Dye-sensitized solar cell - Knowledge (XXG)

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spectrum, have more than enough energy to cross the band gap; although some of this extra energy is transferred into the electrons, the majority of it is wasted as heat. Another issue is that in order to have a reasonable chance of capturing a photon, the n-type layer has to be fairly thick. This also increases the chance that a freshly ejected electron will meet up with a previously created hole in the material before reaching the p–n junction. These effects produce an upper limit on the efficiency of silicon solar cells, currently around 20% for common modules and up to 27.1% for the best laboratory cells (33.16% is the theoretical maximum efficiency for single band gap solar cells, see

1207:). The "black dye" system was subjected to 50 million cycles, the equivalent of ten years' exposure to the sun in Switzerland. No discernible performance decrease was observed. However the dye is subject to breakdown in high-light situations. Over the last decade an extensive research program has been carried out to address these concerns. The newer dyes included 1-ethyl-3 methylimidazolium tetrocyanoborate which is extremely light- and temperature-stable, copper-diselenium which offers higher conversion efficiencies, and others with varying special-purpose properties. 254: 262:

chlorophyll extracted from spinach (bio-mimetic or bionic approach). On the basis of such experiments electric power generation via the dye sensitization solar cell (DSSC) principle was demonstrated and discussed in 1972. The instability of the dye solar cell was identified as a main challenge. Its efficiency could, during the following two decades, be improved by optimizing the porosity of the electrode prepared from fine oxide powder, but the instability remained a problem.

1635:, advances in photosensitizers have resulted in a substantial improvement in performance of DSSC’s under solar and ambient light conditions. Another key factor to achieve power-conversion records is cosensitization, due to its ability combine dyes that can absorb light across a wider range of the light spectrum. Cosensitization is a chemical manufacturing method that produces DSSC electrodes containing two or more different dyes with complementary optical 1084:

attractive as a replacement for existing technologies in "low density" applications like rooftop solar collectors, where the mechanical robustness and light weight of the glass-less collector is a major advantage. They may not be as attractive for large-scale deployments where higher-cost higher-efficiency cells are more viable, but even small increases in the DSSC conversion efficiency might make them suitable for some of these roles as well.

242: 208:. As the name implies, electrons in the conduction band are free to move about the silicon. When a load is placed across the cell as a whole, these electrons will flow out of the p-type side into the n-type side, lose energy while moving through the external circuit, and then flow back into the p-type material where they can once again re-combine with the valence-band hole they left behind. In this way, sunlight creates an electric current. 312:, typically titanium dioxide. The electrons from titanium dioxide then flow toward the transparent electrode where they are collected for powering a load. After flowing through the external circuit, they are re-introduced into the cell on a metal electrode on the back, also known as the counter electrode, and flow into the electrolyte. The electrolyte then transports the electrons back to the dye molecules and regenerates the oxidized dye. 1647:

used in the study were the organic dye SL9, which served as the primary long wavelength-light harvester, and the dye SL10, which provided an additional absorption peak that compensates the SL9’s inefficient blue light harvesting. It was found that adding this hydroxamic acid layer improved the dye layer’s molecular packing and ordering. This slowed down the adsorption of the sensitizers and augmented their fluorescence

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like roof tiles or building facades, lighter and more flexible materials are essential. This includes plastic films, metals, steel, or paper, which may also reduce manufacturing costs. The team found that the cell had an efficiency of 4% (close to that of a solar cell with a glass counter electrode), demonstrated the potential for creating building-integrated DSSC’s that are stable and low-cost.

5151: 386:. The most common counter electrode material currently used is platinum in DSSCs, but is not sustainable owing to its high costs and scarce resources. Thus, much research has been focused towards discovering new hybrid and doped materials that can replace platinum with comparable or superior electrocatalytic performance. One such category being widely studied includes 5111: 898:

of nanoparticles requires a high temperature of about 450 °C, which restricts the fabrication of these cells to robust, rigid solid substrates. It has been proven that there is an increase in the efficiency of DSSC, if the sintered nanoparticle electrode is replaced by a specially designed electrode possessing an exotic 'nanoplant-like' morphology.

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traditional liquid electrolyte (viscosity: 0.91 mPa·s). The much improved stabilities of the device under both thermal stress and soaking with light has never before been seen in DSCs, and they match the durability criteria applied to solar cells for outdoor use, which makes these devices viable for practical application.

1116:, with a metal backing for strength. Such systems suffer noticeable decreases in efficiency as the cells heat up internally. DSSCs are normally built with only a thin layer of conductive plastic on the front layer, allowing them to radiate away heat much easier, and therefore operate at lower internal temperatures. 457:. Comparison of these three morphologies revealed that the hybrid composite nanoparticles, due to having the largest electroactive surface area, had the highest power conversion efficiency of 9.27%, even higher than its platinum counterpart. Not only that, the nanoparticle morphology displayed the highest peak 1146:

additive. Thus, photocurrent matching is very important for the construction of highly efficient tandem pn-DSCs. However, unlike n-DSCs, fast charge recombination following dye-sensitized hole injection usually resulted in low photocurrents in p-DSC and thus hampered the efficiency of the overall device.

1235:(EPFL) has reportedly increased the thermostability of DSC by using amphiphilic ruthenium sensitizer in conjunction with quasi-solid-state gel electrolyte. The stability of the device matches that of a conventional inorganic silicon-based solar cell. The cell sustained heating for 1,000 h at 80 °C. 1502:

During the last 5–10 years, a new kind of DSSC has been developed – the solid state dye-sensitized solar cell. In this case the liquid electrolyte is replaced by one of several solid hole conducting materials. From 2009 to 2013 the efficiency of Solid State DSSCs has dramatically increased from 4% to

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The use of the amphiphilic Z-907 dye in conjunction with the polymer gel electrolyte in DSC achieved an energy conversion efficiency of 6.1%. More importantly, the device was stable under thermal stress and soaking with light. The high conversion efficiency of the cell was sustained after heating for

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The major disadvantage to the DSSC design is the use of the liquid electrolyte, which has temperature stability problems. At low temperatures the electrolyte can freeze, halting power production and potentially leading to physical damage. Higher temperatures cause the liquid to expand, making sealing

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is qualitatively different from that occurring in a traditional cell, where the electron is "promoted" within the original crystal. In theory, given low rates of production, the high-energy electron in the silicon could re-combine with its own hole, giving off a photon (or other form of energy) which

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and the clear electrode, or optical losses in the front electrode. The overall quantum efficiency for green light is about 90%, with the "lost" 10% being largely accounted for by the optical losses in the top electrode. The quantum efficiency of traditional designs vary, depending on their thickness,

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metal. The two plates are then joined and sealed together to prevent the electrolyte from leaking. The construction is simple enough that there are hobby kits available to hand-construct them. Although they use a number of "advanced" materials, these are inexpensive compared to the silicon needed for

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One last area that has been actively studied is the synergy of different materials in promoting superior electroactive performance. Whether through various charge transport material, electrochemical species, or morphologies, exploiting the synergetic relationship between different materials has paved

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dcbpy is 4,4′-dicarboxylic acid-2,2′-bipyridine and dnbpy is 4,4′-dinonyl-2,2′-bipyridine) to increase dye tolerance to water in the electrolytes. In addition, the group also prepared a quasi-solid-state gel electrolyte with a 3-methoxypropionitrile (MPN)-based liquid electrolyte that was solidified

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light. The wide spectral response results in the dye having a deep brown-black color, and is referred to simply as "black dye". The dyes have an excellent chance of converting a photon into an electron, originally around 80% but improving to almost perfect conversion in more recent dyes, the overall

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The dyes used in early experimental cells (circa 1995) were sensitive only in the high-frequency end of the solar spectrum, in the UV and blue. Newer versions were quickly introduced (circa 1999) that had much wider frequency response, notably "triscarboxy-ruthenium terpyridine" , which is efficient

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Se) films at various stoichiometric ratios of nickel and cobalt to understand its impact on the resulting cell performance. Nickel and cobalt bimetallic alloys were known to have outstanding electron conduction and stability, so optimizing its stoichiometry would ideally produce a more efficient and

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The DSSC has a number of attractive features; it is simple to make using conventional roll-printing techniques, is semi-flexible and semi-transparent which offers a variety of uses not applicable to glass-based systems, and most of the materials used are low-cost. In practice it has proven difficult

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found that the efficiency to cosensitized solar cells can be raised by the pre-adsorption of a monolayer of hydroxamic acid derivative on a surface of nanocrystalline mesoporous titanium dioxide, which functions as the electron transport mechanism of the electrode. The two photosensitizer molecules

