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relatively high, glyceroneogenesis in the liver will be down-regulated to stop the synthesis of triglycerides, but glyceroneogenesis in adipose tissues will be induced in order to restrain the release of free fatty acid to the bloodstream. Conversely, glyceroneogenesis is induced in the liver and suppressed in adipose tissues when the blood lipid level is low. Although the reciprocal regulation of glyceroneogenesis is not well understood, a hormone called
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425:, dihydroxyacetone phosphate will convert to glycerol 3-phosphate, which is the final product of glyceroneogenesis. In addition, triglyceride can be generated by re-esterifying 3 fatty acid chains on glycerol 3-phosphate. Instead of producing fructose 1,6- bisphosphate as gluconeogenesis does, glyceroneogenesis converts dihydroxyacetone phosphate to glycerol 3-phosphate.
129:
580:, and has a considerably higher glyceroneogenesis activity. Brown adipose tissue contains more glyceroneogenesis-related enzymes, in particular PEPC-K and glycerol kinase. PEPC-K is around 10 times more active than in white adipose tissue, and is the key regulatory enzyme that controls the activity of the pathway. Glycerol kinase
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White adipose tissue, also known as white fat, is one two types of adipose tissue in mammals. White adipose tissue stores energy in the form of triglycerides, which can be broken down to free fatty acids on demand. Its normal function is to store free fatty acids as triglycerides within the tissue.
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Glyceroneogenesis can be regulated at two reaction pathways. First, it can be held at the decarboxylation of oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate. Secondly, the TCA cycle can affect glyceroneogenesis when the glutamate or substrates in the TCA cycle are being used as a precursor. Decarboxylation of
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Glyceroneogenesis in the liver and adipose tissues regulate lipid metabolism in opposite ways. Lipids as triglycerides are released from the liver, while glyceroneogenesis restrains the fatty acid release from adipose tissues by re-esterifying them. When the lipid concentration in the blood is
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When metabolites from the TCA cycle or glutamate are used as a precursor for glyceroneogenesis, the regulator in the TCA cycle can also cause fluctuations in the levels of products formed by glyceroneogenesis. Regulation of the TCA cycle is mainly determined by product inhibition and substrate
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Glutamate can also enter glyceroneogenesis. Since the key reaction of glyceroneogenesis is the decarboxylation and phosphorylation of oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate, in theory any biochemical pathway which generates oxaloacetate is related to glyceroneogenesis. For example, glutamate can
328:. When an organism is deficient in glucose, from (for example) fasting or a low carbohydrate intake, glycerol 3-phosphate is generated by glyceroneogenesis instead. As well as synthesizing lipids for use in other metabolic processes, glyceroneogenesis regulates lipid levels in the cytosol.
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to track the glycerol in the liver and bloodstream, showed that 65% of the glycerol backbone of triglycerides in the bloodstream is synthesized in the liver. It was subsequently found that the liver synthesizes more than half of the glycerol mammals need to regulate lipids.
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suppresses the activity of PEPC-K and thus the glyceroneogenesis re-esterification, increasing the availability of free fatty acids within the cell. Excess free fatty acids in the cytosol will consequently be delivered to the mitochondria for thermogenesis.
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and decarboxylation of oxaloacetate is a significant step in glyceroneogenesis, since it regulates the entire pathway. After the production of phosphoenolpyruvate, gluconeogenesis will continue until dihydroxyacetone phosphate is generated, which produces
665:, is associated with the overproduction of triglycerides in the liver, due to excessively active glyceroneogenesis and excess release of fatty acids from adipose tissues. Glyceroneogenesis can be regulated by controlling the gene expression of PEPC-K.
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involved in the reciprocal regulation of glyceroneogenesis in the liver and adipose tissues. Through a poorly-understood mechanism, they induce transcription of PEPC-K in the liver while decreasing transcription in adipose tissues.
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Although glyceroneogenesis was first found in adipose tissues, it was not recognized in the liver until 1998. This finding was unexpected because triglyceride synthesis in the liver was thought not to occur due to the amount of
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down-regulates glyceroneogenesis in the liver, but it also suppresses it in adipose tissue. To restrict the release of free fatty acids from adipose tissues, glyceroneogenesis must be increased so they are re-esterified.
