
3654:"Human-made materials now outweigh Earth's entire biomass – study"
1987:
1928:
1924:
1860:
1834:
1298:
1142:
alone exceeding the mass of all land and marine animals combined.
1108:
1078:
870:
813:
carbon (fgC) per cell in the subsurface and terrestrial habitats.
561:
554:
550:
463:
273:
185:
175:
140:
129:
4506:"Estimates of global cyanobacterial biomass and its distribution"
4071:
3310:
Global biodiversity: Earth's living resources in the 21st century
6865:
3211:"Towards a quantitative view of the global ubiquity of biofilms"
3019:
2397:
Field CB, Behrenfeld MJ, Randerson JT, Falkowski P (July 1998).
1852:
1673:
1342:
796:
591:
541:
comprise the second level in the food chain, and includes small
365:
291:
Terrestrial biomass generally decreases markedly at each higher
91:
7018:
6502:
6464:
5647:
4900:
6927:
6917:
4462:
Atkinson A, Siegel V, Pakhomov EA, Jessopp MJ, Loeb V (2009).
4167:
Tuma, Jiri; Eggleton, Paul; Fayle, Tom M. (25 December 2019).
2168: – Measurement of population per unit area or unit volume
1430:
598:, which can consume swordfish, make up a fifth trophic level.
152:
3836:"The weight of nations: an estimation of adult human biomass"
2139: – Biological material used as a renewable energy source
315:
The biomass pyramid decreases markedly at each higher level.
3127:"The biomass and biodiversity of the continental subsurface"
846:
in the table below, based on a 2018 study by Bar-On et. al.
250:
The bottom of the pyramid represents the primary producers (
3934:"The abundance, biomass, and distribution of ants on Earth"
3678:
2845:
He, Jin-Sheng; Bazzaz, Fakhri A.; Schmid, Bernhard (2002).
139:
In 2018, Bar-On et al. estimated the total live biomass on
4621:
Mark Spalding, Corinna Ravilious, and Edmund Green. 2001.
1889:
generate about 1.5% of the global net primary production.
531:
microzooplankton to macroscopic gelatinous and crustacean
295:(plants, herbivores, carnivores). Examples of terrestrial
3539:"The global biomass and number of terrestrial arthropods"
3327:
Schwarzhans, Werner; Carnevale, Giorgio (19 March 2021).
647:
is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the
4728:
Foley JA, Monfreda C, Ramankutty N, Zaks D (July 2007).
3389:"The global ocean size spectrum from bacteria to whales"
1874:
However, there is a much more significant difference in
243:
An ecological pyramid provides a snapshot in time of an
4864:
1855:(NDVI) over terrestrial habitats, and scan sea-surface
572:
fish. This makes up the third level in the food chain.
4146:(4 ed.). New York, NY: Springer. pp. 33–54.
456:
Phytoplankton → zooplankton → predatory zooplankton →
30:
This article is about the ecological measure. For the
4504:
Garcia-Pichel F, Belnap J, Neuer S, Schanz F (2003).
3635:
The 300 Million Years War: Plant Biomass v Herbivores
3008:
Nemiroff, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (27 September 2006).
2156: – Rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem
1894:
4237:
4235:
4006:
Petersen, Henning; Luxton, Malcolm (December 1982).
3829:
3827:
2186:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
7433:
7305:
7241:
7203:
7141:
7031:
6948:
6813:
6516:
6323:
6223:
6148:
6021:
5958:
5818:
5686:
5588:
5467:
5394:
5351:
5273:
5240:
5137:
5049:
4943:
4865:
Biocubes: a visualization of biomass and technomass
4457:
4455:
4453:
4398:"Fun Facts About Fascinating Fish | NOAA Fisheries"
823:
3083:"The Most Important Microbe You've Never Heard Of"
2662:Landenmark HK, Forgan DH, Cockell CS (June 2015).
1882:account for only about 0.2% of the total biomass.
625:. Marine cyanobacteria include the smallest known
224:shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level.
106:, which is the mass of one or more species, or to
4066:. LU: Publications Office of the European Union.
1859:levels over oceans. This results in 56.4 billion
3209:Bar-On, Yinon M.; Milo, Ron (21 February 2019).
2912:(12). Oxford University Press (OUP): 3690–3700.
3938:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3604:"Misc All the Biomass of Earth, in One Graphic"
3473:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2664:"An Estimate of the Total DNA in the Biosphere"
4637:
4635:
4633:
4631:
4424:Transactions of the American Fisheries Society
4356:
4354:
3927:
3925:
3923:
3921:
3303:
3301:
2453:Whitman WB, Coleman DC, Wiebe WJ (June 1998).
2448:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2440:
6766:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
6476:
5659:
4912:
4221:Sum of from table 3 in Sanderson, M.G. 1996
3462:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3033:Partensky F, Hess WR, Vaulot D (March 1999).
2575:
2573:
1171:global wet (fresh) biomass in million tonnes
621:are members from a phylum of bacteria called
8:
4645:The environment: principles and applications
4097:"Global patterns in belowground communities"
3532:
3530:
3528:
2580:Deep Carbon Observatory (10 December 2018).
2392:
2390:
2150: – Matter composed of organic compounds
6831:Freshwater environmental quality parameters
4001:
3999:
3997:
3995:
3776:Jéquier, E.; Constant, F. (February 2010).
2748:
2746:
2513:
2511:
2262:Bar-On YM, Phillips R, Milo R (June 2018).
2192:List of commercially important fish species
855:Global biomass in billion tonnes of carbon
617:Among the phytoplankton at the base of the
7147:
7028:
7015:
6513:
6499:
6483:
6469:
6461:
5880:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
5666:
5652:
5644:
4919:
4905:
4897:
3885:
3883:
3881:
3626:
3624:
3039:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
1144:
848:
684:
659:, and forms part of the base of the ocean
351:
4820:
4810:
4763:
4753:
4333:
4323:
4274:
3975:
3957:
3861:
3851:
3578:
3508:
3428:
3382:
3380:
3352:
3281:
3058:
2984:
2974:
2933:
2689:
2679:
2553:
2543:
2491:
2481:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2297:
2287:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2229:
158:on Earth, as a possible approximation of
5778:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
5417:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
4648:(2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 564.
4601:(4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 197.
2344:(4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 192.