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demonstrated cell efficiencies of 8.2% using a new solvent-free liquid redox electrolyte consisting of a melt of three salts, as an alternative to using organic solvents as an electrolyte solution. Although the efficiency with this electrolyte is less than the 11% being delivered using the existing

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layer and upon the solar flux spectrum. The overlap between these two spectra determines the maximum possible photocurrent. Typically used dye molecules generally have poorer absorption in the red part of the spectrum compared to silicon, which means that fewer of the photons in sunlight are usable

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or ZnO. These nanoparticle DSSCs rely on trap-limited diffusion through the semiconductor nanoparticles for the electron transport. This limits the device efficiency since it is a slow transport mechanism. Recombination is more likely to occur at longer wavelengths of radiation. Moreover, sintering

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discovered not only that the rGO acted as a co-catalyst in accelerating the triiodide reduction, but also that the microparticles and rGO had a synergistic interaction that decreased the charge transfer resistance of the overall system. Although the efficiency of this system was slightly lower than

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Dye-sensitized solar cells separate the two functions provided by silicon in a traditional cell design. Normally the silicon acts as both the source of photoelectrons, as well as providing the electric field to separate the charges and create a current. In the dye-sensitized solar cell, the bulk of

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in the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells. They found that with an increase nanorod concentration, the light absorption grew linearly; however, charge extraction was also dependent on the concentration. With an optimized concentration, they found that the overall power conversion efficiency

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announced in October a Successful Completion of Second Milestone in Joint Dyesol / CSIRO Project. Dyesol Director Gordon Thompson said, "The materials developed during this joint collaboration have the potential to significantly advance the commercialisation of DSC in a range of applications where

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As a result of these favorable "differential kinetics", DSSCs work even in low-light conditions. DSSCs are therefore able to work under cloudy skies and non-direct sunlight, whereas traditional designs would suffer a "cutout" at some lower limit of illumination, when charge carrier mobility is low

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By far the biggest problem with the conventional approach is cost; solar cells require a relatively thick layer of doped silicon in order to have reasonable photon capture rates, and silicon processing is expensive. There have been a number of different approaches to reduce this cost over the last

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in Poland developed a DSSC in which the classic glass counter electrode was replaced by an electrode based on a ceramic tile and nickel foil. The motivation for this change was that, despite that glass substrates have resulted in the highest recorded efficiencies for DSSC’s, for BIPV applications

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A standard tandem cell consists of one n-DSC and one p-DSC in a simple sandwich configuration with an intermediate electrolyte layer. n-DSC and p-DSC are connected in series, which implies that the resulting photocurrent will be controlled by the weakest photoelectrode, whereas photovoltages are

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A practical advantage which DSSCs share with most thin-film technologies, is that the cell's mechanical robustness indirectly leads to higher efficiencies at higher temperatures. In any semiconductor, increasing temperature will promote some electrons into the conduction band "mechanically". The

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on the resulting performance. It has been found that in addition to the elemental composition of the material, these three parameters greatly impact the resulting counter electrode efficiency. Of course, there are a variety of other materials currently being researched, such as highly mesoporous

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and a metal film that carries electrons off the fiber. The cells are six times more efficient than a zinc oxide cell with the same surface area. Photons bounce inside the fiber as they travel, so there are more chances to interact with the solar cell and produce more current. These devices only

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The enhanced performance may arise from a decrease in solvent permeation across the sealant due to the application of the polymer gel electrolyte. The polymer gel electrolyte is quasi-solid at room temperature, and becomes a viscous liquid (viscosity: 4.34 mPa·s) at 80 °C compared with the

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The dye molecules are quite small (nanometer sized), so in order to capture a reasonable amount of the incoming light the layer of dye molecules needs to be made fairly thick, much thicker than the molecules themselves. To address this problem, a nanomaterial is used as a scaffold to hold large

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of the device is 1.91%, which exceeds the efficiency of its individual components, but is still much lower than that of high performance n-DSC devices (6%–11%). The results are still promising since the tandem DSC was in itself rudimentary. The dramatic improvement in performance in p-DSC can

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DSSCs are currently the most efficient third-generation (2005 Basic Research Solar Energy Utilization 16) solar technology available. Other thin-film technologies are typically between 5% and 13%, and traditional low-cost commercial silicon panels operate between 14% and 17%. This makes DSSCs

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means that only photons with that amount of energy, or more, will contribute to producing a current. In the case of silicon, the majority of visible light from red to violet has sufficient energy to make this happen. Unfortunately higher energy photons, those at the blue and violet end of the

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The DSSC developed by the team showed a record-breaking power conversion efficiency of 15.2% under standard global simulated sunlight and long-term operational stability over 500 hours. In addition, devices with a larger active area exhibited efficiencies of around 30% while maintaining high

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Dye sensitised solar cells operate as a photoanode (n-DSC), where photocurrent result from electron injection by the sensitized dye. Photocathodes (p-DSCs) operate in an inverse mode compared to the conventional n-DSC, where dye-excitation is followed by rapid electron transfer from a p-type

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In the late 1960s it was discovered that illuminated organic dyes can generate electricity at oxide electrodes in electrochemical cells. In an effort to understand and simulate the primary processes in photosynthesis the phenomenon was studied at the University of California at Berkeley with

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has gained attention from the scientific community due to its potential to reduce pollution and materials and electricity costs, as well as to improve the aesthetics of a building. In recent years, scientists have looked at ways to incorporate DSSC’s in BIPV applications, since the dominant

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terms, DSSCs are extremely efficient. Due to their "depth" in the nanostructure there is a very high chance that a photon will be absorbed, and the dyes are very effective at converting them to electrons. Most of the small losses that do exist in DSSC's are due to conduction losses in the

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Gao, Feifei; Wang, Yuan; Zhang, Jing; Shi, Dong; Wang, Mingkui; Humphry-Baker, Robin; Wang, Peng; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M; Grätzel, Michael (2008). "A new heteroleptic ruthenium sensitizer enhances the absorptivity of mesoporous titania film for a high efficiency dye-sensitized solar cell".

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and ZnO instead of the conventional liquid redox couple electrolyte, researchers have managed to fabricate solid state p-DSCs (p-ssDSCs), aiming for solid state tandem dye sensitized solar cells, which have the potential to achieve much greater photovoltages than a liquid tandem device.

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Wang, Qing; Campbell, Wayne M; Bonfantani, Edia E; Jolley, Kenneth W; Officer, David L; Walsh, Penny J; Gordon, Keith; Humphry-Baker, Robin; Nazeeruddin, Mohammad K; Grätzel, Michael (2005). "Efficient Light Harvesting by Using Green Zn-Porphyrin-Sensitized Nanocrystalline TiO2Films".

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announced in November the targeted development of Grid Parity Competitive BIPV solar steel that does not require government subsidised feed in tariffs. TATA-Dyesol "Solar Steel" Roofing is currently being installed on the Sustainable Building Envelope Centre (SBEC) in Shotton, Wales.

1153:(PMI) as the acceptor and an oligothiophene coupled to triphenylamine as the donor greatly improve the performance of p-DSC by reducing charge recombination rate following dye-sensitized hole injection. The researchers constructed a tandem DSC device with NiO on the p-DSC side and TiO 33: 1099:, only an extra electron. Although it is energetically possible for the electron to recombine back into the dye, the rate at which this occurs is quite slow compared to the rate that the dye regains an electron from the surrounding electrolyte. Recombination directly from the TiO 3267:

Campbell, Wayne M; Jolley, Kenneth W; Wagner, Pawel; Wagner, Klaudia; Walsh, Penny J; Gordon, Keith C; Schmidt-Mende, Lukas; Nazeeruddin, Mohammad K; Wang, Qing; Grätzel, Michael; Officer, David L (2007). "Highly Efficient Porphyrin Sensitizers for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells".

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approach, although these cells are very high cost and suitable only for large commercial deployments. In general terms the types of cells suitable for rooftop deployment have not changed significantly in efficiency, although costs have dropped somewhat due to increased supply.

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DSSCs degrade when exposed to light. In 2014 air infiltration of the commonly-used amorphous Spiro-MeOTAD hole-transport layer was identified as the primary cause of the degradation, rather than oxidation. The damage could be avoided by the addition of an appropriate barrier.