594:. In normal conditions, thermogenesis is down-regulated by the low concentration of free fatty acids in the cytosol, because glyceroneogenesis re-esterifies fatty acids to triglycerides. When exposed to cold, a
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When pyruvate or lactate is used as the precursor for glycerol 3-phosphate, glyceroneogenesis follows the same pathway as gluconeogenesis until it generates dihydroxyacetone phosphate. Lactate catalyzed by
672:(hepatic steatosis). Conversely, in adipose tissue, down-regulated glyceroneogenesis may decrease de novo lipogenesis, increasing the export of free fatty acids to the bloodstream, leading to
551:. In adipose tissue, glyceroneogenesis restrains the release of free fatty acids (FFA) by re-esterifying them. In the liver, triglycerides are synthesized for lipid distribution.
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to generate glycerol 3-phosphate, which is used to build triglycerides. An increase in the activity of glycerol kinase will increase the production of glycerol 3-phosphate.
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and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as intermediates. When dihydroxyacetone phosphate is produced, glyceroneogenesis will branch off from gluconeogenesis. With the expense of
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is a peptide hormone that causes cells to take in glucose. Through glyceroneogenesis, insulin down-regulates the expression of PEPC-K in both liver and adipose tissues.
316:, which is derived from glycerol 3-phosphate. In mammals, glycerol 3-phosphate is usually synthesized through glycolysis, a metabolic pathway that degrades glucose into
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Regulation of glyceroneogenesis is a therapeutic target of type 2 diabetes treatment, specifically inhibiting it in the liver and increasing it in adipose tissues.
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Glyceroneogenesis in brown adipose tissue contributes to thermogenesis, a process that generates heat in warm-blooded animals by delivering free fatty acids to the
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or any metabolites generating the metabolites of the TCA cycle can be used as a precursor of glyceroneogenesis, but glutamate is the only precursor confirmed.
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Alanine can also be used as a precursor of glyceroneogenesis because alanine can be degraded to pyruvate. Alanine will degrade to pyruvate by transferring its
918:"Glyceroneogenesis is reduced and glucose uptake is increased in adipose tissue from cafeteria diet-fed rats independently of tissue sympathetic innervation"
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oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate is catalyzed by PEPC-K, the essential enzyme which regulates glyceroneogenesis. Increases in PEPC-K levels or
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440:. Alanine aminotransferase cleaves off the amino group from alanine and binds it to 2-oxoglutarate, generating pyruvate from alanine, and
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Overexpressing PEPC-K in the liver will overproduce triglycerides and elevate the lipid level in the bloodstream, increasing the risk of
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Beale EG, Hammer RE, Antoine B, Forest C (April 2004). "Disregulated glyceroneogenesis: PCK1 as candidate diabetes and obesity gene".
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Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes).
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availability. The TCA cycle will slow down when the environment contains excess product, or deficiency of the substrate such as
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Chaves VE, Frasson D, Martins-Santos ME, Boschini RP, GarĂłfalo MA, Festuccia WT, Kettelhut IC, Migliorini RH (October 2006).
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that results in high levels of blood glucose and blood lipid. Type 2 diabetes, in addition to a decreased sensitivity to
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generate oxaloacetate in 2 steps. Firstly, glutamate can be converted to 2-oxoglutarate with the expense of NAD+ and H
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from 2-oxoglutarate. Pyruvate generated from alanine will enter glyceroneogenesis and generate glycerol 3-phosphate.
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Brown adipose tissue stores free fatty acids rather than triglycerides, and is especially abundant in newborn and
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taking place, and because the liver was believed to have sufficient glycerol 3-phosphate collected from the
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Reshef L, Olswang Y, Cassuto H, Blum B, Croniger CM, Kalhan SC, Tilghman SM, Hanson RW (August 2003).
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which decreases the activity of PEPC-K when the cell is in a cold environment. Glucocorticoids are
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may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience
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induce gene transcription of PEPC-K in liver but repress the transcription in adipose tissues.
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of the gene that codes for PEPC-K will increase glyceroneogenesis. Also, oxaloacetate can be
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2904:. Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article.
