1269:. Photoelectrochemical oxidation reactions that take place within PEC cells are the key to water splitting for hydrogen production. While the main concern with this technology is stability, systems that use PECO technology to create hydrogen from vapor rather than liquid water has demonstrated potential for greater stability. Early researchers working on vapor fed systems developed modules with 14% solar to hydrogen (STH) efficiency, while remaining stable for 1000+ hours. More recently, further technological developments have been made, demonstrated by the direct air electrolysis (DAE) module developed by Jining Guo and his team, which produces 99% pure hydrogen from the air and has demonstrated stability of 8 months thus far.
1089:. If a photon has more energy than a material's characteristic band gap, it can free an electron upon absorption by the material. The remaining, positively charged hole and the free electron may recombine, generating heat, or they can take part in photoreactions with nearby species. If the photoreactions with these species result in regeneration of the electron-donating materialâi.e., if the material acts as a catalyst for the reactionsâthen the reactions are deemed photocatalytic. PECO represents a type of photocatalysis whereby semiconductor-based electrochemistry catalyzes an oxidation reactionâfor example, the oxidative degradation of an airborne contaminant in air purification systems.
1257:, which are extremely reactive and oxidize organic material and microorganisms that cause allergy symptoms, forming harmless products like carbon dioxide and water. Researchers testing this technology with patients suffering from allergies drew promising conclusions from their studies, observing significant reductions in total symptom scores (TSS) for both nasal (TNSS) and ocular (TOSS) allergies after just 4 weeks of using the PECO filter. This research demonstrates strong potential for impactful health improvements who suffer from severe allergies and asthma.
841:
semiconductor, in the case of titanium dioxide, into the visible blue. It was further found (Thulin and Guerra, 2008) that the strain also favorably shifted the band-edges to overlay the hydrogen evolution potential, and further still that the strain improved hole mobility, for lower charge recombination rate and high quantum efficiency. Chandekar developed a low-cost scalable manufacturing process to produce both the nano-structured template and the strained titanium dioxide coating. Other morphological investigations include
978:) in PEC water-splitting devices due to its low cost, ability to be n-type doped, and band gap (2.2eV). However, performance is plagued by poor conductivity and crystal anisotropy. Some researchers have enhanced catalytic activity by forming a layer of co-catalysts on the surface. Co-catalysts include cobalt-phosphate and iridium oxide, which is known to be a highly active catalyst for the oxygen evolution reaction.
963:
497:
electrolyte to the surface of the silicon electrode. There they react with the four holes associated with the four photoelectrons, the result being two water molecules and an oxygen molecule. Illuminated silicon immediately begins to corrode under contact with the electrolytes. The corrosion consumes material and disrupts the properties of the surfaces and interfaces within the cell.
454:
993:), which exhibits several different polymorphs at various temperatures, is of interest due to its high conductivity but has a relatively wide, indirect band gap (~2.7 eV) which means it cannot absorb most of the solar spectrum. Though many attempts have been made to increase absorption, they result in poor conductivity and thus WO
1092:
The principal objective of photoelectrocatalysis is to provide low-energy activation pathways for the passage of electronic charge carriers through the electrode electrolyte interface and, in particular, for the photoelectrochemical generation of chemical products. With regard to photoelectrochemical
1193:
Photoelectrochemical oxidation may be thought of as a special case of photochemical oxidation (PCO). Photochemical oxidation entails the generation of radical species that enable oxidation reactions, with or without the electrochemical interactions involved in semiconductor-catalyzed systems, which
1172:
itself. PECO concerns such a process where the electronic charge carriers are able to readily move through the reaction medium, thereby to some extent mitigating recombination reactions that would limit the oxidative process. The âphotoelectrochemical cellâ in this case could be as simple as a very
735:
photoanodes, on the other hand, will have early onset of the hydrogen evolution reaction in addition to high current and rapid photocurrent growth. To maximize current, anode and cathode materials need to be matched together; the best anode for one cathode material may not be the best for another.
