896:, an observer without peer in the field of solar eclipses." He did not believe existing eclipse photos would be useful in proving Einstein's claim. In 1912 Freundlich asked if Perrine would include observation of light deflection as part of his program for the solar eclipse of October 10, 1912, in Brazil. W. W. Campbell, director of the Lick Observatory, loaned Perrine its intramercurial camera lenses. Perrine and the Cordoba team were the only eclipse expedition to construct specialized equipment dedicated to observing light deflection. Unfortunately all the expeditions experienced heavy rain which prevented any observations. Nevertheless, Perrine was the first astronomer to make a dedicated attempt to observe light deflection to test Einstein's prediction.
2025:
714:
950:
915:). He imagined an observer performing experiments on a rotating turntable. He noted that such an observer would find a different value for the mathematical constant Ï than the one predicted by Euclidean geometry. The reason is that the radius of a circle would be measured with an uncontracted ruler, but, according to special relativity, the circumference would seem to be longer because the ruler would be contracted. Since Einstein believed that the laws of physics were local, described by local fields, he concluded from this that spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to study
1852:
44:
1940:, the physical theory that describes the waveâparticle duality of matter, and quantum mechanics does not currently describe gravitational attraction at relevant (microscopic) scales. There is a great deal of speculation in the physics community as to the modifications that might be needed to both general relativity and quantum mechanics in order to unite them consistently. The speculative theory that unites general relativity and quantum mechanics is usually called
908:
a factor of two because the approximation he used does not work well for things moving at near the speed of light. When
Einstein completed the full theory of general relativity in 1915, he rectified this error and predicted the correct amount of light deflection caused by the Sun (1.75 seconds of arc). Eddington and Dyson in 1919 and W. W. Campbell in 1922 were able to compare their results to Einstein's corrected prediction.
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3442:, chapter 7 "The Golden Age" Kip Thorne writes: "The black holes was analyzing were radically different beasts from those of the early 1960s, when physicists had begun to embrace the concept of a black hole. The intervening decade had been a golden age of black-hole research, an era that revolutionized our understanding of general relativity's predictions."
1495:, during one of Eddington's lectures he asked "Professor Eddington, you must be one of three persons in the world who understands general relativity." Eddington paused, unable to answer. Silberstein continued "Don't be modest, Eddington!" Finally, Eddington replied "On the contrary, I'm trying to think who the third person is."
1924:. Both of these theories proposed changes to the field equations of general relativity, and both suffer from these changes permitting the presence of bipolar gravitational radiation. As a result, Rosen's original theory has been refuted by observations of binary pulsars. As for BransâDicke (which has a tunable parameter
865:
to show that clocks at the top of a box accelerating upward would run faster than clocks at the bottom. He concluded that the rate at which time passes depends on the position in a gravitational field, and that the difference in rate is proportional to the gravitational potential to a first approximation.
907:
In hindsight, the occluding weather and lack of results in 1912 and 1914 favored
Einstein. If clear photographs and measurable results had been possible, Einstein's 1911 prediction might have been proven wrong. The amount of deflection that he calculated in 1911 was too small (0.83 seconds of arc) by
864:
In 1911, Einstein published another article expanding on the 1907 article. There, he considered the case of a uniformly accelerated box not in a gravitational field, and noted that it would be indistinguishable from a box sitting still in an unchanging gravitational field. He used special relativity
813:
General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. Their strong gravity is thought to be responsible for
1490:
lent his considerable prestige in the
British scientific establishment in an effort to champion the work of this German scientist. Because the theory was so complex and abstruse (even today it is popularly considered the pinnacle of scientific thinking; in the early years it was even more so), it
1090:
There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken on the
Eddington expedition showed the experimental uncertainty to be comparable to the magnitude of the effect Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition concluded that the method was inherently
794:
unexplainable differences between the theory and the observations. Under Newton's model, gravity was the result of an attractive force between massive objects. Although even Newton was bothered by the unknown nature of that force, the basic framework was extremely successful at describing motion.
793:
had been accepted for more than two hundred years as a valid description of the gravitational force between masses, even though Newton himself did not regard the theory as the final word on the nature of gravity. Within a century of Newton's formulation, careful astronomical observation revealed
1304:
unless the universe had a constant density of massâenergyâmomentum. In other words, air, rock and even a vacuum should all have the same density. This inconsistency with observation sent
Einstein back to the drawing board and, on 25 November 1915, Einstein presented the updated Einstein field
872:
by massive bodies, e.g., Jupiter, the Sun. Although the approximation was crude, it allowed him to calculate that the deflection is nonzero. Einstein urged astronomers to attempt direct observation of light deflection of fixed stars near the Sun during solar eclipses when they would be visible.