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is a substance that only affects glyceroneogenesis in adipose tissue by increasing
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any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against
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Since glyceroneogenesis is related to lipid regulation, it can be found in
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676:. Both of these conditions are highly associated with type 2 diabetes.
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to phosphoenolpyruvate when more PEPC-K can catalyze the reaction.
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levels. Intense suppression of glyceroneogenesis may lead to
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Failure in the regulation of glyceroneogenesis may lead to
400:. The PEPC-K enzyme will catalyze oxaloacetate to generate
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874:"Glyceroneogenesis and the triglyceride/fatty acid cycle"
280:. A significant biochemical pathway regulates cytosolic
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252:. The main regulator enzyme for this pathway is an
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348:Dihydroxyacetone phosphate to glycerol 3-phosphate
489:Gene expression of PEPC-K can be suppressed by
560:When glucose is deficient, in situations like
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757:Nye CK, Hanson RW, Kalhan SC (October 2008).
576:mammals. Brown adipose tissue is involved in
352:The main precursors of glyceroneogenesis are
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272:. Glyceroneogenesis is observed mainly in
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170:Learn how and when to remove this message
111:Learn how and when to remove this message
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324:, which beget glycerol 3-phosphate and
962:Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism
808:Jeoung NH, Harris RA (October 2010).
380:will form pyruvate at the expense of
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1132:Electron acceptors other than oxygen
49:adding citations to reliable sources
878:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
763:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
623:. Several experiments using stable
300:Triglycerides are built from three
240:as the precursor, but can also use
152:Knowledge (XXG)'s inclusion policy
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320:and then into two molecules of
36:needs additional citations for
260:(PEPC-K), which catalyzes the
226:, in the liquid of the cell's
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1556:Reverse cholesterol transport
248:, or any substances from the
216:) from precursors other than
1208:(protein→peptide→amino acid)
340:The gluconeogenesis pathway
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1593:Phospagen system (ATP-PCr)
1063:Primary nutritional groups
326:glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
322:dihydroxyacetone phosphate
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1427:Anoxygenic photosynthesis
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1349:Pentose phosphate pathway
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1104:Oxidative phosphorylation
974:10.1016/j.tem.2004.02.006
826:10.4093/kdj.2010.34.5.274
318:fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
1447:Entner-Doudoroff pathway
1109:electron transport chain
1096:Pyruvate decarboxylation
922:The Journal of Nutrition
438:alanine aminotransferase
182:Not to be confused with
2915:carbohydrate metabolism
1541:Sphingolipid metabolism
1442:DeLey-Doudoroff pathway
1290:carbohydrate catabolism
1285:Carbohydrate metabolism
1271:Purine nucleotide cycle
814:Korean Diabetes Journal
454:glutamate dehydrogenase
419:1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
1510:Fatty acid degradation
1230:Amino acid degradation
935:10.1093/jn/136.10.2475
891:10.1074/jbc.R300017200
776:10.1074/jbc.M804393200
436:with an enzyme called
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2963:amino acid metabolism
1546:Eicosanoid metabolism
1502:Fatty acid metabolism
1266:Pyrimidine metabolism
1125:Anaerobic respiration
378:lactate dehydrogenase
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2939:cellular respiration
1520:Fatty acid synthesis
1225:Amino acid synthesis
568:Brown adipose tissue
555:White adipose tissue
398:pyruvate carboxylase
210:glycerol 3-phosphate
45:improve this article
2111:Transcription &
1084:Aerobic respiration
670:fatty liver disease
452:O with the help of
402:phosphoenolpyruvate
308:onto each of three
286:metabolic disorders
270:phosphoenolpyruvate
60:"Glyceroneogenesis"
3044:Metabolic pathways
2898:metabolic pathways
1588:Ethanol metabolism
1536:Steroid metabolism
1261:Nucleotide salvage
1193:Protein metabolism
659:metabolic disorder
415:3-phosphoglycerate
411:2-phosphoglycerate
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2339:
2337:
2332:
2330:
2325:
2323:
2318:
2316:
2311:
2309:
2304:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2265:
2263:
2258:
2256:
2251:
2249:
2244:
2242:
2237:
2235:
2230:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2215:
2211:
2209:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2185:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2149:
2142:
2138:
2136:
2129:
2125:
2123:
2116:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2104:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2089:
2082:
2078:
2076:
2069:
2065:
2063:
2057:Steroidogenesis
2056:
2052:
2050:
2043:
2039:
2037:
2030:
2026:
2024:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2009:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1994:
1988:phosphorylation
1987:
1985:
1981:
1979:
1972:
1968:
1966:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1951:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1934:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1919:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1904:
1897:
1893:
1891:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1874:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1859:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1844:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1829:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1642:
1636:
1606:
1597:
1581:Iron metabolism
1560:
1524:
1485:
1469:
1451:
1437:Carbon fixation
1402:
1377:
1340:
1323:
1319:Gluconeogenesis
1292:
1287:
1275:
1247:
1240:
1211:
1184:
1174:
1135:
1119:
1107:
1074:
1067:
1041:
1028:
998:
997:
959:
958:
951:
928:(10): 2475–80.