2227:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2209:
492:
476:
5810:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
2205:
1132:According to a 2020 study published in
354:
5618:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
3782:European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
3120:
3118:
3116:
1853:normalised difference vegetation index
1408:0.9 kg for broilers, 1.8 kg for layers
820:
208:, the relationship between biomass or
121:, just as they are. For example, in a
102:at a given time. Biomass can refer to
68:Shallow aquatic environments, such as
4540:Encyclopedia of Environmental Science
3317:, World Conservation Press, Cambridge
3204:
3202:
3114:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3096:
1168:global dry biomass in million tonnes
861:Global wet biomass in billion tonnes
858:Global dry biomass in billion tonnes
7:
5633:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
3469:"The global biomass of wild mammals"
3315:World Conservation Monitoring Centre
2634:Gabbatiss, Josh (11 December 2018).
2608:Dockrill, Peter (11 December 2018).
557:of fish, squid, lobsters and crabs.
7094:Oceanic physical-biological process
6956:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
6083:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
4383:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020653.x
3652:Laville, Sandra (9 December 2020).
3639:Royal Institution Christmas Lecture
2264:"The biomass distribution on Earth"
5836:Ecological effects of biodiversity
3729:Hern, Warren M. (September 1999).
2455:"Prokaryotes: the unseen majority"
2370:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
1851:observations. Satellites scan the
25:
5172:Generalist and specialist species
4144:Biology and Ecology of Earthworms
3307:Groombridge B, Jenkins MD (2000)
2871:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.970304.x
523:to convert inorganic carbon into
239:in biomass at each trophic level.
7527:
7526:
7514:
7500:
7132:
6804:
6621:Colored dissolved organic matter
5895:Occupancy–abundance relationship
4730:"Our share of the planetary pie"
4525:10.1127/1864-1318/2003/0109-0213
4253:(7768): 194–198. 8 August 2019.
4121:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01360.x
829:
629:organisms. The smallest of all,
472:showing a network of food chains
432:
414:
364:
286:of vertebrates versus arthropods
61:
47:
6966:Latin America and the Caribbean
5915:Relative abundance distribution
5628:Plant defense against herbivory
5495:Competitive exclusion principle
5207:Mesopredator release hypothesis
4842:(8th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
4595:Ricklefs RE, Miller GL (2000).
4225:Global Biochemical Cycles, Vol
2718:"Counting All the DNA on Earth"
2338:Ricklefs RE, Miller GL (2000).
1162:mean living mass of individual
835:Visualizing the biomass of life
594:, which can consume seals, and
7448:Ecological values of mangroves
6991:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
5500:Consumer–resource interactions
4396:Fisheries, NOAA (3 May 2022).
4063:Global soil biodiversity atlas
3051:10.1128/MMBR.63.1.106-127.1999
2906:Journal of Experimental Botany
2188:- a biomass manipulation study
568:, which are small, schooling,
283:Relative terrestrial biomasses
280:
1:
6346:Biological data visualization
6173:Environmental niche modelling
5900:Population viability analysis
4838:Purves WK, Orians GH (2007).
4444:10.1080/00028487.2017.1360392
3602:Gosh, Iman (20 August 2021).
7468:Marine conservation activism
7453:Fisheries and climate change
5831:Density-dependent inhibition
4840:Life: The Science of Biology
4325:10.1371/journal.pone.0012444
3015:Astronomy Picture of the Day
2976:10.1371/journal.pgen.0030231
2681:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002168
2423:10.1126/science.281.5374.237
2116:
2111:
2106:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2072:
2067:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2009:
1991:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1937:
1932:
515:at the bottom of the marine
311:, such as foxes and eagles.
7463:Human impact on marine life
7340:Davidson Seamount § Ecology
6576:Aquatic population dynamics
6300:Liebig's law of the minimum
6135:Resource selection function
5026:Metabolic theory of ecology
4538:Alexander DE (1 May 1999).
3215:Nature Reviews Microbiology
7589:
6200:Niche apportionment models
5920:Relative species abundance
5124:Primary nutritional groups
5021:List of feeding behaviours
4623:World Atlas of Coral Reefs
3735:Population and Environment
3180:Observatory, Deep Carbon.
2162: – Group of organisms
2160:Primary nutritional groups
1175:
503:, an influential bacterium
445:
197:
29:
7558:Environmental terminology
7494:
7150:
7130:
7079:Marine primary production
7027:
7014:
6973:List of marine ecoregions
6802:
6512:
6498:
6449:
6381:Ecosystem based fisheries
5993:Interspecific competition
5885:Minimum viable population
5743:Maximum sustainable yield
5728:Intraspecific competition
5723:Effective population size
5603:Anti-predator adaptations
5114:Photosynthetic efficiency
4491:10.1016/j.dsr.2008.12.007
4267:10.1038/s41586-019-1418-6
3270:Aquatic Microbial Ecology
3227:10.1038/s41579-019-0162-0
3151:10.1038/s41561-018-0221-6
2777:10.1038/s41586-020-3010-5
1831:Global rate of production
1608:
1601:
1596:
1185:
1178:
828:
694:Billion tonnes of carbon
7325:Coastal biogeomorphology
7320:Marine coastal ecosystem
6371:Ecological stoichiometry
6336:Alternative stable state
4880:12 December 2013 at the
4471:Deep-Sea Research Part I
3853:10.1186/1471-2458-12-439
1165:percent biomass (dried)
590:Apex predators, such as
174:, and weighs 50 billion
134:organically bound carbon
7233:Paradox of the plankton
7044:Diel vertical migration
6938:Freshwater swamp forest
6656:GIS and aquatic science
6504:General components and
6215:Ontogenetic niche shift
6078:Ideal free distribution
5988:Ecological facilitation
5738:Malthusian growth model
5708:Consumer-resource model
5565:Paradox of the plankton
5530:Energy systems language
5250:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
5217:Optimal foraging theory
5192:Heterotrophic nutrition
4812:10.1073/pnas.0704243104
4755:10.1073/pnas.0705190104
4670:"Tundra - Biomes - WWF"
3959:10.1073/pnas.2201550119
3493:10.1073/pnas.2204892120
2824:10.1023/A:1004891807664
2545:10.1073/pnas.1203849109
2483:10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578
2383:10.1351/goldbook.B00660
2289:10.1073/pnas.1711842115
1121:) than animal biomass (
802:Deep Carbon Observatory
691:Number of cells (× 10)
678:are both classified as
404:carnivorous zooplankton
210:biological productivity
7059:Large marine ecosystem
6751:Shoaling and schooling
6361:Ecological forecasting
6305:Marginal value theorem
6103:Landscape epidemiology
6038:Cross-boundary subsidy
5973:Biological interaction
5323:Microbial intelligence
5011:Green world hypothesis
3563:10.1126/sciadv.abq4049
3413:10.1126/sciadv.abh3732
2154:Productivity (ecology)
1919:(billion tonnes C/yr)
1840:
1114:
1084:
1041:
1006:
971:
936:
897:
795:A census published in
751:Terrestrial subsurface
505:
490:
474:
462:
288:
195:
7478:Marine protected area
7405:Salt pannes and pools
7180:Marine larval ecology
7155:Census of Marine Life
7039:Deep scattering layer
6996:San Francisco Estuary
6961:Africa and Madagascar
6786:Underwater camouflage
6566:Aquatic biomonitoring
6506:freshwater ecosystems
6366:Ecological humanities
6265:Ecological energetics
6210:Niche differentiation
6073:Habitat fragmentation
5841:Ecological extinction
5788:Small population size
5540:Feed conversion ratio
5520:Ecological succession
5452:San Francisco Estuary
5366:Ecological efficiency
5308:Microbial cooperation
3794:10.1038/ejcn.2009.111
2184: – body of water
1887:freshwater ecosystems
1838:
1112:
1082:
1040:
1005:
970:
935:
896:
496:
480:
467:
454:
277:
189:
136:(C) that is present.