1835:
The first piece of evidence in support of general relativity came from its correct prediction of the anomalous rate of precession of
Mercury's orbit. Subsequently, Arthur Stanley Eddington's 1919 expedition confirmed Einstein's prediction of the deflection of light by the Sun during the total
797:
However, experiments and observations show that
Einstein's description accounts for several effects that are unexplained by Newton's law, such as minute anomalies in the orbits of Mercury and other planets. General relativity also predicts novel effects of gravity, such as
1928:
such that Ï = â is the same as general relativity), the amount by which it can differ from general relativity has been severely constrained by these observations. Many other alternatives to general relativity have also been ruled out by analyses of the neutron-star merger
958:
reported confirmation of "the
Einstein theory" (specifically, the bending of light by gravitation) based on 29 May 1919 eclipse observations in Principe (Africa) and Sobral (Brazil), after the findings were presented on 6 November 1919 to a joint meeting in London of the
899:
Two years later, the three observatory directors, Perrine, Freundlich, and
Campbell included light deflection in their expeditions to the Russian Empire for the solar eclipse of August 21, 1914. Unfortunately due to clouds and the outbreak of
846:, while a theory which from the outset prefers no particular state of motion appeared more satisfactory to him. So, while still working at the patent office in 1907, Einstein had what he would call his "happiest thought". He realized that the
1139:
When
Einstein realized that general covariance was tenable, he quickly completed the development of the field equations that are named after him. However, he made a now-famous mistake. The field equations he published in October 1915 were
1770:
1796:
Progress in solving the field equations and understanding the solutions has been ongoing. The solution for a spherically symmetric charged object was discovered by Reissner and later rediscovered by Nordström, and is called the
1452:. With the publication of the field equations, the issue became one of solving them for various cases and interpreting the solutions. This and experimental verification have dominated general relativity research ever since.
904:, no results were possible. However, Perrine was able to take the first photographs in an attempt to verify Einstein's prediction of light deflection. A light cloud cover prevented determining accurate star positions.
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unreliable. The deflection of light during a solar eclipse was confirmed by later, more accurate observations. Some resented the newcomer's fame, notably some nationalistic German physicists, who later started the
115:
1648:
derived a solution for an expanding universe. However, Einstein believed that the universe was static, and since a static cosmology was not supported by the general relativistic field equations, he added a
2013:
Roy Kerr, protagonist of the book, contributed an Afterword, saying of the book: "It is a remarkable piece of writing capturing beautifully the period we now refer to as the golden age of relativity."
1029:
scientists was available only to Central Powers academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and the United States through the efforts of the Austrian
1840:, which helped to cement the status of general relativity as a viable theory. Since then, many observations have shown agreement with the predictions of general relativity. These include studies of
1801:. The black hole aspect of the Schwarzschild solution was very controversial, and Einstein did not believe that singularities could be real. However, in 1957 (two years after Einstein's death),
1191:
485:
1971:. During this period, many of the concepts and terms which continue to inspire the imaginations of gravitation researchers and the general public were introduced, including black holes and
3521:(1913). "Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten RelativitÀtstheorie und einer Theorie der Gravitation" [Outline of a Generalized Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of Gravitation].
1784:
found evidence for the universe expanding. This resulted in Einstein dropping the cosmological constant, referring to it as "the biggest blunder in my career". At the time, it was an
782:
between 1907 and 1915, with contributions by many others after 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of
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based on another approach. When that approach was proven to be inconsistent, Einstein revisited the concept of general covariance and discovered that the hole argument was flawed.
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in Berlin to inquire as to the suitability of examining existing solar eclipse photographs to prove Einstein's prediction of light deflection. Perrine, the director of the
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1010:) for his gravitational theory. For a while, Einstein thought that there were problems with the approach, but he later returned to it and, by late 1915, had published his
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claimed to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of gravitational deflection of starlight by the sun while photographing a solar eclipse with dual expeditions in
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Baker T, Bellini E, Ferreira PG, Lagos M, Noller J, Sawicki I (December 2017). "Strong Constraints on Cosmological Gravity from GW170817 and GRB 170817A".
1805:
published a proof that black holes are called for by the Schwarzschild solution. Additionally, the solution for a rotating massive object was obtained by
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was rumored that only three people in the world understood it. There was an illuminating, though probably apocryphal, anecdote about this. As related by
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phenomenon. At the urging of Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began by exploring the use of general covariance (which is essentially the use of curvature
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1876:
790:
751:
4155:
3033:
B. P. Abbott; et al. (LIGO Scientific and Virgo Collaborations) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger".
4081:
2375:"Observations on the Deflection of Light in Passing Through the Sun's Gravitational Field, Made During the Total Solar Eclipse of Sept. 21, 1922"
2096:
Einstein, A., "RelativitÀtsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen (On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It)",
1478:
with Einstein's discovery of the theory. The timing of the correspondence and publications has led to a number of in depth historical analyses.
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Perrine, Charles D. (1923). "Contribution to the history of attempts to test the theory of relativity by means of astronomical observations".
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discovered in 1915 and published in 1916 an exact solution for the case of a spherically symmetric spacetime surrounding a massive object in
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Another of Einstein's notable thought experiments about the nature of the gravitational field is that of a rotating disk (a variant of the
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2326:"A determination of the deflection of light by the sun's gravitational field, from observations made at the total eclipse of May 29, 1919"
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4178:
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Consequently, in 1907 he wrote an article, published in 1908, on acceleration under special relativity. In that article, he argued that
744:
1780:, but they were unstable: the slightest perturbation of a static state would result in the universe expanding or contracting. In 1929,
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is really inertial motion, and that for a freefalling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the
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1907:
1117:) to create a gravitational theory. However, in 1913 Einstein abandoned that approach, arguing that it is inconsistent based on the "
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2884:"Black Hole Picture Revealed for the First Time â Astronomers at last have captured an image of the darkest entities in the cosmos"
430:
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43:
810:. Many of these predictions have been confirmed by experiment or observation, while others are the subject of ongoing research.