915:
914:
907:
884:(33): 30413–6.
871:
870:
851:
807:
806:
802:
756:
755:
740:
735:
707:Gluconeogenesis
703:
682:
655:type 2 diabetes
651:
649:Type 2 Diabetes
646:
638:Glucocorticoids
617:gluconeogenesis
612:
570:
557:
541:
524:
495:glucocorticoids
475:
470:
451:
406:phosphorylation
396:, catalysed by
384:. By using one
370:gluconeogenesis
334:
298:
290:type 2 diabetes
262:decarboxylation
199:
184:Gluconeogenesis
176:
165:
159:
156:
142:Please help by
141:
132:
128:
117:
106:
100:
97:
54:
52:
42:
30:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3057:
3055:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3021:
3020:
3014:
3013:
2951:cell signaling
2927:photosynthesis
2925:Violet nodes:
2913:Orange nodes:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2883:
2871:
2862:
2855:
2843:
2834:
2827:
2820:
2811:
2802:
2795:
2788:
2779:
2772:
2765:
2748:
2739:
2732:
2723:
2716:
2709:
2702:
2690:
2683:
2674:
2667:
2660:
2653:
2641:
2634:
2612:
2599:
2586:
2577:
2570:
2562:
2555:
2546:
2539:
2526:
2516:Aromatic amino
2513:
2506:
2499:
2485:
2473:
2466:
2452:
2438:
2429:
2423:Branched-chain
2420:
2413:
2406:
2397:
2388:
2379:
2370:
2363:
2354:
2347:
2338:
2331:
2324:
2317:
2310:
2303:
2296:
2287:
2280:
2271:
2264:
2257:
2250:
2243:
2236:
2229:
2222:
2210:
2203:
2194:
2177:
2168:
2150:
2137:
2124:
2105:
2090:
2077:
2064:
2051:
2038:
2025:
2010:
1995:
1980:
1973:Light reaction
1967:
1952:
1935:
1920:
1905:
1892:
1875:
1860:
1845:
1830:
1815:
1799:
1788:
1775:
1760:
1745:
1732:
1719:
1706:
1691:
1678:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1637:
1635:
1634:
1627:
1620:
1612:
1603:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1583:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1514:Beta oxidation
1506:
1504:
1495:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1471:
1470:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1432:Chemosynthesis
1429:
1424:
1422:Photosynthesis
1418:
1412:
1408:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1371:Leloir pathway
1363:
1362:
1361:
1359:Polyol pathway
1351:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1332:Glycogenolysis
1328:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1321:
1311:
1305:
1298:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1274:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1252:
1250:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1219:
1210:
1209:
1203:
1197:
1195:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1145:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1129:
1127:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1088:
1086:
1077:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1042:
1029:
1027:
1026:
1019:
1012:
1004:
996:
995:
949:
905:
849:
800:
737:
736:
734:
731:
730:
729:
727:Glucocorticoid
724:
722:Norepinephrine
719:
714:
709:
702:
699:
681:
678:
650:
647:
645:
642:
634:glucocorticoid
611:
608:
603:norepinephrine
582:phosphorylates
569:
566:
556:
553:
545:adipose tissue
540:
537:
523:
520:
503:Norepinephrine
491:norepinephrine
484:decarboxylated
480:overexpression
474:
471:
469:
466:
449:
434:2-oxoglutarate
333:
330:
310:hydroxy groups
297:
294:
274:adipose tissue
212:(used to form
192:Glycogenolysis
178:
177:
135:
133:
126:
119:
118:
33:
31:
24:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3056:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3008:
3005:Green nodes:
2996:
2992:
2989:Brown nodes:
2980:
2976:
2964:
2952:
2940:
2928:
2916:
2903:
2899:
2875:
2868:
2859:
2852:
2847:
2840:
2831:
2824:
2823:Sphingolipids
2817:
2816:sphingolipids
2808:
2799:
2792:
2791:Glycerolipids
2785:
2784:phospholipids
2776:
2769:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2745:
2736:
2729:
2720:
2713:
2706:
2699:
2698:proteoglycans
2694:
2693:Glycoproteins
2687:
2680:
2671:
2664:
2657:
2650:
2645:
2638:
2630:
2626:
2620:
2616:
2608:
2603:
2595:
2590:
2583:
2573:
2566:
2559:
2552:
2543:
2535:
2530:
2523:
2519:
2510:
2503:
2496:
2489:
2482:
2477:
2470:
2463:
2458:
2449:
2444:
2435:
2426:
2417:
2410:
2403:
2394:
2385:
2376:
2367:
2360:
2351:
2344:
2335:
2328:
2321:
2314:
2307:
2300:
2293:
2284:
2277:
2268:
2261:
2254:
2247:
2240:
2233:
2226:
2219:
2214:
2207:
2200:
2191:
2187:
2181:
2174:
2167:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2113:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2035:
2034:
2033:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2007:
2006:
2005:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1960:carbon intake
1949:
1948:
1947:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1814:
1809:
1808:
1796:
1795:
1785:
1784:
1772:
1771:
1757:
1756:
1742:
1741:
1729:
1728:
1716:
1715:
1703:
1702:
1688:
1687:
1675:
1674:
1660:
1652:
1651:
1645:
1640:
1633:
1628:
1626:
1621:
1619:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1466:
1465:Radiotrophism
1463:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1387:
1386:Glycosylation
1384:
1383:
1380:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1364:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1187:
1181:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1020:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1006:
1005:
1002:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
968:(3): 129–35.
967:
963:
956:
954:
950:
945:
941:
936:
931:
927:
923:
919:
912:
910:
906:
901:
897:
892:
887:
883:
879:
875:
868:
866:
864:
862:
860:
858:
856:
854:
850:
845:
841:
836:
831:
827:
823:
820:(5): 274–83.
819:
815:
811:
804:
801:
796:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
768:
764:
760:
753:
751:
749:
747:
745:
743:
739:
732:
728:
725:
723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
704:
700:
698:
696:
695:transcription
692:
687:
679:
677:
675:
674:lipodystrophy
671:
666:
664:
660:
656:
648:
643:
641:
639:
635:
629:
626:
622:
618:
609:
607:
604:
600:
597:
593:
588:
586:
583:
579:
578:thermogenesis
575:
567:
565:
563:
554:
552:
550:
546:
538:
536:
534:
530:
521:
519:
517:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
487:
485:
481:
472:
467:
465:
463:
459:
455:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
426:
424:
420:
416:
412:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
346:
338:
331:
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
295:
293:
291:
287:
283:
279:
276:, and in the
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
234:
229:
225:
224:
219:
215:
214:triglycerides
211:
207:
203:
197:
193:
189:
185:
174:
171:
163:
160:December 2023
153:
149:
145:
139:
136:This article
134:
125:
124:
115:
112:
104:
101:December 2023
93:
90:
86:
83:
79:
76:
72:
69:
65:
62: –
61:
57:
56:Find sources:
50:
46:
40:
39:
34:This article
32:
28:
23:
22:
19:
3029:Biochemistry
2973:Grey nodes:
2961:Blue nodes:
2949:Pink nodes:
2867:cannabinoids
2705:Chlorophylls
2656:Antioxidants
2409:Serine group
2320:Photosystems
2306:P-glycerates
2253:P-glycerates
2218:sialic acids
2213:Amino sugars
2165:
2153:
2152:
2140:
2139:
2127:
2126:
2108:
2107:
2093:
2092:
2080:
2079:
2067:
2066:
2054:
2053:
2041:
2040:
2028:
2027:
2013:
2012:
1998:
1997:
1983:
1982:
1970:
1969:
1955:
1954:
1938:
1937:
1923:
1922:
1908:
1907:
1898:Fermentation
1895:
1894:
1878:
1877:
1863:
1862:
1848:
1847:
1833:
1832:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1801:
1790:
1777:
1762:
1747:
1734:
1721:
1708:
1693:
1680:
1667:
1366:Galactolysis
1336:Glycogenesis
1141:Fermentation
1113:ATP synthase
965:
961:
925:
921:
881:
877:
817:
813:
803:
766:
762:
683:
667:
652:
630:
613:
592:mitochondria
589:
571:
558:
542:
525:
488:
476:
446:
427:
394:oxaloacetate
374:
351:
299:
266:oxaloacetate
231:
221:
201:
200:
196:Glycogenesis
166:
157:
144:spinning off
137:
107:
98:
88:
81:
74:
67:
55:
43:Please help
38:verification
35:
18:
2997:metabolism.