94:of living biological
7213:Marine bacteriophage
7175:Marine invertebrates
6391:Evolutionary ecology
6356:Ecological footprint
6351:Ecological economics
6275:Ecological threshold
6270:Ecological indicator
6140:Source–sink dynamics
6093:Land change modeling
6088:Insular biogeography
5940:Species distribution
5679:Modelling ecosystems
5338:Microbial metabolism
5177:Intraguild predation
4966:Biogeochemical cycle
4932:Modelling ecosystems
4568:"What are wetlands?"
4363:Conservation Biology
2143:Biomass partitioning
1948:Tropical rainforests
1901:Biomass productivity
1746:379 (in peak season)
688:Geographic location
596:shortfin mako sharks
519:. Phytoplankton use
439:predatory vertebrate
245:ecological community
229:productivity pyramid
7553:Ecology terminology
7089:Ocean fertilization
6898:Trophic state index
6856:Lake stratification
6586:Aquatic respiration
6441:Theoretical ecology
6416:Natural environment
6280:Ecosystem diversity
6250:Ecological collapse
6240:Bateman's principle
6195:Limiting similarity
6108:Landscape limnology
5930:Species homogeneity
5768:Population modeling
5763:Population dynamics
5580:Trophic state index
4803:2007PNAS..10412942H
4746:2007PNAS..10412585F
4674:World Wildlife Fund
4513:Algological Studies
4483:2009DSRI...56..727A
4436:2017TrAFS.146.1262J
4375:1996ConBi..10..653J
4316:2010PLoSO...512444P
4259:2019Natur.572..194V
4113:2009EcolL..12.1238F
4024:1982Oikos..39..288P
3950:2022PNAS..11901550S
3944:(40): e2201550119.
3555:2023SciA....9.4049R
3485:2023PNAS..12004892G
3479:(10): e2204892120.
3405:2021SciA....7.3732H
3345:2021Pbio...47..446S
3143:2018NatGe..11..707M
3010:"Earth from Saturn"
2918:10.1093/jxb/eraa133
2863:2002Oikos..97..337H
2769:2020Natur.588..442E
2536:2012PNAS..10916213K
2474:1998PNAS...95.6578W
2415:1998Sci...281..237F
2280:2018PNAS..115.6506B
1231:4.63 billion adults
270:Terrestrial biomass
182:Ecological pyramids
160:global biodiversity
98:in a given area or
7563:Ecological metrics
7355:Intertidal wetland
7350:Intertidal ecology
7218:Marine prokaryotes
7160:Deep-sea community
7054:Iron fertilization
6977:Specific examples
6903:Upland and lowland
6821:Freshwater biology
6686:Microbial food web
6596:Aquatic toxicology
6539:Aquatic adaptation
6492:Aquatic ecosystems
6452:Outline of ecology
6401:Industrial ecology
6396:Functional ecology
6260:Ecological deficit
6205:Niche construction
6168:Ecosystem engineer
5945:Species–area curve
5866:Introduced species
5681:: Other components
5613:Deimatic behaviour
5515:Ecological network
5447:North Pacific Gyre
5432:hydrothermal vents
5371:Ecological pyramid
5318:Microbial food web
5129:Primary production
5074:Foundation species
4783:Fischer-Kowalski M
4173:Biological Reviews
3765:– via JSTOR.
3747:10.1007/BF02436121
3705:"Day of 8 Billion"
3354:10.1017/pab.2021.2
2722:The New York Times
1845:primary production
1841:
1497:10 mg (dry weight)
1153:number of species
1115:
1085:
1042:
1007:
972:
937:
898:
643:(10) individuals.
506:
491:
475:
344:of up to 900 ppm.
289:
256:primary production
200:Ecological pyramid
196:
162:, is estimated at
145:primary production
7573:Fisheries science
7540:
7539:
7521:Oceans portal
7490:
7489:
7486:
7485:
7365:Hydrothermal vent
7301:
7300:
7190:Seashore wildlife
7021:Marine ecosystems
7010:
7009:
7006:
7005:
6776:Thermal pollution
6741:Ramsar Convention
6681:Microbial ecology
6641:Fisheries science
6581:Aquatic predation
6458:
6457:
6341:Balance of nature
6098:Landscape ecology
5983:Community ecology
5925:Species diversity
5861:Indicator species
5856:Gradient analysis
5733:Logistic function
5641:
5640:
5598:Animal coloration
5575:Trophic mutualism
5313:Microbial ecology
5104:Photoheterotrophs
5089:Myco-heterotrophy
5001:Ecosystem ecology
4986:Carrying capacity
4951:Abiotic component
4875:Counting bacteria
4849:978-1-4292-0877-2
4701:. 17 January 2020
4655:978-0-415-21770-5
4608:978-0-7167-2829-0
4553:978-0-412-74050-3
4185:10.1111/brv.12577
4153:978-0-387-74943-3
4107:(11): 1238–1249.