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Pardo, Kris; Fishbach, Maya; Holz, Daniel E.; Spergel, David N. (2018). "Limits on the number of spacetime dimensions from
1064:, also in California, announced that it too had disproved Einstein's prediction, although its findings were not published.
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As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was the preference of inertial motion within
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2006:
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identifies the "golden age of general relativity" as the period roughly from 1960 to 1975, during which the study of
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In the last year of Einstein's work on general relativity he met with and corresponded with the German mathematician
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2121:"Einfluss der Schwerkraft auf die Ausbreitung des Lichtes (On the Influence of Gravity on the Propagation of Light)"
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hypothesis to add in the cosmological constant, as it was only intended to justify one result (a static universe).
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3579:(1916b), "Ăber das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler FlĂŒssigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie",
1972:
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in 1905. He published a Lorentz invariant theory on four-dimensional spacetime, where gravity is transmitted by
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There have been various attempts to find modifications to general relativity. The most famous of these are the
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670:
660:
327:
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Janssen, Michel; Renn, JĂŒrgen (1 November 2015). "Arch and scaffold: How Einstein found his field equations".
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Hodge, John E. (1997). "Charles Dillon Perrine and the Transformation of the Argentine National Observatory".
1300:, and so had Einstein very excited. However, it was soon realized that they were inconsistent with the local
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in the form in which it is used today. This theory explains gravitation as the distortion of the structure of
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3715:
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2805:
Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein
2043:
1895:
892:, in 1900, 1901, 1905, and 1908. "...he had become, in the opinion of the director of the Lick Observatory,
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847:
655:
3287:
Ezquiaga JM, ZumalacĂĄrregui M (December 2017). "Dark Energy After GW170817: Dead Ends and the Road Ahead".
1913:
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the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects (such as active galactic nuclei or
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1045:. After the war, Einstein maintained his relationship with Leiden University, accepting a contract as an
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3095:"Gravitational waves detected 100 years after Einstein's prediction | NSF - National Science Foundation"
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1949:
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Campbell & Curtis (1914). "The Lick Observatory-Crocker Eclipse Expedition to BrovarĂœ, Russia".
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praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature"; fellow laureate
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818:). General relativity is also part of the framework of the standard Big Bang model of cosmology.
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General relativity moved very successfully from that meeting in Warsaw, hot on the heels of the
17:
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Boran S, Desai S, Kahya E, Woodard R (2018). "GW 170817 falsifies dark matter emulators".
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1937:
1765:{\displaystyle R_{\mu \nu }-{1 \over 2}Rg_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }=\kappa T_{\mu \nu }}
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861:. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of gravitational time dilation.
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The future of theoretical physics and cosmology: celebrating Stephen Hawking's 60th birthday
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1967:, which had previously been regarded as something of a curiosity, entered the mainstream of
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3560:(1916a), "Ăber das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie",
2912:"First M87 Event Horizon Telescope Results. I. The Shadow of the Supermassive Black Hole"
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Proving Einstein Right: The Daring Expeditions that Changed How We Look at the Universe
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team, corroborating another prediction of the theory 100 years after it was published.
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941:'s photograph of a solar eclipse, which confirmed Einstein's theory that light "bends".
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1474:; he derived the theory of general relativity from an elegant variational principle
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1986:
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was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".
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In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein's 1911 challenge from Prague. The
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The first image of a black hole, the supermassive one at the center of galaxy
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For a discussion of astronomers' attitudes and debates about relativity, see
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at Cordoba, had participated in four solar eclipse expeditions while at the
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1470:. Hilbert had been working on a unified field theory based on the ideas of
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In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his
1844:, observations of radio signals passing the limb of the Sun, and even the
3178:
2009:, and entered its golden age of discovery that lasted into the mid-1970s.
1980:
1930:
1806:
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found a solution in which the universe may expand or contract, and later
1383:{\displaystyle R_{\mu \nu }-{1 \over 2}Rg_{\mu \nu }=\kappa T_{\mu \nu }}
1080:
630:
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280:
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Albert Einstein (1879â1955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever'
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for a rotating, charged massive object was published a few years later.
1533: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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110:{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }}
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and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner
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1998:
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1975:. At the same time, in a closely related development, the study of
986:. Once back in Zurich, he immediately visited his old ETH classmate
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Frank Watson Dyson; Arthur Stanley Eddington; C. Davidson (1920).
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1989:
refers frequently to the "golden age of relativity" in his book
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publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the world.
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Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources
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1502:
2832:: Vol 2 The Modern Theories 1900-1926. Chapter V: Gravitation
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analysis that showed no gravitational redshift. In 1918, the
1121:". In 1914 and much of 1915, Einstein was trying to create
3499:
Subtle is the lord: the science and life of Albert Einstein
2910:
The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration (10 April 2019).
1067:
However, in May 1919, a team led by the British astronomer
1626:. Since then, many other exact solutions have been found.
1486:
In the early years after Einstein's theory was published,
2330:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
1105:
By 1912, Einstein was actively seeking a theory in which
831:
The first relativistic theory of gravity was proposed by
1614:, Einstein assumed that they were unsolvable. However,
990:, now a professor of mathematics, who introduced him to
919:, and to formulate general relativity in this language.