2981:metabolism.
2937:Red nodes:
2874:Eicosanoids
2839:fatty acids
2768:Cholesterol
2756:carotenoids
2735:Polyketides
2670:Nucleotides
2625:tocopherols
2589:Calciferols
2502:Amino acids
2495:amino acids
2425:amino acids
2400:Respiratory
2143:Proteolysis
2130:Translation
2117:replication
2083:MEP pathway
2070:MVA pathway
2031:Lipogenesis
2003:deamination
1793:Peroxisomal
1685:respiration
1492:lipogenesis
1354:Fructolysis
1168:Lactic acid
621:bloodstream
574:hibernating
458:metabolites
430:amino group
390:bicarbonate
302:fatty acids
3023:Categories
2991:nucleotide
2775:Bile acids
2751:Terpenoids
2582:vitamin Bs
2565:Cobalamins
2493:glucogenic
2481:polyamines
2441:Homoserine
2313:Glyoxylate
2206:Inositol-P
2001:Amino acid
1941:feeders to
1769:elongation
1724:Glyoxylate
1713:acid cycle
1639:Metabolism
1315:Glycolysis
1248:metabolism
1246:Nucleotide
1236:Urea cycle
1217:Amino acid
1206:Catabolism
1149:Glycolysis
1092:Glycolysis
1075:metabolism
1035:catabolism
1031:Metabolism
733:References
712:Glycolysis
468:Regulation
306:esterified
223:glycolysis
188:Glycolysis
148:relocating
71:newspapers
2760:vitamin A
2744:backbones
2742:Terpenoid
2637:Cofactors
2629:vitamin E
2619:vitamin K
2607:vitamin A
2602:Retinoids
2594:vitamin D
2569:vitamin B
2534:vitamin C
2529:Ascorbate
2522:histidine
2509:Shikimate
2488:Ketogenic
2455:Glutamate
2432:Aspartate
2384:glutarate
2299:Pentose-P
2283:Succinate
2274:Propionyl
2267:Tetrose-P
2260:Pentose-P
2156:Glycosyl-
2096:Shikimate
2044:Lipolysis
1986:Oxidative
1943:gluconeo-
1885:oxylation
1866:Gluconeo-
1823:genolysis
1806:oxidation
1782:oxidation
1754:synthesis
1698:phosphate
1488:lipolysis
1295:anabolism
1039:anabolism
717:TCA cycle
680:Treatment
522:TCA cycle
462:TCA cycle
442:glutamate
362:glutamine
250:TCA cycle
246:glutamine
228:cytoplasm
2979:cofactor
2858:Steroids
2798:Acyl-CoA
2782:Glycero-
2686:Proteins
2649:minerals
2644:Vitamins
2615:Quinones
2551:pigments
2476:Creatine
2469:Arginine
2373:Succinyl
2327:Pyruvate
2246:Glycerol
2239:Triose-P
2232:Hexose-P
2184:multiple
1881:Pyruvate
1672:fixation
1411:Nonhuman
1396:O-linked
1391:N-linked
1183:Specific
982:15046742
944:16988112
900:12788931
844:21076574
795:18662986
701:See also
625:isotopes
585:glycerol
547:and the
539:Location
354:pyruvate
314:glycerol
288:such as
238:pyruvate
2995:protein
2975:vitamin
2677:Nucleic
2580:Various
2462:proline
2416:Alanine
2382:α-Keto-
2359:acetate
2350:Citrate
2334:Lactate
2190:glycans