4081:978-92-79-48168-0
3840:BMC Public Health
3703:Nations, United.
3608:Visual Capitalist
3283:10.3354/ame028117
3131:Nature Geoscience
2763:(7838): 442–444.
2351:978-0-7167-2829-0
2274:(25): 6506–6511.
2121:
2120:
2024:Temperate forests
1828:
1827:
1800:
1763:
1159:individual count
1156:date of estimate
1077:
1076:
840:
839:
789:
788:
667:Bacterial biomass
513:primary producers
460:→ predatory fish
444:
443:
356:marine food chain
108:community biomass
16:(Redirected from
7580:
7530:
7529:
7523:
7519:
7518:
7509:
7507:Lakes portal
7505:
7504:
7503:
7473:Marine pollution
7165:Deep-water coral
7148:
7136:
7069:Marine chemistry
7029:
7016:
6933:Freshwater marsh
6826:Freshwater biome
6808:
6524:Acoustic ecology
6514:
6500:
6485:
6478:
6471:
6462:
6158:Ecological niche
6130:selection theory
5950:Umbrella species
5935:Species richness
5871:Invasive species
5851:Flagship species
5758:Population cycle
5753:Overexploitation
5718:Ecological yield
5668:
5661:
5654:
5645:
5550:Mesotrophic soil
5490:Climax community
5422:Marine food webs
5361:Biomagnification
5162:Chemoorganotroph
5016:Keystone species
4976:Biotic component
4921:
4914:
4907:
4898:
4853:
4834:
4824:
4814:
4777:
4767:
4757:
4714:
4713:
4708:
4706:
4699:ArcGIS StoryMaps
4691:
4685:
4684:
4682:
4680:
4666:
4660:
4659:
4642:Park CC (2001).
4639:
4626:
4619:
4613:
4612:
4592:
4586:
4585:
4583:
4581:
4572:
4564:
4558:
4557:
4535:
4529:
4528:
4510:
4501:
4495:
4494:
4468:
4459:
4448:
4447:
4430:(6): 1262–1278.
4419:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4408:
4393:
4387:
4386:
4358:
4349:
4347:
4337:
4327:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4278:
4239:
4230:
4219:
4213:
4212:
4164:
4158:
4157:
4139:
4133:
4132:
4092:
4086:
4085:
4057:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4046:
4003:
3990:
3989:
3979:
3961:
3929:
3916:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3901:
3887:
3876:
3875:
3865:
3855:
3831:
3822:
3821:
3773:
3767:
3766:
3726:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3700:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3689:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3649:
3643:
3628:
3619:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3599:
3593:
3592:
3582:
3543:Science Advances
3534:
3523:
3522:
3512:
3464:
3443:
3442:
3432:
3399:(46): eabh3732.
3393:Science Advances
3384:
3375:
3374:
3356:
3324:
3318:
3305:
3296:
3295:
3285:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3206:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3177:
3171:
3170:
3122:
3091:
3090:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3062:
3030:
3024:
3023:
3005:
2999:
2998:
2988:
2978:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2937:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2750:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2716:(18 July 2015).
2710:
2704:
2703:
2693:
2683:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2577:
2568:
2567:
2557:
2547:
2515:
2506:
2505:
2495:
2485:
2459:
2450:
2435:
2434:
2409:(5374): 237–40.
2394:
2385:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2335:
2312:
2311:
2301:
2291:
2259:
2187:
2137:Biomass (energy)
2044:Cultivated lands
1917:Total production
1895:
1868:photoautotrophic
1794:
1757:
1731:
1450:
1238:(excl. children)
1145:
849:
833:
832:
821:
734:Terrestrial soil
717:Ocean subsurface
685:
484:Biomass pyramids
436:
418:
368:
352:
281:
173:
171:
167:
65:
51:
36:biomass (energy)
32:renewable energy
21:
7588:
7587:
7583:
7582:
7581:
7579:
7578:
7577:
7543:
7542:
7541:
7536:
7513:
7512:
7501:
7499:
7498:
7482:
7443:Coral bleaching
7429:
7410:Seagrass meadow
7307:Marine habitats
7297:
7271:Coral reef fish
7237:
7223:Marine protists
7199:
7137:
7128:
7099:Ocean turbidity
7074:Marine food web
7023:
7002:
6944:
6883:River ecosystem
6836:Freshwater fish
6809:
6800:
6606:Bioluminescence
6591:Aquatic science
6508:
6494:
6489:
6459:
6454:
6445:
6431:Systems ecology
6319:
6290:Extinction debt
6255:Ecological debt
6245:Bioluminescence
6226:
6219:
6188:marine habitats
6163:Ecological trap
6144:
6024:
6017:
5960:
5954:
5910:Rapoport's rule
5905:Priority effect
5846:Endemic species
5814:
5773:Population size
5689:
5682:
5672:
5642:
5637:
5590:
5584:
5570:Trophic cascade
5480:Bioaccumulation
5463:
5390:
5347:
5269:
5236:
5133:
5045:
5006:Ecosystem model
4939:
4925:
4882:Wayback Machine
4861:
4856:
4850:
4837:
4797:(31): 12942–7.
4780:
4740:(31): 12585–6.
4727:
4723:
4721:Further reading
4718:
4717:
4704:
4702:
4693:
4692:
4688:
4678:
4676:
4668:
4667:
4663:
4656:
4641:
4640:
4629:
4620:
4616:
4609:
4594:
4593:
4589:
4579:
4577:
4570:
4566:
4565:
4561:
4554:
4537:
4536:
4532:
4508:
4503:
4502:
4498:
4466:
4461:
4460:
4451:
4421:
4420:
4416:
4406:
4404:
4395:
4394:
4390:
4360:
4359:
4352:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4241:
4240:
4233:
4220:
4216:
4166:
4165:
4161:
4154:
4141:
4140:
4136:
4101:Ecology Letters
4094:
4093:
4089:
4082:
4059:
4058:
4054:
4044:
4042:
4032:10.2307/3544689
4005:
4004:
3993:
3931:
3930:
3919:
3913:
3909:
3899:
3897:
3889:
3888:
3879:
3833:
3832:
3825:
3775:
3774:
3770:
3728:
3727:
3723:
3713:
3711:
3702:
3701:
3697:
3687:
3685:
3677:
3676:
3672:
3662:
3660:
3651:
3650:
3646:
3629:
3622:
3612:
3610:
3601:
3600:
3596:
3549:(5): eabq4049.