2991:
Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze (11 February 2016).
2379:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
2258:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
2114:
2112:
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Jahrbuch der RadioaktivitÀt (Yearbook of Radioactivity)
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The Foundation of the Generalised Theory of Relativity
1936:
In addition, general relativity is inconsistent with
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53:
3123:"Focus on the First Event Horizon Telescope Results"
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The expanding universe and the cosmological constant
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A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity
2299:S. James Gates Jr. &, Cathie Pelletier (2019).
2106:page 454 (Wir betrachen zwei Bewegung systeme ...)
1855:First image of the event horizon of a black hole (
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1186:{\displaystyle R_{\mu \nu }=\kappa T_{\mu \nu }\,}
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998:. On the recommendation of Italian mathematician
880:In October 1911, Freundlich contacted astronomer
3536:(editorsâLehner C., Renn J., Schemmel M.) 2012 (
3143:"Black Hole Picture Revealed for the First Time"
2456:, Scotland, May 1996. Retrieved 4 February 2015.
2059:Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity
1056:in California, United States, published a solar
3534:Einstein and the Changing Worldviews of Physics
1129:The development of the Einstein field equations
3183:Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
2993:"Einstein's gravitational waves found at last"
2867:
2863:
2160:
2158:
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2604:Andrzej, Stasiak (2003), "Myths in science",
1002:, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of
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8:
2680:Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity
2528:Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity
2491:Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity
2166:Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity
2431:O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson (1996), "
850:could be extended to gravitational fields.
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3623:
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3415:. Cambridge University Press. p. 74.
2039:List of contributors to general relativity
1875:, travelling outward from the source. The
806:and an effect of gravity on time known as
759:
745:
311:
201:
31:
3409:Thorne, Kip (2003). "Warping spacetime".
3361:
3300:
3247:
3194:
3046:
2947:
2929:
2733:
2625:
2390:
2349:
2216:
2214:
1859:) captured by the Event Horizon Telescope
1753:
1734:
1715:
1698:
1686:
1680:
1657:
1593:Learn how and when to remove this message
1429:
1423:
1399:
1371:
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1335:
1323:
1317:
1270:
1242:
1236:
1208:
1202:
1182:
1173:
1154:
1148:
789:Before the advent of general relativity,
98:
89:
77:
58:
52:
2807:. Oxford University Press. p. 239.
2801:"14. The Field Equations of Gravitation"
2064:W. K. Clifford#Premonition of relativity
1877:first observation of gravitational waves
1101:General covariance and the hole argument
1079:, a west African island. Nobel laureate
27:Origins of Einstein's gravitation theory
2531:, Princeton University Press, pp.
2494:, Princeton University Press, pp.
2075:
1883:, was made on 14 September 2015 by the
381:
355:
314:
260:
34:
2694:, especially chapters 6, 9, 10 and 11.
1944:, prominent examples of which include
1672:to the field equations, which became:
3523:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Mathematik und Physik
2594:". 2006. Retrieved on 4 October 2006.
1896:Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration
791:Newton's law of universal gravitation
7:
4089:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era
3544:Genesis of general relativity series
2652:Hentschel, Klaus and Ann M. (1996),
2443:School of Mathematics and Statistics
2201:Journal for the History of Astronomy
1879:, which came from the merger of two
1531:adding citations to reliable sources
3581:Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss.
3562:Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss.
3502:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2963:Landau, Elizabeth (10 April 2019).
1462:General relativity priority dispute
839:that travel at the speed of light.
2415:"A New Physics, Based on Einstein"
2182:2006. Retrieved on 13 March 2007.
1997:hosted a relativity conference in
1908:Alternatives to general relativity
1727:
1659:
70:
25:
3141:Overbye, Dennis (10 April 2019).
3127:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
2917:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
4199:
4198:
3602:
2965:"Black Hole Image Makes History"
2023:
1507:
1025:During World War I, the work of
948:
931:
726:
725:
712:
42:
18:Golden age of general relativity
2562:Smith, PD (17 September 2005),
2421:. 25 November 1919. p. 17.
2001:in 1962 to which Melia refers:
1979:entered the mainstream and the
1871:of spacetime that propagate as
1809:in the 1960s and is called the
1776:This permitted the creation of
1542:"History of general relativity"
1518:needs additional citations for
1302:conservation of energyâmomentum
1287:Einstein gravitational constant
868:The article also predicted the
3380:10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.251301
3319:10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.251304
3065:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102
2735:11858/00-001M-0000-002A-8ED7-1
2683:, Princeton University Press,
2564:"The genius of space and time"
1831:Gravitational wave observation
1610:Since the field equations are
886:Argentine National Observatory
822:Creation of general relativity
1:
3213:10.1088/1475-7516/2018/07/048
2373:Campbell, William W. (1923).
923:Developing general relativity
3121:Shep Doeleman (April 2019).