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Even with the same composition, morphology of the nanoparticles that make up the counter electrode play such an integral role in determining the efficiency of the overall photovoltaic. Because a material's electrocatalytic potential is highly dependent on the amount of

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As previously mentioned, using a solid-state electrolyte has several advantages over a liquid system (such as no leakage and faster charge transport), which has also been realised for dye-sensitised photocathodes. Using electron transporting materials such as PCBM,

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Xu, Bo; Tian, Lei; Etman, Ahmed S.; Sun, Junliang; Tian, Haining (January 2019). "Solution-processed nanoporous NiO-dye-ZnO photocathodes: Toward efficient and stable solid-state p-type dye-sensitized solar cells and dye-sensitized photoelectrosynthesis cells".

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for 1,000 h of light-soaking at 55 °C (100 mW cm) the efficiency had decreased by less than 5% for cells covered with an ultraviolet absorbing polymer film. These results are well within the limit for that of traditional inorganic silicon solar cells.

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semiconductor to the dye (dye-sensitized hole injection, instead of electron injection). Such p-DSCs and n-DSCs can be combined to construct tandem solar cells (pn-DSCs) and the theoretical efficiency of tandem DSCs is well beyond that of single-junction DSCs.

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Replacing the liquid electrolyte with a solid has been a major ongoing field of research. Recent experiments using solidified melted salts have shown some promise, but currently suffer from higher degradation during continued operation, and are not flexible.

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performance and stability are essential requirements. Dyesol is extremely encouraged by the breakthroughs in the chemistry allowing the production of the target molecules. This creates a path to the immediate commercial utilisation of these new materials."

1129:, solvents which must be carefully sealed as they are hazardous to human health and the environment. This, along with the fact that the solvents permeate plastics, has precluded large-scale outdoor application and integration into flexible structure. 4029:

Ren, Yameng; Zhang, Dan; Suo, Jiajia; Cao, Yiming; Eickemeyer, Felix T.; Vlachopoulos, Nick; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M.; Hagfeldt, Anders; Grätzel, Michael (26 October 2022). "Hydroxamic acid preadsorption raises efficiency of cosensitized solar cells".

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Huang, Yi-June; Lee, Chuan-Pei; Pang, Hao-Wei; Li, Chun-Ting; Fan, Miao-Syuan; Vittal, R.; Ho, Kuo-Chuan (December 2017). "Microemulsion-controlled synthesis of CoSe 2 /CoSeO 3 composite crystals for electrocatalysis in dye-sensitized solar cells".

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The oxidized photosensitizer (S) accepts electrons from the redox mediator, typically I ion redox mediator, leading to regeneration of the ground state (S), and two I-Ions are oxidized to elementary Iodine which reacts with I to the oxidized state,

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PV systems in the market have a limited presence in this field due to their energy-intensive manufacturing methods, poor conversion efficiency under low light intensities, and high maintenance requirements. In 2021, a group of researchers from the

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to species in the electrolyte is also possible although, again, for optimized devices this reaction is rather slow. On the contrary, electron transfer from the platinum coated electrode to species in the electrolyte is necessarily very fast.

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the panels a serious problem. Another disadvantage is that costly ruthenium (dye), platinum (catalyst) and conducting glass or plastic (contact) are needed to produce a DSSC. A third major drawback is that the electrolyte solution contains

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after light absorption. The injected electron diffuses through the sintered particle network to be collected at the front side transparent conducting oxide (TCO) electrode, while the dye is regenerated via reduction by a redox shuttle,

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Nemala, Siva Sankar; Kartikay, Purnendu; Agrawal, Rahul Kumar; Bhargava, Parag; Mallick, Sudhanshu; Bohm, Sivasambu (2018). "Few layers graphene based conductive composite inks for Pt free stainless steel counter electrodes for DSSC".

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Several important measures are used to characterize solar cells. The most obvious is the total amount of electrical power produced for a given amount of solar power shining on the cell. Expressed as a percentage, this is known as the

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Bai, Yu; Cao, Yiming; Zhang, Jing; Wang, Mingkui; Li, Renzhi; Wang, Peng; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M; Grätzel, Michael (2008). "High-performance dye-sensitized solar cells based on solvent-free electrolytes produced from eutectic melts".

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Younas, M.; Baroud, Turki N.; Gondal, M.A.; Dastageer, M.A.; Giannelis, Emmanuel P. (August 2020). "Highly efficient, cost-effective counter electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) augmented by highly mesoporous carbons".

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researchers announced a solution to a primary problem of DSSCs, that of difficulties in using and containing the liquid electrolyte and the consequent relatively short useful life of the device. This is achieved through the use of

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and light soaking, 90% of the initial photovoltaic efficiency was maintained – the first time such excellent thermal stability has been observed for a liquid electrolyte that exhibits such a high conversion efficiency. Contrary to

177:. When placed in contact, some of the electrons in the n-type portion flow into the p-type to "fill in" the missing electrons, also known as electron holes. Eventually enough electrons will flow across the boundary to equalize the 1847: 1295:

In August 2006, to prove the chemical and thermal robustness of the 1-ethyl-3 methylimidazolium tetracyanoborate solar cell, the researchers subjected the devices to heating at 80 °C in the dark for 1000 hours, followed by

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Dhonde, Mahesh; Sahu, Kirti; Das, Malyaj; Yadav, Anand; Ghosh, Pintu; Murty, Vemparala Venkata Satyanarayana (1 June 2022). "Review—Recent Advancements in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells; From Photoelectrode to Counter Electrode".

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One of the efficient DSSCs devices uses ruthenium-based molecular dye, e.g. (N3), that is bound to a photoanode via carboxylate moieties. The photoanode consists of 12 μm thick film of transparent 10–20 nm diameter

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numbers of the dye molecules in a 3-D matrix, increasing the number of molecules for any given surface area of cell. In existing designs, this scaffolding is provided by the semiconductor material, which serves double-duty.

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Burschka, Julian; Pellet, Norman; Moon, Soo-Jin; Humphry-Baker, Robin; Gao, Peng; Nazeeruddin, Mohammad K; Grätzel, Michael (2013). "Sequential deposition as a route to high-performance perovskite-sensitized solar cells".

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Photosensitizers are dye compounds that absorb the photons from incoming light and eject electrons, producing an electric current that can be used to power a device or a storage unit. According to a new study performed by

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does not result in current being generated. Although this particular case may not be common, it is fairly easy for an electron generated by another atom to combine with a hole left behind in a previous photoexcitation.

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nanostructures, as well as lead-based nanocrystals. However, the following section compiles a variety of ongoing research efforts specifically relating to CCNI towards optimizing the DSSC counter electrode performance.

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available to facilitate the diffusion and reduction of the redox species, numerous research efforts have been focused towards understanding and optimizing the morphology of nanostructures for DSSC counter electrodes.

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Jin, Zhitong; Zhao, Guanyu; Wang, Zhong-Sheng (2018). "Controllable growth of Ni x Co y Se films and the influence of composition on the photovoltaic performance of quasi-solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells".

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To improve electron transport in these solar cells, while maintaining the high surface area needed for dye adsorption, two researchers have designed alternate semiconductor morphologies, such as arrays of

945:. This reaction occurs quite quickly compared to the time that it takes for the injected electron to recombine with the oxidized dye molecule, preventing this recombination reaction that would effectively 2400:

Lu, Man-Ning; Lin, Jeng-Yu; Wei, Tzu-Chien (November 2016). "Exploring the main function of reduced graphene oxide nano-flakes in a nickel cobalt sulfide counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar cell".

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nanoparticles covered with a 4 μm thick film of much larger (400 nm diameter) particles that scatter photons back into the transparent film. The excited dye rapidly injects an electron into the

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The working principle for n-type DSSCs can be summarized into a few basic steps. Sunlight passes through the transparent electrode into the dye layer where it can excite electrons that then flow into the

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Stainless steel based counter-electrodes for DSSCs have been reported which further reduce cost compared to conventional platinum based counter electrode and are suitable for outdoor application.

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Liu, Yi-Yi; Ye, Xin-Yu; An, Qing-Qing; Lei, Bing-Xin; Sun, Wei; Sun, Zhen-Fan (2018). "A novel synthesis of the bottom-straight and top-bent dual TiO 2 nanowires for dye-sensitized solar cells".

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Chandrasekhar, P. S; Parashar, Piyush K; Swami, Sanjay Kumar; Dutta, Viresh; Komarala, Vamsi K (2018). "Enhancement of Y123 dye-sensitized solar cell performance using plasmonic gold nanorods".

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and the conversion of the liquid electrolyte to a solid. The current efficiency is about half that of silicon cells, but the cells are lightweight and potentially of much lower cost to produce.