3536:
3535:
3526:
3466:
3465:
3446:
3386:
3385:
3378:
3326:
3325:
3321:
3306:
3299:
3263:
3262:
3258:
3208:
3207:
3200:
3190:
3188:
3179:
3178:
3174:
3137:(10): 707–717.
3124:
3123:
3094:
3081:
3080:
3076:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3007:
3006:
3002:
2956:
2955:
2951:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2752:
2751:
2744:
2734:
2732:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2674:(6): e1002168.
2661:
2660:
2656:
2646:
2644:
2641:The Independent
2633:
2632:
2628:
2618:
2616:
2607:
2606:
2602:
2592:
2590:
2579:
2578:
2571:
2530:(40): 16213–6.
2517:
2516:
2509:
2468:(12): 6578–83.
2457:
2452:
2451:
2438:
2396:
2395:
2388:
2363:
2359:
2352:
2337:
2336:
2315:
2261:
2260:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2185:
2182:Lake Pohjalampi
2177:Stubble burning
2126:
2006:River estuaries
1918:
1910:
1902:
1876:standing stocks
1833:
1824:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1793:
1778:
1769:
1764:
1756:
1747:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1712:Antarctic krill
1705:
1700:
1695:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1635:
1628:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1599:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1575:
1570:
1563:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1204:(incl children)
1203:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1073:
1066:
1059:
1052:
1043:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1008:
997:
992:
987:
982:
973:
962:
957:
952:
947:
938:
927:
922:
917:
912:
899:
888:
883:
878:
873:
830:
819:
785:
778:
771:
762:
757:
752:
745:
740:
735:
728:
723:
718:
711:
706:
701:
669:
655:in the Earth's
645:Prochlorococcus
632:Prochlorococcus
619:marine food web
504:
500:Prochlorococcus
489:
487:
473:
450:
369: Sun
358:
350:
343:
339:
335:
330:
323:
287:
285:
279:
272:
222:biomass pyramid
202:
184:
169:
165:
163:
104:species biomass
85:
84:
83:
82:
81:
66:
57:
56:
55:
52:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7586:
7584:
7576:
7575:
7570:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7545:
7544:
7538:
7537:
7535:
7534:
7524:
7510:
7495:
7492:
7491:
7488:
7487:
7484:
7483:
7481:
7480:
7475:
7470:
7465:
7460:
7455:
7450:
7445:
7439:
7437:
7431:
7430:
7428:
7427:
7422:
7417:
7412:
7407:
7402:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7377:
7372:
7367:
7362:
7357:
7352:
7347:
7342:
7337:
7332:
7327:
7322:
7317:
7311:
7309:
7303:
7302:
7299:
7298:
7296:
7295:
7290:
7289:
7288:
7283:
7278:
7273:
7268:
7261:Saltwater fish
7258:
7256:Marine reptile
7253:
7247:
7245:
7239:
7238:
7236:
7235:
7230:
7228:Marine viruses
7225:
7220:
7215:
7209:
7207:
7205:Microorganisms
7201:
7200:
7198:
7197:
7195:Wild fisheries
7192:
7187:
7182:
7177:
7172:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7151:
7145:
7139:
7138:
7131:
7129:
7127:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7109:Thorson's rule
7106:
7101:
7096:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7071:
7066:
7064:Marine biology
7061:
7056:
7051:
7046:
7041:
7035:
7033:
7025:
7024:
7019:
7012:
7011:
7008:
7007:
7004:
7003:
7001:
7000:
6999:
6998:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6975:
6970:
6969:
6968:
6963:
6952:
6950:
6946:
6945:
6943:
6942:
6941:
6940:
6935:
6930:
6925:
6923:Brackish marsh
6920:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6895:
6890:
6885:
6880:
6875:
6874:
6873:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6851:Lake ecosystem
6848:
6843:
6841:Hyporheic zone
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6817:
6815:
6811:
6810:
6803:
6801:
6799:
6798:
6793:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6773:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6728:
6723:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6703:
6698:
6693:
6691:Microbial loop
6688:
6683:
6678:
6673:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6636:Eutrophication
6633:
6628:
6623:
6618:
6616:Cascade effect
6613:
6608:
6603:
6598:
6593:
6588:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6562:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6544:Aquatic animal
6541:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6520:
6518:
6510:
6509:
6503:
6496:
6495:
6490:
6488:
6487:
6480:
6473:
6465:
6456:
6455:
6450:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6443:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6411:Microecosystem
6408:
6403:
6398:
6393:
6388:
6383:
6378:
6373:
6368:
6363:
6358:
6353:
6348:
6343:
6338:
6333:
6327:
6325:
6321:
6320:
6318:
6317:
6312:
6310:Thorson's rule
6307:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6282:
6277:
6272:
6267:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6235:Assembly rules
6231:
6229:
6221:
6220:
6218:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6191:
6190:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6154:
6152:
6146:
6145:
6143:
6142:
6137:
6132:
6120:
6118:Patch dynamics
6115:
6113:Metapopulation
6110:
6105:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6040:
6035:
6029:
6027:
6019:
6018:
6016:
6015:
6010:
6008:Storage effect
6005:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5970:
5964:
5962:
5956:
5955:
5953:
5952:
5947:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5892:
5890:Neutral theory
5887:
5882:
5877:
5875:Native species
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5822:
5820:
5816:
5815:
5813:
5812:
5807:
5806:
5805:
5800:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5748:Overpopulation
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5694:
5692:
5684:
5683:
5673:
5671:
5670:
5663:
5656:
5648:
5639:
5638:
5636:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5594:
5592:
5586:
5585:
5583:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5557:
5555:Nutrient cycle
5552:
5547:
5545:Feeding frenzy
5542:
5537:
5532:
5527:
5525:Energy quality
5522:
5517:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5497:
5492:
5487:
5485:Cascade effect
5482:
5477:
5471:
5469:
5465:
5464:
5462:
5461:
5460:
5459:
5454:
5449:
5444:
5439:
5434:
5429:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5398:
5396:
5392:
5391:
5389:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5357:
5355:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5328:Microbial loop
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5293:Lithoautotroph
5290:
5285:
5279:
5277:
5275:Microorganisms
5271:
5270:
5268:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5246:
5244:
5238:
5237:
5235:
5234:
5232:Prey switching
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5143:
5141:
5135:
5134:
5132:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5109:Photosynthesis
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5064:Chemosynthesis
5061:
5055:
5053:
5047:
5046:
5044:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4956:Abiotic stress
4953:
4947:
4945:
4941:
4940:
4926:
4924:
4923:
4916:
4909:
4901:
4895:
4894:
4889:
4887:Trophic levels
4884:
4872:
4867:
4860:
4859:External links
4857:
4855:
4854:
4848:
4835:
4778:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4716:
4715:
4686:
4661:
4654:
4627:
4614:
4607:
4587:
4559:
4552:
4530:
4496:
4477:(5): 727–740.