2677:Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006),
2525:Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006),
2488:Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006),
1838:solar eclipse of 29 May 1919
1441:{\displaystyle g_{\mu \nu }}
1307:Prussian Academy of Sciences
1254:{\displaystyle T_{\mu \nu }}
1220:{\displaystyle R_{\mu \nu }}
1012:general theory of relativity
4011:Cosmic microwave background
3477:Roy Kerr (2009) Afterword,
3460:University of Chicago Press
2847:, Oxford University Press,
2656:, Birkhaeuser Verlag, xxi,
2639:See the table in MathPages
1973:gravitational singularities
1867:, which are ripples in the
1827:Tests of general relativity
1799:ReissnerâNordström solution
1622:. This is now known as the
1097:(German Physics) movement.
808:gravitational time dilation
223:Gravitational time dilation
4251:
3479:Cracking the Einstein Code
3456:Cracking the Einstein Code
3440:Black holes and time warps
3266:10.1103/PhysRevD.97.041501
2438:Mathematical Physics index
2178:Princeton University Press
1991:Cracking the Einstein Code
1905:
1824:
1633:
1606:The Schwarzschild solution
1459:
1132:
965:Royal Astronomical Society
343:MathissonâPapapetrouâDixon
184:Pseudo-Riemannian manifold
4194:
3005:10.1038/nature.2016.19361
2759:"Zur Gravitationstheorie"
2618:10.1038/sj.embor.embor779
2454:University of St. Andrews
2223:Astronomische Nachrichten
2119:Einstein, Albert (1911),
1983:became well established.
1846:global positioning system
1289:. This predicted the non-
1018:by matter, affecting the
2949:10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7
2783:10.1002/andp.19173591804
2243:10.1002/asna.19232191706
2145:10.1002/andp.19113401005
1665:{\displaystyle \Lambda }
1135:Einstein field equations
1069:Arthur Stanley Eddington
1054:Mount Wilson Observatory
1022:motion of other matter.
1006:(essentially the use of
994:and, more generally, to
348:HamiltonâJacobiâEinstein
328:Einstein field equations
151:Mathematical formulation
4146:ChandrasekharâEddington
4072:Golden age of cosmology
4004:On specific discoveries
3952:Lorentz transformations
3350:Physical Review Letters
3289:Physical Review Letters
3035:Physical Review Letters
2827:Whittaker, E. T (1953)
2448:5 December 2015 at the
2044:Golden age of cosmology
1922:Rosen's bimetric theory
1894:, was published by the
1278:{\displaystyle \kappa }
1075:, northern Brazil, and
1047:Extraordinary Professor
875:Erwin Finlay-Freundlich
848:principle of relativity
4077:Medieval Islamic world
3820:Computational physics
3762:Variational principles
3689:Electrical engineering
3496:Pais, Abraham (1982).
2757:Weyl, Hermann (1917).
2351:10.1098/rsta.1920.0009
2171:28 August 2014 at the
2164:Crelinsten, Jeffrey. "
2007:PoundâRebka experiment
1860:
1778:steady-state solutions
1766:
1666:
1624:Schwarzschild solution
1442:
1408:
1384:
1279:
1263:energyâmomentum tensor
1255:
1221:
1187:
778:that was developed by
218:Gravitational redshift
111:
4067:Golden age of physics
4062:Copernican Revolution
3549:5 August 2012 at the
2468:Two friends in Leiden
2049:Golden age of physics
1854:
1767:
1667:
1651:cosmological constant
1636:Cosmological constant
1620:spherical coordinates
1476:almost simultaneously
1443:
1409:
1385:
1294:perihelion precession
1280:
1256:
1222:
1188:
996:differential geometry
859:equivalence principle
804:gravitational lensing
776:theory of gravitation
506:WeylâLewisâPapapetrou
461:KerrâNewmanâde Sitter
281:EinsteinâRosen bridge
213:Gravitational lensing
169:Equivalence principle
112:
4170:Relativity priority
4025:Subatomic particles
3985:Loop quantum gravity
3974:Quantum information
3923:Quantum field theory
3723:Gravitational theory
2843:John Waller (2002),
2336:(571â581): 291â333.
2152:Vol. 3, document 23)
1950:loop quantum gravity
1918:scalarâtensor theory
1902:Alternative theories
1863:The theory predicts
1815:KerrâNewman solution
1792:More exact solutions
1679:
1656:
1527:improve this article
1488:Sir Arthur Eddington
1482:Sir Arthur Eddington
1456:Einstein and Hilbert
1422:
1398:
1316:
1269:
1235:
1201:
1147:
827:Early investigations
436:EinsteinâRosen waves
162:Fundamental concepts
51:
4134:Scientific disputes
4120:Via Panisperna boys
4021:Gravitational waves
3968:Recent developments
3699:Maxwell's equations
3589:1916skpa.conf..424S
3577:Schwarzschild, Karl
3570:1916SPAW.......189S
3558:Schwarzschild, Karl
3372:2017PhRvL.119y1301B
3311:2017PhRvL.119y1304E
3258:2018PhRvD..97d1501B
3205:2018JCAP...07..048P
3057:2016PhRvL.116f1102A
2940:2019ApJ...875L...1E
2868:Schwarzschild 1916b
2864:Schwarzschild 1916a
2775:1917AnP...359..117W
2718:2015PhT....68k..30J
2342:1920RSPTA.220..291D
2270:1914PASP...26..225C
2235:1923AN....219..281P
2137:1911AnP...340..898E
1969:theoretical physics
1865:gravitational waves
1642:Alexander Friedmann
1109:was explained as a
992:Riemannian geometry
917:Riemannian geometry
870:deflection of light
837:gravitational waves
800:gravitational waves
390:KaluzaâKlein theory
276:Minkowski spacetime
228:Gravitational waves
4230:History of physics
4225:General relativity
4179:General relativity
4174:Special relativity
4115:Oxford Calculators
3942:Special relativity
3861:General relativity
3646:History of physics
3428:Extract of page 74
3147:The New York Times
2889:The New York Times
2763:Annalen der Physik
2588:JĂŒrgen Schmidhuber
2433:General relativity
2419:The New York Times
2125:Annalen der Physik
1977:physical cosmology
1965:general relativity
1914:BransâDicke theory
1898:on 10 April 2019.