734:
While the listed requirements can be applied generally, photoanodes and photocathodes have slightly different needs. A good photocathode will have early onset of the oxygen evolution reaction (low overpotential), a large photocurrent at saturation, and rapid growth of photocurrent upon onset. Good
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reaction. While a photoelectrochemical cell typically involves both a semiconductor (electrode) and a metal (counter-electrode), at sufficiently small scales, pure semiconductor particles can behave as microscopic photoelectrochemical cells. PECO has applications in the detoxification of air and
1237:
PECO is a useful solution to treating stormwater because of its strong oxidation capacity. Investigating different mechanisms for herbicide degradation in stormwater, like PECO, photocatalytic oxidation (PCO), and electro-catalytic oxidation (ECO), researchers determined that PECO was the best
885:
but is still large enough to allow water splitting to occur at the surface. GaN nanowires exhibited better performance than GaN thin films, because they have a larger surface area and have a high single crystallinity which allows longer electron-hole pair lifetimes. Meanwhile, other non-oxide
496:
Incoming sunlight excites free electrons near the surface of the silicon electrode. These electrons flow through wires to the stainless steel electrode, where four of them react with four water molecules to form two molecules of hydrogen and 4 OH groups. The OH groups flow through the liquid
953:
Structuring of absorbing materials has both positive and negative affects on cell performance. Structuring allows for light absorption and carrier collection to occur in different places, which loosens the requirements for pure materials and helps with catalysis. This allows for the use of
840:
microstructure has also been investigated to further improve the performance. In 2002, Guerra (Nanoptek
Corporation) discovered that high localized strain could be induced in semiconductor films formed on micro to nano-structured templates, and that this strain shifted the bandgap of the
1250:. For people with severe allergies, air purifiers are important to protect them from allergens within their own homes. However, some allergens are too small to be removed by normal purification methods. Air purifiers using PECO filters are able to remove particles as small as 0.1 nm.
113:
The situation within a photoelectrolytic cell, on the other hand, is quite different. For example, in a water-splitting photoelectrochemical cell, the excitation, by light, of an electron in a semiconductor leaves a hole which "draws" an electron from a neighboring water molecule:
102:, involves the excitation of negative charge carriers (electrons) within a semiconductor medium, and it is negative charge carriers (free electrons) which are ultimately extracted to produce power. The classification of photoelectrochemical cells which includes
1238:
option, demonstrating complete mineralization of diuron in one hour. Further research into this use for PECO is needed, as it was only able to degrade 35% of atrazine in that time, however it is a promising solution moving forward.
2143:
Su, Jinzhan; Guo, Liejin; Yoriya, Sorachon; Grimes, Craig A. (3 February 2010). "Aqueous Growth of
Pyramidal-Shaped BiVO4 Nanowire Arrays and Structural Characterization: Application to Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting".
2171:
Luo, Wenjun; Yang, Zaisan; Li, Zhaosheng; Zhang, Jiyuan; Liu, Jianguo; Zhao, Zongyan; Wang, Zhiqiang; Yan, Shicheng; Yu, Tao; Zou, Zhigang (2011). "Solar hydrogen generation from seawater with a modified BiVO4 photoanode".
1791:
Wang, D.; Pierre, A.; Kibria, M. G.; Cui, K.; Han, X.; Bevan, K. H.; Guo, H.; Paradis, S.; Hakima, A. R.; Mi, Z. (2011). "Wafer-Level
Photocatalytic Water Splitting on GaN Nanowire Arrays Grown by Molecular Beam Epitaxy".
597:
Water-splitting photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells use light energy to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen within a two-electrode cell. In theory, three arrangements of photo-electrodes in the assembly of PECs exist:
1272:
Promising research and technological advancement using PECO for different applications like water and air treatment and hydrogen production suggests that it is a valuable tool that can be utilized in a variety of ways.
2530:
J. H. Carey, J. Lawrence, and H. M. Tosine, "Photodechlorination of PCB's in the presence of titanium dioxide in aqueous suspensions," Bulletin of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol. 16, pp. 697â701,
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has garnered interest from researchers. Over time, it has been shown that V-rich and compact films are associated with higher photocurrent, or higher performance. Bismuth
Vanadate has also been studied for solar
1749:
U.S. Patent No.8,673,399: Bandgap-shifted semiconductor surface and method for making same, and apparatus for using same; John M. Guerra, Lukas M. Thulin, Amol N. Chandekar; March 18, 2014; assigned to
Nanoptek
1185:
particles of sufficiently small dimension, the particles polarize into anodic and cathodic regions, effectively forming microscopic photoelectrochemical cells. The illuminated surface of a particle catalyzes a
1289:, may catalyze the oxidation of dissolved organic materials (phenol, benzoic acid, acetic acid, sodium stearate, and sucrose) under illumination by sunlamps. Additional work by Carey et al. suggested that TiO
281:
2045:
Zhong, Diane K.; Gamelin, Daniel R. (31 March 2010). "Photoelectrochemical Water
Oxidation by Cobalt Catalyst ("CoâPi")/α-FeO Composite Photoanodes: Oxygen Evolution and Resolution of a Kinetic Bottleneck".