4449:
4414:
4388:
4369:(2): 653–654.
4350:
4290:
4231:
4214:
4179:(3): 555–572.
4159:
4152:
4134:
4087:
4080:
4052:
4018:(3): 288–388.
3991:
3917:
3907:
3877:
3823:
3788:(2): 115–123.
3768:
3721:
3709:United Nations
3695:
3670:
3644:
3620:
3594:
3524:
3444:
3376:
3339:(3): 446–463.
3319:
3297:
3276:(2): 117–129.
3256:
3221:(4): 199–200.
3198:
3172:
3092:
3074:
3025:
3000:
2949:
2892:
2857:(3): 337–348.
2837:
2818:(2): 217–230.
2812:Plant and Soil
2798:
2742:
2705:
2654:
2626:
2600:
2569:
2507:
2436:
2386:
2357:
2350:
2313:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2195:
2189:
2179:
2174:
2172:Slash-and-burn
2169:
2166:Standing stock
2163:
2157:
2151:
2148:Organic matter
2145:
2140:
2134:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1912:
1907:
1904:
1899:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1075:
1074:
1069:
1067:
1062:
1060:
1055:
1053:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
978:
975:
974:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
943:
940:
939:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
904:
901:
900:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
869:
866:
865:
862:
859:
856:
853:
838:
837:
826:
825:
824:External image
818:
817:Global biomass
815:
787:
786:
781:
779:
774:
772:
767:
764:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
747:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
730:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
713:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
696:
695:
692:
689:
668:
665:
627:photosynthetic
570:filter-feeding
521:photosynthesis
497:
481:
470:Ocean food web
468:
458:filter feeders
442:
441:
429:
428:
424:
423:
411:
410:
406:
405:
401:
400:
396:
395:
388:
387:
383:
382:
376:
375:
371:
370:
361:
360:
349:
346:
341:
337:
333:
328:
321:
278:
271:
268:
260:apex predators
241:
240:
225:
214:trophic levels
198:Main article:
192:energy pyramid
183:
180:
112:microorganisms
67:
60:
59:
58:
53:
46:
45:
44:
43:
42:
26:
24:
18:Global biomass
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7585:
7574:
7571:
7569:
7566:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7550:
7548:
7533:
7525:
7522:
7517:
7511:
7508:
7497:
7496:
7493:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7471:
7469:
7466:
7464:
7461:
7459:
7456:
7454:
7451:
7449:
7446:
7444:
7441:
7440:
7438:
7436:
7432:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7415:Sponge ground
7413:
7411:
7408:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7381:
7380:Marine biomes
7378:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7368:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7353:
7351:
7348:
7346:
7343:
7341:
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7318:
7316:
7313:
7312:
7310:
7308:
7304:
7294:
7291:
7287:
7284:
7282:
7281:Demersal fish
7279:
7277:
7276:Deep-sea fish
7274:
7272:
7269:
7267:
7264:
7263:
7262:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7252:
7251:Marine mammal
7249:
7248:
7246:
7244:
7240:
7234:
7231:
7229:
7226:
7224:
7221:
7219:
7216:
7214:
7211:
7210:
7208:
7206:
7202:
7196:
7193:
7191:
7188:
7186:
7183:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7152:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7140:
7135:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7080:
7077:
7075:
7072:
7070:
7067:
7065:
7062:
7060:
7057:
7055:
7052:
7050:
7047:
7045:
7042:
7040:
7037:
7036:
7034:
7030:
7026:
7022:
7017:
7013:
6997:
6994:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6978:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6967:
6964:
6962:
6959:
6958:
6957:
6954:
6953:
6951:
6947:
6939:
6936:
6934:
6931:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6915:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6894:
6891:
6889:
6886:
6884:
6881:
6879:
6876:
6872:
6869:
6868:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6818:
6816:
6812:
6807:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6781:Trophic level
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6746:Sediment trap
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6721:Phytoplankton
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6692:
6689:
6687:
6684:
6682:
6679:
6677:
6674:
6672:
6669:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6571:Aquatic plant
6569:
6567:
6564:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6546:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6534:Anoxic waters
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6521:
6519:
6515:
6511:
6507:
6501:
6497:
6493:
6486:
6481:
6479:
6474:
6472:
6467:
6466:
6463:
6453:
6448:
6442:
6439:
6437:
6436:Urban ecology
6434:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6404:
6402:
6399:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6387:
6384:
6382:
6379:
6377:
6374:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6328:
6326:
6322:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6295:Kleiber's law
6293:
6291:
6288:
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6232:
6230:
6228:
6222:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6189:
6186:
6185:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6159:
6156:
6155:
6153:
6151:
6147:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6068:Foster's rule
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6030:
6028:
6026:
6020:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5969:
5966:
5965:
5963:
5957:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5823:
5821:
5817:
5811:
5808:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5795:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5695:
5693:
5691:
5685:
5680:
5676:
5669:
5664:
5662:
5657:
5655:
5650:
5649:
5646:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5595:
5593:
5587:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5472:
5470:
5466:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5399:
5397:
5393:
5387:
5386:Trophic level
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5358:
5356:
5354:
5350:
5344:
5343:Phage ecology
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5333:Microbial mat
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5288:Bacteriophage
5286:
5284:
5281:
5280:
5278:
5276:
5272:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5255:Decomposition
5253:
5251:
5248:
5247:
5245:
5243:
5239:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5202:Mesopredators
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5147:Apex predator
5145:
5144:
5142:
5140:
5136:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5056:
5054:
5052:
5048:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4981:Biotic stress
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4948:
4946:
4942:
4937:
4933:
4929:
4922:
4917:
4915:
4910:
4908:
4903:
4902:
4899:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4879:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4862:
4858:
4851:
4845:
4841:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4785:(July 2007).