1861:
1821:Testing the theory
1762:
1662:
1616:Karl Schwarzschild
1493:Ludwik Silberstein
1438:
1404:
1380:
1275:
1251:
1217:
1183:
1004:general covariance
1000:Tullio Levi-Civita
956:The New York Times
882:Charles D. Perrine
873:German astronomer
844:special relativity
772:General relativity
719:Physics portal
491:OppenheimerâSnyder
431:ReissnerâNordström
323:Linearized gravity
271:Spacetime diagrams
174:Special relativity
107:
36:General relativity
4212:
4211:
4186:Transfermium Wars
4105:Harvard Computers
3930:Subatomic physics
3903:Quantum mechanics
3839:Superconductivity
3830:Condensed matter
3659:Classical physics
3607:Works related to
3467:978-0-226-51951-7
2882:(10 April 2019).
2834:, Nelson, London.
2814:978-0-19-152402-8
2726:10.1063/PT.3.2979
2542:978-0-691-12310-3
2505:978-0-691-12310-3
2310:978-1-5417-6225-1
2303:. PublicAffairs.
2188:978-0-691-12310-3
2082:Albert Einstein,
1938:quantum mechanics
1706:
1603:
1602:
1595:
1577:
1407:{\displaystyle R}
1343:
1305:equations to the
1043:Leiden University
913:Ehrenfest paradox
786:by those masses.
769:
768:
402:
401:
288:
287:
16:(Redirected from
4242:
4202:
4201:
4125:Women in physics
3877:Nuclear physics
3801:Perpetual motion
3735:Material science
3679:Electromagnetism
3639:
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2394:
2385:(205): 158â163.
2370:
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2321:
2315:
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2296:
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2289:
2264:(156): 225â237.
2253:
2247:
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2209:
2208:
2196:
2190:
2162:
2153:
2150:Collected Papers
2147:
2116:
2107:
2105:
2093:
2087:
2080:
2054:Mach's principle
2033:
2028:
2027:
1995:Andrzej Trautman
1771:
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1742:
1741:
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1707:
1699:
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1646:Georges LemaĂźtre
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1062:Lick Observatory
1039:Willem de Sitter
988:Marcel Grossmann
952:
935:
890:Lick Observatory
761:
754:
747:
734:
729:
728:
721:
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501:van Stockum dust
486:RobertsonâWalker
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4241:
4240:
4239:
4235:Albert Einstein
4215:
4214:
4213:
4208:
4190:
4161:Jouleâvon Mayer
4129:
4093:
4050:
3999:
3963:
3854:Big Bang theory
3807:
3706:Fluid mechanics
3653:
3643:
3599:
3594:
3575:
3556:
3551:Wayback Machine
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2909:
2908:
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2894:
2892:
2880:Overbye, Dennis
2878:
2877:
2873:
2862:
2858:
2845:Einstein's Luck
2842:
2838:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2795:
2794:
2790:
2769:(18): 117â145.
2756:
2755:
2751:
2703:
2702:
2698:
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2676:
2674:
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2664:
2651:
2650:
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2460:
2450:Wayback Machine
2430:
2426:
2413:
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2408:
2392:10.1088/123292A
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2367:
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2318:
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2298:
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2255:
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2229:(17): 281â284.
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2173:Wayback Machine
2163:
2156:
2131:(10): 898â908,
2118:
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2110:
2095:
2094:
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2081:
2077:
2072:
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2022:
2019:
1958:
1942:quantum gravity
1916:(also known as
1910:
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1825:Main articles:
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1169:
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1131:
1123:field equations
1103:
1094:Deutsche Physik
1035:Hendrik Lorentz
976:
975:
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973:
972:
953:
944:
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780:Albert Einstein
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526:
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471:LemaĂźtreâTolman
416:
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3597:External links
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3517:Einstein, A.;
3514:
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2031:Physics portal
2018:
2015:
2011:
2010:
1957:
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1906:Main article:
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1842:binary pulsars
1822:
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1803:Martin Kruskal
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1133:Main article:
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1031:Paul Ehrenfest
1027:Central Powers
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894:W. W. Campbell
833:Henri Poincaré
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784:space and time
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4141:BohrâEinstein
4139:
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4132:
4126:
4123:
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4118:
4116:
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4019:
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3995:String theory
3993:
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3745:Metamaterials
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3733:
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3647:
3640:
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3628:
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3621:
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3611:at Wikisource
3610:
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3545:
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3524:
3520:
3519:Grossmann, M.