944:
operated for 80 hours without noticeable corrosion, versus 8 hours for titanium dioxide. In the process, about 150 ml of hydrogen gas was generated, representing the storage of about 2 kilojoules of energy.
310:
This leaves positive charge carriers (protons, that is, H+ ions) in solution, which must then bond with one other proton and combine with two electrons in order to form hydrogen gas, according to:
1479:
Another photoelectrochemical method involves using dissolved metal complexes as a catalyst, which absorbs energy and creates an electric charge separation that drives the water-splitting reaction
1226:
technologies are widely used. These technologies are effective at filtering out pollutants like suspended solids, nutrients, and heavy metals, but struggle to remove herbicides. Herbicides like
412:
2116:
Berglund, Sean P.; Flaherty, David W.; Hahn, Nathan T.; Bard, Allen J.; Mullins, C. Buddie (16 February 2011). "Photoelectrochemical
Oxidation of Water Using Nanostructured BiVO Films".
1713:
U.S. Patent No. 7,485,799: Stress-induced bandgap-shifted semiconductor photoelectrolytic/photocatalytic/photovoltaic surface and method for making same; John M. Guerra, February 2009.
2081:
Tilley, S. David; Cornuz, Maurin; Sivula, Kevin; GrÀtzel, Michael (23 August 2010). "Light-Induced Water
Splitting with Hematite: Improved Nanostructure and Iridium Oxide Catalysis".
1168:
This system shows a number of pathways for the production of oxidative species that facilitate the oxidation of the species, RX, in addition to its direct oxidation by the excited TiO
954:
non-precious and oxide catalysts that may be stable in more oxidizing conditions. However, these devices have lower open-circuit potentials which may contribute to lower performance.
1905:
Kenney, M. J.; Gong, M.; Li, Y.; Wu, J. Z.; Feng, J.; Lanza, M.; Dai, H. (2013). "High-Performance
Silicon Photoanodes Passivated with Ultrathin Nickel Films for Water Oxidation".
78:(typically sunlight) either directly into electrical power, or into something which can itself be easily used to produce electrical power (hydrogen, for example, can be burned to
2210:
H. Tributsch, "Photoelectrocatalysis," in Photocatalysis: Fundamentals and Applications, N. Serpone and E. Pelizzetti, Eds., ed New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1989, pp. 339-383.
1050:
720:
688:
642:
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GaN is another option, because metal nitrides usually have a narrow band gap that could encompass almost the entire solar spectrum. GaN has a narrower band gap than
1285:âe.g., as evidenced by the fading of paints incorporating it as a pigment. In 1969, Kinney and Ivanuski suggested that a variety of metal oxides, including TiO
1602:
1870:
Kline, G.; Kam, K.; Canfield, D.; Parkinson, B. (1981). "Efficient and stable photoelectrochemical cells constructed with WSe2 and MoSe2 photoanodes".
1559:
Wang, H.; Deutsch, T.; Turner, J. A. A. (2008). "Direct Water Splitting Under Visible Light with a Nanostructured Photoanode and GaInP2 Photocathode".
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small particle of the semiconductor catalyst. Here, on the âlightâ side a species is oxidized, while on the âdarkâ side a separate species is reduced.
1308:
A. J. Bard, M. Stratmann, and S. Licht, Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry, Volume 6, Semiconductor Electrodes and Photoelectrochemistry: Wiley, 2002.
731:
In addition to these requirements, materials must be low-cost and earth abundant for the widespread adoption of PEC water splitting to be feasible.
936:
In 2013 a cell with 2 nanometers of nickel on a silicon electrode, paired with a stainless steel electrode, immersed in an aqueous electrolyte of
566:, due to relatively high efficiency of the latter and the similarity in vapor assisted deposition techniques commonly used in their creation.
2237:
A. J. Bard, "Photoelectrochemistry and heterogeneous photo-catalysis at semiconductors," Journal of Photochemistry, vol. 10, pp. 59-75, 1979.
1972:
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1539:
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generation from seawater, which is much more difficult due to the presence of contaminating ions and a more harsh corrosive environment.
2512:
C. Goodeve and J. Kitchener, "Photosensitisation by titanium dioxide," Transactions of the Faraday Society, vol. 34, pp. 570â579, 1938.