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respectively. Finally, in order to understand the underlying physics, the "quantum efficiency" is used to compare the chance that one photon (of a particular energy) will create one electron.

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Du, Feng; Yang, Qun; Qin, Tianze; Li, Guang (April 2017). "Morphology-controlled growth of NiCo2O4 ternary oxides and their application in dye-sensitized solar cells as counter electrodes".

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realized that exploring various growth mechanisms that help to exploit the larger active surface areas of nanoflowers may provide an opening for extending DSSC applications to other fields.

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Se achieved superior power conversion efficiency (8.61%), lower charge transfer impedance, and higher electrocatalytic ability than both its platinum and binary selenide counterparts.

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Gullace, S.; Nastasi, F.; Puntoriero, F.; Trusso, S.; Calogero, G. (March 2020). "A platinum-free nanostructured gold counter electrode for DSSCs prepared by pulsed laser ablation".

914:. Photons striking the dye with enough energy to be absorbed create an excited state of the dye, from which an electron can be "injected" directly into the conduction band of the TiO 2266:

Mehmood, Umer; Ul Haq Khan, Anwar (November 2019). "Spray coated PbS nano-crystals as an effective counter-electrode material for platinum free Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)".

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for conversion of higher-energy (higher frequency) light into multiple electrons, using solid-state electrolytes for better temperature response, and changing the doping of the TiO

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approaches, but to date they have seen limited application due to a variety of practical problems. Another line of research has been to dramatically improve efficiency through the

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Li, Heng; Zhao, Qing; Dong, Hui; Ma, Qianli; Wang, Wei; Xu, Dongsheng; Yu, Dapeng (2014). "Highly-flexible, low-cost, all stainless steel mesh-based dye-sensitized solar cells".

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Matsumura, Michio; Matsudaira, Shigeyuki; Tsubomura, Hiroshi; Takata, Masasuke; Yanagida, Hiroaki (1980). "Dye Sensitization and Surface Structures of Semiconductor Electrodes".

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Kartikay, Purnendu; Nemala, Siva Sankar; Mallick, Sudhanshu (2017). "One-dimensional TiO2 nanostructured photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells by hydrothermal synthesis".

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and recombination becomes a major issue. The cutoff is so low they are even being proposed for indoor use, collecting energy for small devices from the lights in the house.

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Nattestad, A; Mozer, A. J; Fischer, M. K. R; Cheng, Y.-B; Mishra, A; Bäuerle, P; Bach, U (2009). "Highly efficient photocathodes for dye-sensitized tandem solar cells".

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in partnership with Romande Energie. The total surface is 300 m, in 1400 modules of 50 cm x 35 cm. Designed by artists Daniel Schlaepfer and Catherine Bolle.

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Tian, Haining; Hammarström, Leif; Boschloo, Gerrit; Zhang, Lei (10 February 2016). "Solid state p-type dye-sensitized solar cells: concept, experiment and mechanism".

1788: 1021:). That is, if an illuminated DSSC is connected to a voltmeter in an "open circuit", it would read about 0.7 V. In terms of voltage, DSSCs offer slightly higher V 2488:

Hamann, Thomas W; Jensen, Rebecca A; Martinson, Alex B. F; Van Ryswyk, Hal; Hupp, Joseph T (2008). "Advancing beyond current generation dye-sensitized solar cells".

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Tian, Haining; Hammarström, Leif; Boschloo, Gerrit; Sun, Junliang; Kubart, Tomas; Johansson, Malin; Yang, Wenxing; Lin, Junzhong; Zhang, Zhibin (20 December 2017).

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redox electrolytes, which have achieved 13.1% efficiency under standard AM1.5G, 100 mW/cm conditions and record 32% efficiency under 1000 lux of indoor light.

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Weintraub, Benjamin; Wei, Yaguang; Wang, Zhong Lin (2009). "Optical Fiber/Nanowire Hybrid Structures for Efficient Three-Dimensional Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells".

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DSSCs are still at the start of their development cycle. Efficiency gains are possible and have recently started more widespread study. These include the use of

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its platinum analog (efficiency of NCS/rGO system: 8.96%; efficiency of Pt system: 9.11%), it provided a platform on which further research can be conducted.

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Researchers from Uppsala University have used n-type semiconductors instead of redox electrolyte to fabricate solid state p-type dye sensitized solar cells.

1389:

collect light at the tips, but future fiber cells could be made to absorb light along the entire length of the fiber, which would require a coating that is

5181: 4486: 2998:

Tian, Haining; Hammarström, Leif; Boschloo, Gerrit; Kloo, Lars; Sun, Junliang; Hua, Yong; Kubart, Tomas; Lin, Junzhong; Pati, Palas Baran (10 April 2018).

2100:

Tian, Haining; Gardner, James; Edvinsson, Tomas; Pati, Palas B.; Cong, Jiayan; Xu, Bo; Abrahamsson, Maria; Cappel, Ute B.; Barea, Eva M. (19 August 2019),

674:

The photosensitizers are excited from the ground state (S) to the excited state (S). The excited electrons are injected into the conduction band of the TiO

1418: 1025:

than silicon, about 0.7 V compared to 0.6 V. This is a fairly small difference, so real-world differences are dominated by current production, J

4359: 1036:, only photons absorbed by the dye ultimately produce current. The rate of photon absorption depends upon the absorption spectrum of the sensitized TiO 1429:, resulting in a liquid or gel that is transparent and non-corrosive, which can increase the photovoltage and improve the cell's output and stability. 1041:

for current generation. These factors limit the current generated by a DSSC, for comparison, a traditional silicon-based solar cell offers about 35 m

4821: 1976:

Gerischer, H; Michel-Beyerle, M.E; Rebentrost, F; Tributsch, H (1968). "Sensitization of charge injection into semiconductors with large band gap".

1309:, whose performance declines with increasing temperature, the dye-sensitized solar-cell devices were only negligibly influenced when increasing the 4788: 4783: 4117: 371: 3983:

Cole, Jacqueline M.; Pepe, Giulio; Al Bahri, Othman K.; Cooper, Christopher B. (26 June 2019). "Cosensitization in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells".

496:, as the valence and conduction energy bands must overlap with those of the redox electrolyte species to allow for efficient electron exchange. 1636: 1112:

fragility of traditional silicon cells requires them to be protected from the elements, typically by encasing them in a glass box similar to a

933:

Meanwhile, the dye molecule has lost an electron and the molecule will decompose if another electron is not provided. The dye strips one from

2121: 354:

One of the most important components of DSSC is the counter electrode. As stated before, the counter electrode is responsible for collecting

2724: 2785: 185:, where charge carriers are depleted and/or accumulated on each side of the interface. In silicon, this transfer of electrons produces a 5176: 4826: 135: 4842: 4194: 2765: 2445: 1890: 1456:

announced in June the development of the world's largest dye sensitized photovoltaic module, printed onto steel in a continuous line.

809:

nanoparticles with diffusion toward the back contact (TCO). And the electrons finally reach the counter electrode through the circuit.

91: 4970: 4905: 4847: 4344: 3898:

Szindler, Marek; Szindler, Magdalena; Drygała, Aleksandra; Lukaszkowicz, Krzysztof; Kaim, Paulina; Pietruszka, Rafał (4 July 2021).

2532: 1614: 1604: 127: 3484: 2188:

Zatirostami, Ahmad (December 2020). "Electro-deposited SnSe on ITO: A low-cost and high-performance counter electrode for DSSCs".

597:

only absorbs a small fraction of the solar photons (those in the UV). The plate is then immersed in a mixture of a photosensitive

4975: 4738: 4219: 1805:

O'Regan, Brian; Grätzel, Michael (1991). "A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films".

4989: 4496: 4354: 4235: 1203:

A solar cell must be capable of producing electricity for at least twenty years, without a significant decrease in efficiency (

977:. Electrical power is the product of current and voltage, so the maximum values for these measurements are important as well, J 492:

Of course, the composition of the material that is used as the counter electrode is extremely important to creating a working

5186: 4940: 4466: 4260: 4209: 1685: 461:

and smallest potential gap between the anodic and cathodic peak potentials, thus implying the best electrocatalytic ability.

1785: 1503:

15%. Michael Grätzel announced the fabrication of Solid State DSSCs with 15.0% efficiency, reached by the means of a hybrid

3393: 3168:"A stable quasi-solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell with an amphiphilic ruthenium sensitizer and polymer gel electrolyte" 2462: 654:/I, dissolved in a solution. Diffusion of the oxidized form of the shuttle to the counter electrode completes the circuit. 4773: 3166:

Wang, Peng; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M; Moser, Jacques E; Nazeeruddin, Mohammad K; Sekiguchi, Takashi; Grätzel, Michael (2003).