4784:
4779:
4775:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4726:
4725:
4720:
4712:
4700:
4696:
4690:
4687:
4675:
4671:
4665:
4662:
4657:
4651:
4647:
4646:
4638:
4636:
4634:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4618:
4615:
4610:
4604:
4600:
4599:
4591:
4588:
4576:
4569:
4563:
4560:
4555:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4534:
4531:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4507:
4500:
4497:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4465:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4418:
4415:
4403:
4399:
4392:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4357:
4355:
4351:
4345:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4310:(8): e12444.
4309:
4305:
4301:
4294:
4291:
4286:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4238:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4218:
4215:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4163:
4160:
4155:
4149:
4145:
4138:
4135:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4091:
4088:
4083:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4064:
4056:
4053:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4002:
4000:
3998:
3996:
3992:
3987:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3928:
3926:
3924:
3922:
3918:
3911:
3908:
3896:
3892:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3878:
3873:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3830:
3828:
3824:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3772:
3769:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3725:
3722:
3710:
3706:
3699:
3696:
3684:
3680:
3674:
3671:
3659:
3655:
3648:
3645:
3641:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3627:
3625:
3621:
3609:
3605:
3598:
3595:
3590:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3445:
3440:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3381:
3377:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3323:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3304:
3302:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3260:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3173:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3121:
3119:
3117:
3115:
3113:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3084:
3078:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3045:(1): 106–27.
3044:
3040:
3036:
3029:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3004:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2963:PLOS Genetics
2960:
2953:
2950:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2896:
2893:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2802:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2757:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2709:
2706:
2701:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2655:
2643:
2642:
2637:
2630:
2627:
2615:
2614:Science Alert
2611:
2604:
2601:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2456:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2437:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2358:
2353:
2347:
2343:
2342:
2334:
2332:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2007:
2004:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1916:
1913:
1911:(million km)
1908:
1905:
1900:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1869:
1865:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1837:
1830:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1792:
1791:Cyanobacteria
1788:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1755:
1751:
1750:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1735:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1708:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1670:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1638:
1632:
1630:
1625:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1605:
1595:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1558:
1557:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1516:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1480:
1476:
1475:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1456:3.7 mg-5.5 mg
1454:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1388:
1384:
1383:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1344:
1340:
1339:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1300:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1256:
1252:
1251:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1223:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1200:
1195:
1192:November 2022
1190:
1182:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1136:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1011:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
984:
981:
977:
976:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
946:
942:
941:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
911:
907:
903:
902:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
872:
868:
867:
863:
860:
857:
854:
851:
850:
847:
845:
836:
827:
822:
816:
814:
812:
806:
803:
798:
793:
784:
780:
777:
773:
770:
766:
765:
759:
754:
749:
748:
742:
737:
732:
731:
725:
720:
715:
714:
708:
703:
698:
697:
693:
690:
687:
686:
683:
681:
677:
673:
666:
664:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
633:
628:
624:
623:cyanobacteria
620:
615:
613:
612:K-strategists
609:
608:r-strategists
603:
601:
600:Baleen whales
597:
593:
588:
586:
582:
578:
573:
571:
567:
563:
558:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
511:are the main
510:
509:Phytoplankton
502:
501:
495:
486:
485:
479:
471:
466:
461:
459:
453:
449:
440:
435:
431:
430:
426:
425:
422:
421:filter feeder
417:
413:
412:
408:
407:
403:
402:
398:
397:
394:
390:
389:
385:
384:
381:
380:phytoplankton
378:
377:
373:
372:
367:
363:
362:
357:
353:
348:Ocean biomass
347:
345:
331:
324:
316:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
293:trophic level
284:
276:
269:
267:
263:
261:
257:
253:
248:
246:
238:
234:
230:
226:
223:
219:
218:
217:
215:
211:
207:
201:
193:
188:
181:
179:
177:
161:
157:
154:
150:
146:
142:
137:
135:
131:
127:
124:
120:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
79:
75:
71:
64:
50:
41:
37:
33:
19:
7435:Conservation
7286:Pelagic fish
7266:Coastal fish
7170:Marine fungi
6908:Water garden
6791:Water column
6736:Productivity
6711:Pelagic zone
6671:Macrobenthos
6661:Hydrobiology
6631:Ecohydrology
6610:
6421:Regime shift
6406:Macroecology
6127:
6123:
6063:Edge effects
6033:Biogeography
5978:Commensalism
5826:Biodiversity
5703:Allee effect
5442:kelp forests
5395:Example webs
5260:Detritivores
5099:Organotrophs
5079:Kinetotrophs
5031:Productivity
4970:
4839:
4794:
4790:
4737:
4733:
4710:
4703:. Retrieved
4698:
4689:
4677:. Retrieved
4673:
4664:
4644:
4622:
4617:
4597:
4590:
4578:. Retrieved
4574:
4562:
4539:
4533:
4516:
4512:
4499:
4474:
4470:
4427:
4423:
4417:
4405:. Retrieved
4401:
4391:
4366:
4362:
4307:
4303:
4293:
4276:10261/193342
4250:
4246:
4226:
4222:
4217:
4176:
4172:
4162:
4143:
4137:
4104:
4100:
4090:
4072:10.2788/2613
4062:
4055:
4043:. Retrieved
4015:
4011:
3941:
3937:
3910:
3898:. Retrieved
3894:
3843:
3839:
3785:
3781:
3771:
3741:(1): 59–80.
3738:
3734:
3724:
3712:. Retrieved
3708:
3698:
3686:. Retrieved
3682:
3673:
3661:. Retrieved
3658:The Guardian
3657:
3647:
3637:
3631:Hartley, Sue
3611:. Retrieved
3607:
3597:
3546:
3542:
3476:
3472:
3396:
3392:
3336:
3333:Paleobiology
3332:
3322:
3309:
3273:
3269:
3259:
3218:
3214:
3189:. Retrieved
3185:
3175:
3134:
3130:
3086:
3077:
3042:
3038:
3028:
3013:
3003:
2969:(12): e231.