2614:
536:
144:
2247:
Zheng, Zhaozhi; Deletic, Ana; Toe, Cui Ying; Amal, Rose; Zhang, Xiwang; Pickford, Russell; Zhou, Shujie; Zhang, Kefeng (2022-08-15).
1472:
1374:
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The classical macroscopic photoelectrochemical system consists of a semiconductor in electric contact with a counter-electrode. For
2549:
2219:
O. Legrini, E. Oliveros, and A. Braun, "Photochemical processes for water treatment," Chemical Reviews, vol. 93, pp. 671-698, 1993.
1835:
Hye Song Jung; Young Joon Hong; Yirui Li; Jeonghui Cho; Young-Jin Kim; Gyu-Chui Yi (2008). "Photocatalysis Using GaN Nanowires".
658:
suitable band structure: large enough band gap to split water (1.23V) and appropriate positions relative to redox potentials for
2248:
1305:
M. Schiavello, Photoelectrochemistry, photocatalysis, and photoreactors: Fundamentals and developments. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1985.
2757:
2448:
Guo, Jining; Zhang, Yuecheng; Zavabeti, Ali; Chen, Kaifei; Guo, Yalou; Hu, Guoping; Fan, Xiaolei; Li, Gang Kevin (2022-09-06).
2856:
2712:
1334:
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are used as n-type electrode, due to their stability in chemical and electrochemical steps in the photocorrosion reactions.
1005:
With a narrower, direct band gap (2.4 eV) and proper band alignment with water oxidation potential, the monoclinic form of
445:
is another form of photoelectrolytic cell, with the output in that case being carbohydrates instead of molecular hydrogen.
2752:
1723:
Thulin, Lukas; Guerra, John (2008-05-14). "Calculations of strain-modified anatase $ {\text{TiO}}_{2}$ band structures".
1396:
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are commonly used, and often end up in stormwater, posing potential health risks if they are not treated before reuse.
1302:
I. U. I. A. Gurevich, I. U. V. Pleskov, and Z. A. Rotenberg, Photoelectrochemistry. New York: Consultants Bureau, 1980.
2805:
2722:
2665:
1624:
Tryk, D.; Fujishima, A; Honda, K (2000). "Recent topics in photoelectrochemistry: achievements and future prospects".
1324:
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2826:
2742:
2604:
2249:"Photo-electrochemical oxidation herbicides removal in stormwater: Degradation mechanism and pathway investigation"
1464:
1329:
559:
103:
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PECO may be useful in treating both air and water, as well as producing hydrogen as a source of renewable energy.
340:
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2609:
1319:
482:
478:
442:
75:
28:
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1610:
2393:"Stable Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Evolution for 1000 h at 14% Efficiency in a Monolithic Vapor-fed Device"
2314:
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2660:
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1182:
1434:
2747:
2686:
1760:
Cao, F.; Oskam, G.; Meyer, G. J.; Searson, P. C. (1996). "Electron Transport in Porous Nanocrystalline TiO
1339:
758:
24:
2655:
2619:
1354:
563:
56:
2670:
1679:(1985). "On the photoluminescence of semiconducting titanates applied in photoelectrochemical cells".
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charge transport: photoelectrodes must be conductive (or semi-conductive) to minimize resistive losses
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2009:
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67:
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2336:"Effect of a Novel Photoelectrochemical Oxidation Air Purifier on Nasal and Ocular Allergy Symptoms"
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EERE-Photoelectrochemical Generation of Hydrogen Using Heterostructural Titania Nanotube ArraysMano
1070:
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520:
95:
71:
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immersed in an electrolytic solution to directly cause a chemical reaction, for example to produce
2334:
Rao, Nikhil G.; Kumar, Ambuj; Wong, Jenny S.; Shridhar, Ravi; Goswami, Dharendra Y. (2018-06-21).
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Possibly the most exciting potential use for PECO is producing hydrogen to be used as a source of
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2430:
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1938:
1584:
986:
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2544:
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oxidation, we may consider, for example, the following system of reactions, which constitute TiO
724:
catalytic activity: high catalytic activity increases efficiency of the water-splitting reaction
2198:
D. Y. Goswami, Principles of solar engineering, 3rd ed. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis, 2015.
1023:
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615:
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The mostly commonly researched modern photoelectrochemical cell in recent decades has been the
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photo-anode made of a n-type semiconductor and a photo-cathode made of a p-type semiconductor
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and other metal oxides are still most prominent catalysts for efficiency reasons. Including
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remains an issue, given their direct contact with water. Research is now ongoing to reach a
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810:
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513:
40:
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2408:
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2013:
1918:
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L. C. Kinney and V. R. Ivanuski, "Photolysis mechanisms for pollution abatement," 1969.