2098:pathway
2018:shuttle
2016:Citrate
1945:genesis
1928:genesis
1883:decarb-
1868:genesis
1838:genesis
1700:pathway
1696:Pentose
1551:Ketosis
1163:Ethanol
1046:General
990:9194909
835:2972486
786:2562054
686:Insulin
663:insulin
644:Disease
601:called
599:hormone
562:fasting
516:Insulin
499:insulin
460:in the
404:. This
366:alanine
358:lactate
296:Summary
256:called
242:alanine
233:cytosol
218:glucose
85:scholar
3034:Lipids
2896:Major
2849:&
2814:Glyco-
2754:&
2726:Acetyl
2696:&
2647:&
2623:&
2520:&
2479:&
2460:&
2448:lysine
2446:&
2393:bodies
2391:Ketone
2366:Malate
2357:Oxalo-
2341:Acetyl
2290:Acetyl
2216:&
2199:sugars
2197:Simple
2188:&
2186:sugars
2180:Double
1851:Glyco-
1836:Glyco-
1821:Glyco-
1711:Citric
1683:Photo-
1670:Carbon
1073:Energy
988:
980:
942:
898:
842:
832:
793:
783:
497:, and
364:, and
254:enzyme
87:
80:
73:
66:
58:
2865:Endo-
2830:Waxes
2807:acids
2805:Fatty
2679:acids
2558:Hemes
2542:δ-ALA
2518:acids
2490:&
2457:group
2443:group
2434:group
2402:chain
2173:acids
2171:Sugar
2158:ation
1926:Keto-
1913:lysis
1911:Keto-
1853:lysis
1765:Fatty
1750:Fatty
1739:cycle
1726:cycle
1569:Other
1529:Other
1304:Human
1185:paths
986:S2CID
610:Liver
549:liver
505:is a
282:lipid
278:liver
230:(the
204:is a
194:, or
92:JSTOR
78:books
2993:and
2977:and
2728:-CoA
2663:PRPP
2549:Bile
2375:-CoA
2343:-CoA
2292:-CoA
2276:-CoA
1804:beta
1780:Beta
1767:acid
1752:acid
1737:Urea
1293:and
978:PMID
940:PMID
896:PMID
840:PMID
791:PMID
657:, a
533:NAD+
531:and
423:NADH
388:and
382:NAD+
64:news
2900:in
2719:MVA
2712:MEP
1641:map
1317:⇄
1158:ABE
970:doi
930:doi
926:136
886:doi
882:278
830:PMC
822:doi
781:PMC
771:doi
767:283
529:ADP
432:to
386:ATP
312:of
268:to
264:of
146:or
47:by
3025::
2762:)
2631:)
2609:)
2596:)
2574:)
2571:12
2536:)
1490:,
1334:⇄
1151:→
1111:+
1102:→
1098:→
1094:→
1037:,
1033:,
984:.
976:.
966:15
964:.
952:^
938:.
924:.
920:.
908:^
894:.
880:.
876:.
852:^
838:.
828:.
818:34
816:.
812:.
789:.
779:.
765:.
761:.
741:^
535:.
501:.
493:,
417:,
413:,
360:,
356:,
304:,
292:.
244:,
190:,
186:,
3009:.
2965:.
2953:.
2941:.
2929:.
2917:.
2758:(
2627:(
2621:)
2617:(
2605:(
2592:(
2567:(
2532:(
2182:/
1631:e
1624:t
1617:v
1516:)
1512:(
1494:)
1486:(
1297:)
1288:(
1116:)
1106:(
1023:e
1016:t
1009:v
992:.
972::
946:.
932::
902:.
888::
846:.
824::
797:.
773::
450:2
198:.
173:)
167:(
162:)
158:(
154:.
140:.
114:)
108:(
103:)
99:(
89:·
82:·
75:·
68:·
41:.
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