2003:

Tributsch, H; Calvin, M (1971). "Electrochemistry of Excited Molecules: Photo-Electrochemical Reactions of Chlorophylls".

1394: 5129: 3957: 1087:

There is another area where DSSCs are particularly attractive. The process of injecting an electron directly into the TiO

114:, and the liquid electrolyte presents a serious challenge to making a cell suitable for use in all weather. Although its 5060: 5040: 4420: 4179: 1695: 1162: 1773: 217: 4950: 4425: 4110: 2802: 1539: 973: 965: 99: 82:

system. The modern version of a dye solar cell, also known as the Grätzel cell, was originally co-invented in 1988 by

3541: 1917:"LONGi Sets a New World Record of 27.09% for the Efficiency of Silicon Heterojunction Back-Contact (HBC) Solar Cells" 1048:

Overall peak power conversion efficiency for current DSSCs is about 11%. Current record for prototypes lies at 15%.

4960: 4813: 4802: 4676: 4523: 4481: 4461: 562: 83: 2101: 1161:

film thicknesses to control the optical absorptions and therefore match the photocurrents of both electrodes. The

5191: 4374: 4189: 1730: 1551: 1200:

efficiency is about 90%, with the "lost" 10% being largely accounted for by the optical losses in top electrode.

1126: 383: 151: 78: 3136: 2633: 1566:

nanostructures directly on fluorine-doped tin oxide glass substrates was successful demonstrated via a two-stop

952:

The triiodide then recovers its missing electron by mechanically diffusing to the bottom of the cell, where the

577::F) deposited on the back of a (typically glass) plate. On the back of this conductive plate is a thin layer of 319:(typically nickel oxide). However, instead of injecting an electron into the semiconductor, in a p-type DSSC, a 5171: 5114: 4875: 4857: 4748: 4594: 4581: 4576: 4476: 705: 3555: 2548:

Tiwari, Ashutosh; Snure, Michael (2008). "Synthesis and Characterization of ZnO Nano-Plant-Like Electrodes".

315:

The basic working principle above, is similar in a p-type DSSC, where the dye-sensitised semiconductor is of

5143: 4965: 4885: 4763: 4733: 4491: 4471: 4400: 4286: 4281: 4250: 4245: 1486: 1374: 1252: 123: 2038:

Tributsch, Helmut (2008). "Reaction of Excited Chlorophyll Molecules at Electrodes and in Photosynthesis".

134:. Commercial applications, which were held up due to chemical stability problems, had been forecast in the 98:

until the publication of the first high efficiency DSSC in 1991. Michael Grätzel has been awarded the 2010

5103: 4945: 4915: 4880: 4867: 4753: 4528: 4329: 4319: 4214: 4103: 3277: 1735: 1665: 1567: 1504: 1398: 873:

The efficiency of a DSSC depends on four energy levels of the component: the excited state (approximately

616:

the film in the dye solution, a thin layer of the dye is left covalently bonded to the surface of the TiO

4920: 4910: 4890: 4743: 4566: 4369: 4172: 4167: 2641: 1710: 1310: 139: 115: 1941:

Rühle, Sven (2016). "Tabulated values of the Shockley–Queisser limit for single junction solar cells".

335:

the semiconductor is used solely for charge transport, the photoelectrons are provided from a separate

3775:"Direct Contact of Selective Charge Extraction Layers Enables High-Efficiency Molecular Photovoltaics" 1916: 4955: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4900: 4895: 4410: 4339: 4184: 4152: 3911: 3872: 3837: 3786: 3739: 3696: 3582: 3351: 3179: 3060: 2904: 2861: 2681: 2410: 2346: 2275: 2232: 2154: 1950: 1814: 1725: 1390: 328: 316: 309: 170: 162: 65: 3282: 2840:"Solid hybrid dye-sensitized solar cells: new organic materials, charge recombination and stability" 1366:

made dye-sensitized solar cells with a higher effective surface area by wrapping the cells around a

253: 4609: 4589: 4556: 4364: 4300: 4240: 4199: 1860:

Tributsch, H (2004). "Dye sensitization solar cells: A critical assessment of the learning curve".

1609: 1440:, which is far less expensive, more efficient, more stable and easier to produce in the laboratory. 1256: 1188: 4081: 3773:

Cao, Yiming; Liu, Yuhang; Zakeeruddin, Shaik Mohammed; Hagfeldt, Anders; Grätzel, Michael (2018).

1301: 1032:

Although the dye is highly efficient at converting absorbed photons into free electrons in the TiO

4645: 4604: 4551: 4324: 4204: 4055: 4008: 3712: 3668: 3633: 3472: 3205: 3076: 2819: 2705: 2583: 2291: 2248: 2205: 2170: 2127: 2055: 2020: 1830: 1720: 1715: 1306: 989: 196:

of the sunlight can excite electrons on the p-type side of the semiconductor, a process known as

3096:"Solid-state p-type dye-sensitized solar cells: progress, potential applications and challenges" 1848:

Professor Grätzel wins the 2010 millennium technology grand prize for dye-sensitized solar cells

1628: 87: 4650: 2782: 4671: 4666: 4599: 4395: 4334: 4265: 4255: 4087: 4047: 4000: 3939: 3755: 3598: 3460: 3442: 3398: 3367: 3323: 3197: 3117: 3029: 3021: 2977: 2969: 2928: 2920: 2877: 2697: 2614: 2565: 2528: 2117: 1474: 1453: 1322: 1001:

In theory, the maximum voltage generated by such a cell is simply the difference between the (

953: 186: 3814:

Service, Robert F (2018). "Solar cells that work in low light could charge devices indoors".

200:. In silicon, sunlight can provide enough energy to push an electron out of the lower-energy 182: 4728: 4696: 4686: 4157: 4039: 3992: 3929: 3919: 3880: 3819: 3794: 3747: 3704: 3660: 3625: 3590: 3434: 3359: 3315: 3287: 3232: 3187: 3107: 3068: 3011: 2959: 2912: 2869: 2689: 2606: 2557: 2520: 2497: 2418: 2382: 2354: 2319: 2283: 2240: 2197: 2162: 2109: 2082: 2047: 2012: 1985: 1958: 1869: 1822: 1700: 1405:

would not be necessary for such cells, and would work on cloudy days when light is diffuse.

1263:

1,000 h at 80 °C, maintaining 94% of its initial value. After accelerated testing in a

578: 289: 266: 32: 3515: 2762: 2442: 1894: 667:

The incident photon is absorbed by the photosensitizer (eg. Ru complex) adsorbed on the TiO

585:), which forms into a highly porous structure with an extremely high surface area. The (TiO 512:

stable cell performance than its singly metallic counterparts. Such is the result that Jin

342:. Charge separation occurs at the surfaces between the dye, semiconductor and electrolyte. 4640: 4571: 3503: 2789: 2769: 2654: 2449: 1792: 1740: 1632: 1264: 1095:

In comparison, the injection process used in the DSSC does not introduce a hole in the TiO

1014: 458: 305: 241: 205: 197: 3915: 3876: 3790: 3743: 3700: 3586: 3355: 3183: 3064: 2908: 2865: 2685: 2414: 2350: 2279: 2236: 2158: 1954: 1818: 5050: 5025: 4691: 4543: 4445: 4435: 4405: 4162: 3934: 3899: 2051: 2016: 1491: 1437: 1157:

on the n-DSC side. Photocurrent matching was achieved through adjustment of NiO and TiO

336: 229: 119: 3236: 3137:"Dye Sensitized Solar Cells (DYSC) based on Nanocrystalline Oxide Semiconductor Films" 662:

The following steps convert in a conventional n-type DSSC photons (light) to current:

5165: 5155: 4712: 4635: 4625: 4538: 4430: 4147: 4126: 4059: 4012: 3716: 3672: 3637: 3080: 2750: 2438: 2295: 2252: 2209: 2174: 2131: 1989: 1690: 1648: 1402: 1370: 1297: 1061: 946: 541: 493: 442: 403: 320: 265:

A modern n-type DSSC, the most common type of DSSC, is composed of a porous layer of

174: 154: 69: 3900:"Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell for Building-Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) Applications" 3209: 2059: 2024: 5080: 5035: 4768: 4440: 2709: 2422: 2166: 1834: 1363: 1289: 1204: 1065: 906:

In a conventional n-type DSSC, sunlight enters the cell through the transparent SnO

454: 430: 324: 269: 201: 3708: 2358: 2287: 2201: 1962: 1341:

in animals. He reports efficiency on the order of 5.6% using these low-cost dyes.