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ever designed was also the first photoelectrochemical cell. It was created in 1839, by
528:
505:
501:
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D. Y. Goswami, "Photoelectrochemical air disinfection " US Patent 7,063,820 B2, 2006.
1942:
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reaction, while the âdarkâ side of the particle facilitates a concomitant reduction.
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83:
79:
44:
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1493:"Photoelectrochemical Characterization and Durability Analysis of GaInPN Epilayers"
814:
532:
486:
462:
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962:
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The process by which a photon initiates a chemical reaction directly is known as
727:
stability: materials must be stable to prevent decomposition and loss of function
822:
548:
99:
63:
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2417:
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1736:
1407:
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Photoelectrochemical oxidation (PECO) is the process by which light enables a
32:
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2426:
2359:
2351:
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1965:
Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: Materials, Processes and Architectures
1926:
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In 1938, Goodeve and Kitchener demonstrated the âphotosensitizationâ of TiO
524:
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2102:
2094:
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2031:
1934:
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A. Fujishima, K. Honda, S. Kikuchi, Kogyo Kagaku Zasshi 72 (1969) 108â113
1231:
818:
806:
570:
490:
466:
52:
2185:
1990:"Charge transport in metal oxides: A theoretical study of hematite α-Fe
562:, although much attention has recently shifted away from this topic to
516:. The other methodology uses in-solution metal complexes as catalysts.
107:
2157:
2129:
2059:
2022:
1989:
1848:
1813:
1777:
1580:
1516:
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508:. One uses semiconductor surfaces as catalysts. In these devices the
470:
2315:"PECO v. PCO Air Purifiers: How are they different? - Molekule Blog"
1492:
970:
Researchers have extensively investigated the use of hematite (α-Fe
612:
There are several requirements for photoelectrode materials in PEC
453:
106:
meets this narrow definition, albeit the charge carriers are often
474:
452:
997:
does not appear to be a viable material for PEC water splitting.
276:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O(l) + + 2h+ -> 2H+ (aq) + 1/2O2(g)}}}
2558:
1253:
These filters work as photons excite a photocatalyst, creating
66:, in that a photoelectrochemical cell's function is to use the
1435:"Silicon/nickel water splitter could lead to cheaper hydrogen"
608:
photo-cathode made of a p-type semiconductor and a metal anode
602:
photo-anode made of a n-type semiconductor and a metal cathode
2554:
2391:
Kistler, Tobias A.; Um, Min Young; Agbo, Peter (2020-01-04).
1651:
Seitz, Linsey (26 February 2019), "Lecture 13: Solar Fuels",
648:
light absorbance: determined by band gap and appropriate for
512:
surface absorbs solar energy and acts as an electrode for
1038:
708:
676:
630:
389:
258:
159:
1988:
Iordanova, N.; Dupuis, M.; Rosso, K. M. (8 April 2005).
1963:
Peter, Laurie; Lewerenz, Hans-Joachim (2 October 2013).
1653:
Lecture Slides, Introduction to Electrochemistry CHE 395
1085:; if this process is aided by a catalyst, it is called
817:
oxygen 2p character. The bands are separated by a wide
761:, (the photocatalytic properties of titanium dioxide).
1397:"Photoelectrochemical Water Systems for H2 Production"
821:
of at least 3 eV, so that these materials absorb only
238:
23:" is one of two distinct classes of device. The first
1222:. Currently, water treatment methods like the use of
1026:
696:
664:
618:
343:
147:
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Dye-sensitized solar cells or GrÀtzel cells use dye-
481:, that is, with light. This has been referred to as
2768:
2700:
2679:
2628:
2592:
1491:Deutsch, T. G.; Head, J. L.; Turner, J. A. (2008).
1293:may be useful for the photodechlorination of PCBs.
519:Photoelectrolytic cells have passed the 10 percent
39:, that is, a device which uses light incident on a
16:
Sources of electricity or hydrogen via electrolysis
1456:
1044:
714:
682:
636:
406:
275:
1459:Alternative energy: facts, statistics, and issues
535:of 10000 hours, a requirement established by the
1532:"A Microscopic Solution to an Enormous Problem"
2570:
407:{\displaystyle {\ce {2H+ + 2e- -> H2(g)}}}
8:
485:and has been suggested as a way of storing
461:A (water-splitting) photoelectrolytic cell
31:, which meets the standard definition of a
2577:
2563:
2555:
1395:John A. Turner; et al. (2007-05-17).