3515:
3511:
3509:0-19-853907-X
3505:
3501:
3500:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3480:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3464:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3448:
3445:
3441:
3435:
3432:
3429:
3424:
3422:0-521-82081-2
3418:
3414:
3413:
3405:
3402:
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3389:
3385:
3381:
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3283:
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3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3242:(4): 041501.
3241:
3237:
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3227:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3188:
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3180:
3173:
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3156:
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3139:
3128:
3124:
3119:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3041:(6): 061102.
3040:
3036:
3029:
3026:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2984:
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2860:
2857:
2854:
2853:0-19-860719-9
2850:
2846:
2840:
2837:
2833:
2831:
2824:
2821:
2816:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2797:Pais, Abraham
2792:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2765:(in German).
2764:
2760:
2753:
2750:
2745:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2712:(11): 30â36.
2711:
2707:
2706:Physics Today
2700:
2697:
2692:
2690:0-691-12310-1
2686:
2682:
2681:
2672:
2669:
2665:
2663:3-7643-5312-0
2659:
2655:
2648:
2645:
2642:
2641:Bending Light
2636:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2600:
2597:
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2584:
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2306:
2302:
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2283:
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2240:
2236:
2232:
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2224:
2217:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2103:
2099:
2092:
2089:
2085:
2084:Nobel lecture
2079:
2076:
2069:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2032:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2014:
2008:
2004:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1946:string theory
1943:
1939:
1934:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1886:
1885:Advanced LIGO
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1832:
1828:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1811:Kerr solution
1808:
1804:
1800:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1743:
1738:
1735:
1731:
1724:
1719:
1716:
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1643:
1637:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1605:
1597:
1594:
1586:
1583:November 2017
1575:
1572:
1568:
1565:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1547:
1544: â
1543:
1539:
1538:Find sources:
1532:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1516:This section
1514:
1510:
1505:
1504:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1489:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1468:David Hilbert
1463:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1450:metric tensor
1433:
1430:
1426:
1417:
1401:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1356:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1312:
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1288:
1272:
1264:
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1209:
1205:
1177:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1158:
1155:
1151:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1136:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1119:hole argument
1116:
1112:
1108:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1095:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1058:spectroscopic
1055:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
970:
966:
962:
961:Royal Society
957:
951:
940:
934:
922:
920:
918:
914:
909:
905:
903:
897:
895:
891:
887:
883:
878:
876:
871:
866:
862:
860:
856:
851:
849:
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838:
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821:
819:
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781:
777:
773:
762:
757:
755:
750:
748:
743:
742:
740:
739:
733:
723:
720:
715:
709:
708:
707:
706:
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682:
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672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
636:Chandrasekhar
634:
632:
629:
627:
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622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
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582:
579:
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572:
569:
567:
564:
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559:
557:
554:
552:
551:Schwarzschild
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
528:
520:
519:
512:
511:HartleâThorne
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
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477:
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457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
426:
422:
421:Schwarzschild
419:
418:
414:
408:
407:
396:
393:
391:
388:
387:
386:
385:
380:
375:
372:
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359:
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331:
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282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
268:
267:
266:
263:
259:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
243:Event horizon
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
205:
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203:
193:
192:
185:
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177:
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158:
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152:
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144:
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134:
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130:
128:
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99:
95:
90:
86:
81:
78:
74:
67:
62:
59:
55:
45:
41:
40:
37:
33:
30:
19:
4110:The Martians
3860:
3774:Spectroscopy
3716:Aerodynamics
3694:Field theory
3580:
3561:
3533:
3526:
3522:
3498:
3489:Bibliography
3478:
3473:
3455:
3452:Fulvio Melia
3447:
3434:
3411:
3404:
3353:
3349:
3343:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3239:
3236:Phys. Rev. D
3235:
3229:
3186:
3182:
3172:
3158:. Retrieved
3146:
3130:. Retrieved
3126:
3114:
3102:. Retrieved
3098:
3089:
3038:
3034:
3028:
3016:. Retrieved
2996:
2986:
2974:. Retrieved
2968:
2958:
2921:
2915:
2905:
2893:. Retrieved
2887:
2874:
2859:
2844:
2839:
2828:
2823:
2804:
2791:
2766:
2762:
2752:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2679:
2671:
2653:
2647:
2635:
2609:
2606:EMBO Reports
2605:
2599:
2583:
2572:, retrieved
2568:The Guardian
2567:
2557:
2546:, retrieved
2527:
2520:
2509:, retrieved
2490:
2483:
2472:, retrieved
2467:
2461:
2436:
2427:
2418:
2409:
2382:
2378:
2368:
2333:
2329:
2319:
2300:
2294:
2261:
2257:
2251:
2226:
2222:
2204:
2200:
2194:
2176:
2149:
2128:
2124:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2078:
2012:
1990:
1987:Fulvio Melia
1985:
1959:
1935:
1925:
1911:
1889:
1862:
1834:
1795:
1782:Edwin Hubble
1775:
1639:
1609:
1589:
1580:
1570:
1563:
1556:
1549:
1537:
1525:Please help
1520:verification
1517:
1485:
1475:
1465:
1416:Ricci scalar
1393:
1229:Ricci tensor
1196:
1138:
1104:
1092:
1089:
1066:
1051:
1024:
977:
955:
910:
906:
898:
879:
867:
863:
852:
841:
830:
816:microquasars
812:
796:
788:
770:
696:
656:Raychaudhuri
132:
125:Introduction
29:
4034:Higgs boson
3583:: 424â434,
3564:: 189â196,
3458:, page 50,
3104:11 February
3099:www.nsf.gov
3018:11 February
2997:Nature News
1881:black holes
1107:gravitation
902:World War I
671:van Stockum
601:Oppenheimer
456:KerrâNewman
248:Singularity
4219:Categories
4055:By periods
3873:Geophysics
3845:Cosmology
3538:BirkhÀuser
3529:: 225â261.