893:

In DSSC, electrodes consisted of sintered semiconducting nanoparticles, mainly TiO

300:(the platinum) are placed on either side of a liquid conductor (the electrolyte). 3072: 2323: 2244: 1166:

eventually lead to tandem devices with much greater efficiency than lone n-DSCs.

544:

with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) nanoflakes to create the counter electrode. Lu

5138: 5075: 5045: 5020: 4778: 4415: 4390: 3996: 3799: 3774: 3485:

Tata Steel and Dyesol produce world’s largest dye sensitised photovoltaic module

3403: 2466: 2113: 1675: 1426: 1385: 1384:

along the surface, treated them with dye molecules, surrounded the fibers by an

1334: 1330: 1211: 1072: 1068: 1006: 877:) and the ground state (HOMO) of the photosensitizer, the Fermi level of the TiO 570: 359: 277: 273: 178: 131: 73: 4043: 3884: 4561: 4533: 4311: 3664: 3629: 1873: 1705: 1578:

nanowire cells was enhanced, reaching a power conversion efficiency of 7.65%.

1378: 1354:

iodine-based solutions, the team is confident the efficiency can be improved.

1338: 1150: 1113: 558: 477: 158: 61: 3121: 3025: 2973: 2924: 1325:, New Zealand, has experimented with a wide variety of organic dyes based on 1238:

The group has previously prepared a ruthenium amphiphilic dye Z-907 (cis-Ru(H

476:

had the greatest power conversion efficiency and electrocatalytic ability as

5150: 4852: 4758: 4630: 3823: 2524: 1326: 1280:

The first successful solid-hybrid dye-sensitized solar cells were reported.

942: 919: 598: 590: 387: 379: 375: 370:

to I. Thus, it is important for the counter electrode to not only have high

225: 111: 17: 4051: 4004: 3943: 3759: 3602: 3446: 3438: 3371: 3327: 3201: 3033: 2981: 2932: 2881: 2701: 2618: 2569: 1017:

of the electrolyte, about 0.7 V under solar illumination conditions (V

2839: 1071:(which emit at longer wavelengths which may be reabsorbed by the dye) and 844:, diffuses toward the counter electrode and then it is reduced to I ions. 613: 94:

and this work was later developed by the aforementioned scientists at the

5065: 5055: 5030: 2948:"Ultrafast dye regeneration in a core–shell NiO–dye–TiO2 mesoporous film" 2561: 1670: 1381: 1285: 1196: 923: 628: 620:. The bond is either an ester, chelating, or bidentate bridging linkage. 602: 355: 285: 281: 212: 166: 107: 2693: 2086: 956:

re-introduces the electrons after flowing through the external circuit.

5070: 3924: 3751: 3594: 3112: 3095: 3016: 3000:"Solid state p-type dye sensitized NiO–dye–TiO2 core–shell solar cells" 2999: 2964: 2947: 2916: 2515:

Hara, Kohjiro; Arakawa, Hironori (2005). "Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells".

2386: 2075:

Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development

1680: 1555: 1433: 632:

normal cells because they require no expensive manufacturing steps. TiO

609: 407: 297: 3319: 3291: 1764:, University of Alabama Department of Chemistry, p. 3, published 2004. 3363: 3144: 2873: 2610: 2584:"Ultrathin, Dye-sensitized Solar Cells Called Most Efficient To Date" 2501: 1826: 1589: 1470: 1459: 1449: 1367: 1042: 934: 678:

electrode. This results in the oxidation of the photosensitizer (S).

624: 395: 391: 193: 3250: 3225:

Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews

3192: 3167: 2753:, European patent WO/2004/006292, Publication Date: 15 January 2004. 1183: 725: 2725:"New findings to help extend high efficiency solar cells' lifetime" 181:

of the two materials. The result is a region at the interface, the

161:

is made from two doped crystals, one doped with n-type impurities (

2772:, U.S. Department of Energy Office of Basic Energy Sciences, 2005. 1463: 927: 566: 363: 293: 2783:"Interface engineering in solid-state dye sensitized solar cells" 1559:

improved from 5.31 to 8.86% for Y123 dye-sensitized solar cells.

4095: 3487:. Tatasteeleurope.com (10 June 2011). Retrieved on 26 July 2011. 874: 416: 399: 246: 4099: 2634:"Dye-sensitized solar cells rival conventional cell efficiency" 272:, covered with a molecular dye that absorbs sunlight, like the 3958:"New Record Efficiency Achieved by Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells" 1519:

dye, subsequently deposited from the separated solutions of CH

605: 565:

design, the cell has 3 primary parts. On top is a transparent

412: 339: 3530:. Brr.com.au (23 November 2011). Retrieved on 6 January 2012. 358:

from the external circuit and introducing them back into the

4077:

Brian O'Regan's account of the invention of the modern DSSC

276:

in green leaves. The titanium dioxide is immersed under an

3528:

DYESOL LIMITED – Dyesol 2011 AGM – Boardroom Radio webcast

1655:

stability, offering new possibilities for the DSSC field.

1639:

capabilities, enabling the use of all available sunlight.

1329:. In nature, porphyrin is the basic building block of the 910::F top contact, striking the dye on the surface of the TiO 3135:

Kalyanasundaram, K.; Grätzel, Michael (2 February 1999).

2820:"New Efficiency Benchmark For Dye-sensitized Solar Cells" 1651:, improving the power conversion efficiency of the cell. 740: 3506:. Dyesol (21 October 2011). Retrieved on 6 January 2012. 1534:

The first architectural integration was demonstrated at

636:, for instance, is already widely used as a paint base. 3223:

Grätzel, Michael (2003). "Dye-sensitized solar cells".

623:

A separate plate is then made with a thin layer of the

453:

composite crystals to produce nanocubes, nanorods, and

3618:

Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics

1776:, European Institute for Energy Research, 30 June 2006 1421:

claim to have overcome two of the DSC's major issues:

881:

electrode and the redox potential of the mediator (I/I

627:

electrolyte spread over a conductive sheet, typically

106:

to eliminate a number of expensive materials, notably

5127: 1795:. Workspace.imperial.ac.uk. Retrieved on 30 May 2013. 708: 4084:, the assembly guide for making your own solar cells 1218:

to better match it with the electrolyte being used.

1149:

Researchers have found that using dyes comprising a

801:

The injected electrons in the conduction band of TiO

533:

the way for even newer counter electrode materials.

126:

should be good enough to allow them to compete with

5013: 4997: 4988: 4866: 4835: 4812: 4801: 4721: 4705: 4659: 4618: 4516: 4509: 4454: 4383: 4310: 4299: 4274: 4228: 4140: 4133: 1075:to protect and improve the efficiency of the cell. 3556:"EPFL's campus has the world's first solar window" 776: 378:ability, but also electrochemical stability, high 3473:Inexpensive Highly Efficient Solar Cells Possible 2763:Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy Utilization 1891:"Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells), How They Work" 1045:/cm, whereas current DSSCs offer about 20 mA/cm. 468:in 2017 determined that the ternary oxide of NiCo 3251:"Nanowires Could Lead to Improved Solar Cells " 2842:, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 2006 2792:, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 2003 2517:Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering 464:With a similar study but a different system, Du 402:(CCNI), particularly the effects of morphology, 2834: 2832: 2666: 2664: 2108:, Inorganic Materials Series, pp. 89–152, 1644:École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 96:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 72:formed between a photo-sensitized anode and an 4088:Breakthrough in low-cost efficient solar cells 3461:Breakthrough in low-cost efficient solar cells 3394:"Wrapping Solar Cells around an Optical Fiber" 1574:sol treatment, the performance of the dual TiO 1251:by a photochemically stable fluorine polymer, 1195:right into the low-frequency range of red and 169:, and the other doped with p-type impurities ( 5005:List of countries by photovoltaics production 4682:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One 4111: 3045: 3043: 2993: 2991: 165:), which add additional free conduction band 146:Current technology: semiconductor solar cells 8: 2452:, Departament de Física, Universitat Jaume I 480:when compared to nanorods or nanosheets. Du 4487:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector 3139:. Laboratory for Photonics and Interfaces, 1850:, Technology Academy Finland, 14 June 2010. 503:prepared ternary nickel cobalt selenide (Ni 4994: 4809: 4513: 4360:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 4307: 4137: 4118: 4104: 4096: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3381: 2818:Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1774:"Dye-Sensitized vs. Thin Film Solar Cells" 1550:Researchers have investigated the role of 1425:"New molecules" have been created for the 922:(as a result of an electron concentration 608:(also called molecular sensitizers) and a 589:) is chemically bound by a process called 362:to catalyze the reduction reaction of the 36:A selection of dye-sensitized solar cells. 3933: 3923: 3798: 3281: 3191: 3111: 3015: 2963: 2550:Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 777:{\displaystyle {\ce {S^{.}->{S+}+e-}}} 767: 753: 748: 739: 734: 729: 727: 720: 714: 709: 707: 4822:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system 3141:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 1605:building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) 1415:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 1233:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 1182: 445:-assisted hydrothermal synthesis of CoSe 252: 240: 31: 5134: 4789:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge 4784:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge 4024: 4022: 3427:Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2434: 2432: 1753: 1187:"Black Dye", an anionic Ru-terpyridine 3865:Journal of the Electrochemical Society 3392:Bourzac, Katherine (30 October 2009). 2650: 2639: 2463:"Dye Solar Cell Assembly Instructions" 2102:"CHAPTER 3:Dye-sensitised Solar Cells" 2632:Papageorgiou, Nik (7 November 2013). 1885: 1883: 1570:reaction. Additionally, through a TiO 1127:volatile organic compounds (or VOC's) 7: 5110: 3542:"Taking Solar Technology Up a Notch" 1562:The synthesis of one-dimensional TiO 1300:at 60 °C for 1000 hours. After 998:but are about the same as the DSSC. 845: 818: 699: 679: 4827:List of photovoltaic power stations 3838:"Building-Integrated Photovoltaics" 3575:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 3308:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 3270:The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2952:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2897:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 1642:The researchers from Switzerland’s 1288:and a combination of nanowires and 136:European Union Photovoltaic Roadmap 5182:Renewable energy commercialization 4843:Rooftop photovoltaic power station 4246:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si) 4195:Third-generation photovoltaic cell 3516:Industrialisation Target Confirmed 2490:Energy & Environmental Science 2052:10.1111/j.1751-1097.1972.tb06297.x 2017:10.1111/j.1751-1097.1971.tb06156.x 726: 441:utilized various surfactants in a 25: 4848:Building-integrated photovoltaics 4345:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics 4251:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) 1615:Silesian University of Technology 1588:have advanced the DSSCs based on 128:fossil fuel electrical generation 5149: 5137: 5109: 5098: 5097: 4220:Polarizing organic photovoltaics 2723:Estes, Kathleen (7 April 2014). 2375:Journal of Materials Chemistry C 4355:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics 4236:List of semiconductor materials 3094:Tian, Haining (26 March 2019). 2803:"Solar cell doubles as battery" 2190:Journal of Alloys and Compounds 2040:Photochemistry and Photobiology 2005:Photochemistry and Photobiology 1419:Université du Québec à Montréal 138:to significantly contribute to 4467:Incremental conductance method 4261:Copper indium gallium selenide 4210:Thermodynamic efficiency limit 3540:Fellman, Megan (23 May 2012). 3475:, ScienceDaily, 12 April 2010. 3100:Sustainable Energy & Fuels 2423:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.09.144 2167:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228359 2106:Solar Energy Capture Materials 1862:Coordination Chemistry Reviews 1686:Luminescent solar concentrator 1373:. The researchers removed the 1231:A group of researchers at the 1137:Photocathodes and tandem cells 1060:The barrier layer may include 840:The oxidized redox mediator, I 1: 4774:South African Solar Challenge 3709:10.1016/j.solener.2018.02.061 3459:Coxworth, Ben (8 April 2010) 3237:10.1016/S1389-5567(03)00026-1 2359:10.1016/j.solener.2017.02.025 2288:10.1016/j.solener.2019.09.035 2202:10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.156151 1963:10.1016/j.solener.2016.02.015 1893:. specmat.com. Archived from 296:(the titanium dioxide) and a 4421:Photovoltaic mounting system 3073:10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.10.054 2443:"Dye-sensitized solar cells" 2324:10.1016/j.mtener.2017.10.004 2245:10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.144690 1990:10.1016/0013-4686(68)80076-3 1762:"Dye Sensitized Solar Cells" 1313:from ambient to 60 °C. 1163:energy conversion efficiency 937:in electrolyte below the TiO 557:In the case of the original 540:mixed nickel cobalt sulfide 323:flows from the dye into the 257:Operation of a Grätzel cell. 27:Type of thin-film solar cell 4426:Maximum power point tracker 3997:10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00632 3800:10.1016/j.joule.2018.03.017 2582:American Chemical Society, 2465:. Solaronix. Archived from 2114:10.1039/9781788013512-00089 1540:SwissTech Convention Center 1436:, platinum was replaced by 974:solar conversion efficiency 966:Solar conversion efficiency 805:are transported between TiO 350:Counter Electrode Materials 280:solution, above which is a 100:Millennium Technology Prize 5208: 5177:Dye-sensitized solar cells 4677:Solar panels on spacecraft 4524:Solar-powered refrigerator 4482:Concentrated photovoltaics 4462:Perturb and observe method 4241:Crystalline silicon (c-Si) 4044:10.1038/s41586-022-05460-z 3653:Advanced Powder Technology 3544:. Northwestern University. 3518:. Dyesol. 