2966:
2962:
2952:
2909:
2905:
2895:
2854:
2850:
2840:
2815:
2811:
2801:
2760:
2754:
2733:. Retrieved
2724:. New York.
2721:
2708:
2671:
2668:PLOS Biology
2667:
2657:
2645:. Retrieved
2639:
2629:
2617:. Retrieved
2613:
2603:
2591:. Retrieved
2585:
2527:
2523:
2465:
2461:
2406:
2402:
2368:
2360:
2340:
2271:
2267:
1891:
1885:Terrestrial
1884:
1873:
1842:
1797:picoplankton
1485:7,000–30,000
1176:Terrestrial
1133:
1131:
1122:
1118:
1116:
1086:
1070:
1063:
1056:
1049:
841:
807:
794:
790:
782:
775:
768:
670:
649:oligotrophic
644:
630:
616:
604:
589:
574:
559:
537:
507:
498:
482:
455:
451:
437:
419:
391:herbivorous
317:
313:
301:consume them
290:
282:
264:
262:at the top.
249:
242:
228:
221:
203:
138:
118:
116:
107:
103:
87:
86:
40:
34:source, see
7420:Sponge reef
7395:Rocky shore
7390:Oyster reef
7360:Kelp forest
7243:Vertebrates
7143:Marine life
7119:Viral shunt
7084:Marine snow
6986:Maharashtra
6893:Stream pool
6796:Zooplankton
6716:Photic zone
6676:Meiobenthos
6529:Algal bloom
6058:Disturbance
5961:interaction
5783:Recruitment
5713:Depensation
5505:Copiotrophs
5376:Energy flow
5298:Lithotrophy
5242:Decomposers
5222:Planktivore
5197:Insectivore
5187:Heterotroph
5152:Bacterivore
5119:Phototrophs
5069:Chemotrophs
5041:Restoration
4991:Competition
4519:: 213–217.
3895:www.fao.org
3613:16 December
2647:11 December
2619:11 December
2593:11 December
2587:EurekAlert!
1968:Coral reefs
1857:chlorophyll
1760:zooplankton
1615:Pre-whaling
1604:Blue whales
1359:1.1 billion
1315:1.3 billion
1276:300 kg
1271:1.5 billion
1100:mesopelagic
680:prokaryotes
566:forage fish
543:crustaceans
539:Zooplankton
533:zooplankton
448:Marine life
393:zooplankton
78:coral reefs
7568:Ecosystems
7547:Categories
7400:Salt marsh
7335:Coral reef
7124:Whale fall
7104:Photophore
6981:Everglades
6949:Ecoregions
6888:Stream bed
6861:Macrophyte
6814:Freshwater
6646:Food chain
6559:Water bird
6426:Sexecology
6003:Parasitism
5968:Antibiosis
5803:Resistance
5798:Resilience
5688:Population
5608:Camouflage
5560:Oligotroph
5475:Ascendency
5437:intertidal
5427:cold seeps
5381:Food chain
5182:Herbivores
5157:Carnivores
5084:Mixotrophs
5059:Autotrophs
4938:components
4575:ramsar.org
3846:(1): 439.
3663:9 December
2200:References
2083:Open ocean
2073:11.5-29.8
1988:Algal beds
1909:Total area
1903:(gC/m/yr)
1880:autotrophs
1680:>20,000
1479:Earthworms
1403:26 billion
1320:30 kg
1236:62 kg
1202:50 kg
1127:autotrophs
1094:, such as
1092:arthropods
710:1.6 to 2.2
700:Open ocean
661:food chain
657:atmosphere
553:, and the
545:, such as
525:protoplasm
517:food chain
446:See also:
309:food chain
252:autotrophs
233:production
231:shows the
156:base pairs
7425:Tide pool
7330:Cold seep
7114:Upwelling
6878:Rheotaxis
6871:Fish pond
6846:Limnology
6771:Substrate
6756:Siltation
6626:Dead zone
6331:Allometry
6285:Emergence
6013:Symbiosis
5998:Mutualism
5793:Stability
5698:Abundance
5510:Dominance
5468:Processes
5457:tide pool
5353:Food webs
5227:Predation
5212:Omnivores
5139:Consumers
5094:Mycotroph
5051:Producers
4996:Ecosystem
4961:Behaviour
4705:5 October
4679:5 October
4580:28 August
4348:(Table 1)
4209:209482348
4193:1464-7931
3968:0027-8424
3891:"FAOSTAT"
3818:205129670
3802:1476-5640
3571:2375-2548
3501:0027-8424
3421:2375-2548
3371:233678539
3363:0094-8373
3313:Page 11.
3292:0948-3055
3235:1740-1534
3167:133768246
3159:1752-0908
2926:0022-0957
2879:0030-1299
2793:228077506
2730:0362-4331
1898:Producer
1849:satellite
1777:10–10 kg
1651:60,000 kg
1561:Nematodes
1197:8 billion
1119:phytomass
811:femtogram
641:octillion
577:swordfish
564:, and by
529:protistan
359:(typical)
305:predators
297:producers
237:turn-over
206:ecosystem
100:ecosystem
96:organisms
74:estuaries
7532:Category
7458:HERMIONE
7375:Mangrove
7185:Seagrass
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6706:Particle
6651:Food web
6386:Endolith
6315:Xerosere
6227:networks
6043:Ecocline
5589:Defense,
5265:Detritus
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4304:PLOS ONE
4285:31341281
4201:31876057
4129:19674041
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3872:22709383
3810:19724292
3763:86671730
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2308:29784790
2124:See also
1754:Copepods
1520:Termites
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1096:copepods
1015:Animalia
980:Protista
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6025:ecology
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5819:Species
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5675:Ecology
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5283:Archaea
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3633:(2010)
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2691:4466264
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2341:Ecology
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2131:Biomass
2103:Deserts
2064:Tundras
1929:marshes
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1620:340,000
1140:plastic
1123:zoomass
1104:topsoil
1088:Animals
910:Archaea
871:Plantae
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761:4 to 12
676:archaea
637:species
585:gannets
307:in the
126:fishery
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