3481:, page 127
3363:1710.06394
3302:1710.05901
3249:1710.06168
3196:1801.08160
3189:(7): 048.
3048:1602.03837
2931:1906.11238
2612:(3): 236,
2070:References
1961:Kip Thorne
1956:Golden age
1892:Messier 87
1612:non-linear
1553:newspapers
1472:Gustav Mie
1085:Paul Dirac
984:ETH Zurich
980:alma mater
524:Scientists
356:Formalisms
304:Formalisms
253:Black hole
179:World line
4098:By groups
4082:Astronomy
3918:Molecules
3752:Mechanics
3667:Astronomy
3274:119468128
3221:119197181
3155:0362-4331
3081:124959784
3013:182916902
2924:(1): L1.
2744:0031-9228
2401:117968484
2286:120712519
2148:(also in
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1691:ν
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1499:Solutions
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1328:ν
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1291:Newtonian
1273:κ
1247:ν
1244:μ
1213:ν
1210:μ
1178:ν
1175:μ
1167:κ
1159:ν
1156:μ
1111:geometric
1016:spacetime
969:Full text
939:Eddington
855:free fall
616:Robertson
581:Friedmann
576:Eddington
566:Nordström
556:de Sitter
413:Solutions
338:Geodesics
333:Friedmann
315:Equations
301:Equations
262:Spacetime
197:Phenomena
103:ν
100:μ
91:κ
82:ν
79:μ
71:Λ
63:ν
60:μ
4204:Category
4029:timeline
4016:Graphene
3978:timeline
3947:timeline
3935:timeline
3908:timeline
3849:timeline
3834:timeline
3824:timeline
3786:timeline
3757:timeline
3740:timeline
3728:timeline
3711:timeline
3684:timeline
3672:timeline
3650:timeline
3547:Archived
3396:36160359
3388:29303333
3335:38618360
3327:29303304
3179:GW170817
3160:10 April
3132:10 April
3073:26918975
2976:10 April
2895:10 April
2799:(1982).
2574:31 March
2570:, London
2548:13 March
2511:13 March
2446:Archived
2169:Archived
2017:See also
1981:Big Bang
1931:GW170817
1807:Roy Kerr
1081:Max Born
1077:PrĂncipe
1020:inertial
963:and the
732:Category
596:LemaĂźtre
561:Reissner
546:Poincaré
531:Einstein
476:TaubâNUT
441:Wormhole
425:interior
138:Timeline
4039:Neutron
3896:Weapons
3881:Fission
3796:Entropy
3585:Bibcode
3566:Bibcode
3454:(2009)
3368:Bibcode
3307:Bibcode
3254:Bibcode
3201:Bibcode
3053:Bibcode
2936:Bibcode
2771:Bibcode
2714:Bibcode
2627:1315907
2533:114â119
2496:103â108
2474:11 June
2338:Bibcode
2266:Bibcode
2231:Bibcode
2133:Bibcode
2086:in 1921
1920:), and
1813:. The
1567:scholar
1414:is the
1298:Mercury
1227:is the
1115:tensors
1008:tensors
651:Hawking
646:Penrose
621:Bardeen
611:Wheeler
541:Hilbert
536:Lorentz
496:pp-wave
133:History
3886:Fusion
3791:Energy
3769:Optics
3506:
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1999:Warsaw
1786:ad hoc
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1394:where
1197:where
1073:Sobral
730:
697:others
691:Thorne
681:Newman
661:Taylor
641:Ehlers
626:Walker
591:Zwicky
466:Kasner
3957:tests
3913:Atoms
3891:Power
3866:tests
3392:S2CID
3358:arXiv
3331:S2CID
3297:arXiv
3270:S2CID
3244:arXiv
3217:S2CID
3191:arXiv
3077:S2CID
3043:arXiv
3009:S2CID
2926:arXiv
2397:S2CID
2360:91137
2356:JSTOR
2282:S2CID
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1873:waves
1574:JSTOR
1560:books
774:is a
666:Hulse
606:Gödel
586:Milne
481:Milne
446:Gödel
143:Tests
3504:ISBN
3463:ISBN
3417:ISBN
3384:PMID
3323:PMID
3187:2018
3162:2019
3151:ISSN
3134:2019
3106:2016
3069:PMID
3020:2016
2978:2019
2970:NASA
2897:2019
2849:ISBN
2809:ISBN
2740:ISSN
2685:ISBN
2658:ISBN
2576:2007
2550:2007
2537:ISBN
2513:2007
2500:ISBN
2476:2007
2305:ISBN
2184:ISBN
1948:and
1857:M87*
1829:and
1546:news
1448:the
1418:and
1265:and
1261:the
1037:and
676:Taub
631:Kerr
571:Weyl
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369:BSSN
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3376:doi
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3315:doi
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3262:doi
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3061:doi
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