21 November 2011 1552:surface plasmon resonances 1377:from optical fibers, grew 1362:A group of researchers at 963: 237:Dye-sensitized solar cells 211:In any semiconductor, the 64:belonging to the group of 5093: 4375:Heterojunction solar cell 4350:Dye-sensitized solar cell 4190:Multi-junction solar cell 4180:Nominal power (Watt-peak) 3665:10.1016/j.apt.2018.03.008 3630:10.1007/s10854-017-6950-2 3497:Dye-sensitized solar cell 2745:Chittibabu, Kethinni, G. 2636:– via actu.epfl.ch. 1874:10.1016/j.ccr.2004.05.030 1731:Photoelectrochemical cell 918:. From there it moves by 889:Nanoplant-like morphology 245:Type of cell made at the 42:dye-sensitized solar cell 4858:Strasskirchen Solar Park 4749:American Solar Challenge 4595:Solar-powered flashlight 4582:Solar-powered calculator 4577:Solar cell phone charger 4266:Amorphous silicon (a-Si) 4082:Dye Solar Cells for Real 3885:10.1149/1945-7111/ac741f 2807:Technology Research News 2788:26 February 2006 at the 2448:21 December 2011 at the 2403:Journal of Power Sources 2147:Journal of Power Sources 1349:An article published in 192:When placed in the sun, 189:of about 0.6 to 0.7 eV. 173:), which add additional 4764:Frisian Solar Challenge 4734:List of solar car teams 4492:Space-based solar power 4472:Constant voltage method 4401:Solar charge controller 4287:Timeline of solar cells 4282:Growth of photovoltaics 3824:10.1126/science.aat9682 3004:Chemical Communications 2838:Nathalie Rossier-Iten, 2603:Chemical Communications 2525:10.1002/0470014008.ch15 2225:Applied Surface Science 1487:Northwestern University 569:made of fluoride-doped 288:. As in a conventional 218:Shockley–Queisser limit 204:into the higher-energy 124:price/performance ratio 4754:Formula Sun Grand Prix 4586:Solar-powered fountain 4529:Solar air conditioning 4330:Quantum dot solar cell 4320:Nanocrystal solar cell 4215:Sun-free photovoltaics 3439:10.1002/anie.200904492 2649:Cite journal requires 2312:Materials Today Energy 1736:Solid-state solar cell 1399:University of Michigan 1253:polyvinylidenefluoride 1191: 885:) in the electrolyte. 778: 258: 250: 249:by Grätzel and O'Regan 118:is less than the best 37: 5187:Ultraviolet radiation 4744:World Solar Challenge 4567:Photovoltaic keyboard 4497:PV system performance 4370:Perovskite solar cell 4168:Solar cell efficiency 3502:28 March 2016 at the 1791:28 March 2016 at the 1711:Perovskite solar cell 1631:and fellow scientist 1311:operating temperature 1186: 779: 372:electron conductivity 256: 244: 140:renewable electricity 116:conversion efficiency 66:thin film solar cells 35: 5014:Individual producers 4722:Solar vehicle racing 4411:Solar micro-inverter 4340:Plasmonic solar cell 4185:Thin-film solar cell 4153:Photoelectric effect 2768:16 July 2011 at the 2562:10.1166/jnn.2008.299 2519:. pp. 663–700. 2469:on 28 September 2007 1726:Biohybrid solar cell 1397:. Max Shtein of the 1246:, where the ligand H 1064:and/or UV absorbing 941:, oxidizing it into 706: 366:shuttle, generally I 329:p-type semiconductor 310:n-type semiconductor 224:decade, notably the 171:p-type semiconductor 163:n-type semiconductor 142:generation by 2020. 102:for this invention. 79:photoelectrochemical 4610:Solar traffic light 4590:Solar-powered radio 4557:Solar-powered watch 4365:Printed solar panel 4200:Solar cell research 3916:2021Mate...14.3743S 3877:2022JElS..169f6507D 3791:2018Joule...2.1108C 3744:2014Nanos...613203L 3701:2018SoEn..169...67N 3587:2018PCCP...20.9651C 3356:2008NatMa...7..626B 3184:2003NatMa...2..402W 3065:2019NEne...55...59X 2909:2016PCCP...18.5080Z 2866:2010NatMa...9...31N 2694:10.1038/nature12340 2686:2013Natur.499..316B 2590:, 20 September 2006 2415:2016JPS...332..281L 2351:2017SoEn..146..125D 2280:2019SoEn..193....1M 2237:2020ApSS..50644690G 2159:2020JPS...46828359Y 2087:10.1021/i360075a025 1978:Electrochimica Acta 1955:2016SoEn..130..139R 1819:1991Natur.353..737O 1413:Researchers at the 1403:sun-tracking system 1307:silicon solar cells 1257:hexafluoropropylene 745: 742: 68:. It is based on a 4646:The Quiet Achiever 4605:Solar street light 4552:Solar-powered pump 4325:Organic solar cell 4205:Thermophotovoltaic 4173:Quantum efficiency 3925:10.3390/ma14133743 3752:10.1039/C4NR03999H 3595:10.1039/C7CP08445E 3562:. 5 November 2013. 3406:on 30 October 2009 3147:on 6 February 2005 3113:10.1039/C8SE00581H 3017:10.1039/C8CC00505B 2965:10.1039/C7CP07088H 2917:10.1039/C5CP05247E 2387:10.1039/C8TC00611C 1868:(13–14): 1511–30. 1721:Polymer solar cell 1716:Organic solar cell 1321:Wayne Campbell at 1242:dcbpy)(dnbpy)(NCS) 1192: 990:quantum efficiency 774: 730: 658:Mechanism of DSSCs 415:-based materials, 380:catalytic activity 259: 251: 38: 5125: 5124: 5089: 5088: 4984: 4983: 4797: 4796: 4672:Mauro Solar Riser 4667:Electric aircraft 4600:Solar-powered fan 4505: 4504: 4396:Balance of system 4384:System components 4335:Hybrid solar cell 4295: 4294: 4256:Cadmium telluride 3991:(12): 7279–7327. 3964:. 26 October 2022 3399:Technology Review 3320:10.1021/jp052877w 3314:(32): 15397–409. 3292:10.1021/jp0750598 3010:(30): 3739–3742. 2826:, 3 November 2008 2751:Photovoltaic cell 2381:(15): 3901–3909. 2123:978-1-78801-107-5 1584:Researchers from 1475:Tata Steel Europe 1454:Tata Steel Europe 1323:Massey University 1151:perylenemonoimide 954:counter electrode 868: 867: 837: 836: 798: 797: 766: 752: 746: 744: 733: 713: 698: 697: 187:potential barrier 150:In a traditional 16:(Redirected from 5199: 5192:Swiss inventions 5154: 5153: 5144:Renewable energy 5142: 5141: 5133: 5113: 5112: 5101: 5100: 4995: 4836:Building-mounted 4814:PV power station 4810: 4739:Solar challenges 4729:Solar car racing 4697:Solar Challenger 4687:Gossamer Penguin 4514: 4308: 4158:Solar irradiance 4138: 4120: 4113: 4106: 4097: 4064: 4063: 4026: 4017: 4016: 3985:Chemical Reviews 3980: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3954: 3948: 3947: 3937: 3927: 3895: 3889: 3888: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3834: 3828: 3827: 3811: 3805: 3804: 3802: 3785:(6): 1108–1117. 3770: 3764: 3763: 3738:(21): 13203–12. 3727: 3721: 3720: 3683: 3677: 3676: 3648: 3642: 3641: 3624:(15): 11528–33. 3613: 3607: 3606: 3570: 3564: 3563: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3537: 3531: 3525: 3519: 3513: 3507: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3476: 3470: 3464: 3457: 3451: 3450: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3402:. Archived from 3389: 3376: 3375: 3364:10.1038/nmat2224 3344:Nature Materials 3338: 3332: 3331: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3285: 3264: 3258: 3249:Michael Berger, 3247: 3241: 3240: 3220: 3214: 3213: 3195: 3172:Nature Materials 3163: 3157: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3143:. 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1777: 1771: 1765: 1758: 1701:Titanium dioxide 1696:Stationary phase 1590:copper complexes 1351:Nature Materials 1333:, which include 1222:New developments 949:the solar cell. 862: 846: 831: 819: 792: 783: 781: 780: 775: 773: 772: 771: 764: 759: 758: 757: 750: 747: 743: 741: 738: 731: 728: 721: 719: 718: 711: 700: 692: 680: 579:titanium dioxide 382:and appropriate 290:alkaline battery 267:titanium dioxide 122:, in theory its 60:) is a low-cost 21: 5207: 5206: 5202: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5197: 5196: 5172:Thin-film cells 5162: 5161: 5160: 5148: 5136: 5128: 5126: 5121: 5085: 5009: 4980: 4862: 4831: 4804: 4793: 4717: 4706:Water transport 4701: 4655: 4641:Solar golf cart 4614: 4572:Solar road stud 4501: 4455:System concepts 4450: 4379: 4302: 4291: 4270: 4224: 4129: 4124: 4093: 4073: 4068: 4067: 4038:(7942): 60–65. 4028: 4027: 4020: 3982: 3981: 3977: 3967: 3965: 3956: 3955: 3951: 3897: 3896: 3892: 3861: 3860: 3856: 3846: 3844: 3836: 3835: 3831: 3813: 3812: 3808: 3772: 3771: 3767: 3729: 3728: 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459:current density 452: 448: 437:In 2017, Huang 426: 369: 352: 306:conduction band 239: 206:conduction band 198:photoexcitation 148: 120:thin-film cells 88:Michael Grätzel 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5205: 5203: 5195: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5164: 5163: 5159: 5158: 5146: 5123: 5122: 5120: 5119: 5107: 5094: 5091: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5084: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5051:Solar Frontier 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5026:Hanwha Q CELLS 5023: 5017: 5015: 5011: 5010: 5008: 5007: 5001: 4999: 4992: 4986: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4979: 4978: 4973: 4971:United Kingdom 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4906:Czech Republic 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4872: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4832: 4830: 4829: 4824: 4818: 4816: 4807: 4799: 4798: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4725: 4723: 4719: 4718: 4716: 4715: 4709: 4707: 4703: 4702: 4700: 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4115: 4108: 4100: 4091: 4090: 4085: 4079: 4072: 4071:External links 4069: 4066: 4065: 4018: 3975: 3949: 3890: 3854: 3829: 3806: 3765: 3722: 3678: 3659:(6): 1455–62. 3643: 3608: 3581:(14): 9651–8. 3565: 3547: 3532: 3520: 3508: 3489: 3477: 3465: 3452: 3433:(47): 8981–5. 3417: 3377: 3333: 3297: 3259: 3242: 3215: 3158: 3127: 3106:(4): 888–898. 3086: 3039: 2987: 2938: 2887: 2844: 2828: 2811: 2794: 2774: 2755: 2738: 2715: 2660: 2651:|journal= 2624: 2605:(23): 2635–7. 2592: 2575: 2540: 2533: 2507: 2480: 2454: 2428: 2392: 2364: 2329: 2301: 2258: 2215: 2180: 2136: 2122: 2092: 2065: 2030: 1995: 1984:(6): 1509–15. 1968: 1933: 1908: 1897:on 18 May 2007 1879: 1852: 1840: 1797: 1778: 1766: 1752: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1668: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1623: 1620: 1600: 1597: 1575: 1571: 1563: 1547: 1544: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1499: 1496: 1492:nanotechnology 1483: 1480: 1446: 1443: 1442: 1441: 1438:cobalt 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