1246:PECO has also shown promise as a means of
853:nanowire arrays or porous nanocrystalline
2489:
2416:
2367:
2021:
1967:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
1429:
1427:
1194:occur in photoelectrochemical oxidation.
1177:Photochemical oxidation (PCO) versus PECO
1037:
1032:
1027:
1025:
813:has mainly titanium 3d character and the
707:
702:
697:
695:
675:
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619:
617:
555:, at age 19, in his father's laboratory.
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2048:Journal of the American Chemical Society
961:
2083:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1387:
2397:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1497:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
62:Both types of device are varieties of
2206:
2204:
593:Materials for photoelectrolytic cells
7:
1540:SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
1404:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
2118:The Journal of Physical Chemistry C
457:Photoelectrolytic cell band diagram
2615:Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
2450:"Hydrogen production from the air"
2174:Energy & Environmental Science
537:United States Department of Energy
14:
1766:The Journal of Physical Chemistry
1375:Timeline of hydrogen technologies
1681:Journal of Solid State Chemistry
1455:Berinstein, Paula (2001-06-30).
589:) to produce electrical energy.
543:Other photoelectrochemical cells
29:dye-sensitized photovoltaic cell
2758:Unitized regenerative fuel cell
2002:The Journal of Chemical Physics
1675:De Haart, L.; De Vries, A. J.;
2256:Journal of Hazardous Materials
1437:. Gizmag.com. 19 November 2013
1335:Photocatalytic water splitting
805:, this kind of semiconducting
573:highly porous nanocrystalline
399:
393:
376:
268:
262:
231:
225:
207:
186:
180:
172:
166:
1:
2753:Solid oxide electrolyzer cell
2276:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129239
1764:Photoelectrochemical Cells".
1638:10.1016/S0013-4686(00)00337-6
2636:Direct borohydride fuel cell
2313:King, Haldane (2019-08-13).
1892:10.1016/0165-1633(81)90068-X
1701:10.1016/0022-4596(85)90296-8
1603:"First Photovoltaic Devices"
865:photoelectrochemical cells.
2723:Membrane electrode assembly
2666:Reformed methanol fuel cell
2146:Crystal Growth & Design
1530:Brad Plummer (2006-08-10).
1325:Glossary of fuel cell terms
1210:PECO has shown promise for
98:, as operating in standard
2873:
2743:Protonic ceramic fuel cell
2713:Electro-galvanic fuel cell
2605:Molten carbonate fuel cell
2474:10.1038/s41467-022-32652-y
1737:10.1103/PhysRevB.77.195112
1465:Greenwood Publishing Group
1330:Photoelectrolysis of water
1073:, and other applications.
1045:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2}}}
715:{\displaystyle {\ce {O2}}}
683:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2}}}
637:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2}}}
553:Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel
25:produces electrical energy
2801:
2733:Photoelectrochemical cell
2651:Direct methanol fuel cell
2610:Phosphoric acid fuel cell
1655:, Northwestern University
1320:Artificial photosynthesis
483:artificial photosynthesis
479:electromagnetic radiation
76:electromagnetic radiation
70:(or, very similarly, the
21:photoelectrochemical cell
2738:Proton-exchange membrane
2646:Direct-ethanol fuel cell
2418:10.1149/1945-7111/ab7d93
2352:10.1177/2152656718781609
2728:Membraneless Fuel Cells
2661:Metal hydride fuel cell
2641:Direct carbon fuel cell
2340:Allergy & Rhinology
1927:10.1126/science.1241327
886:semiconductors such as
473:gas by irradiating the
80:create electrical power
2748:Regenerative fuel cell
2687:Enzymatic biofuel cell
2095:10.1002/anie.201003110
1872:Solar Energy Materials
1340:Photochemical reaction
1255:hydroxyl free radicals
1097:-catalyzed oxidation.
1046:
967:
759:Honda-Fujishima effect
716:
684:
638:
564:perovskite solar cells
458:
449:Photoelectrolytic cell
408:
277:
37:photoelectrolytic cell
2857:Photoelectrochemistry
2656:Formic acid fuel cell
2620:Solid oxide fuel cell
2454:Nature Communications
1355:Photoelectrochemistry
1047:
965:
717:
685:
639:
456:
409:
278:
57:electrolysis of water
2346:: 2152656718781609.
1632:(15â16): 2363â2376.
1183:N-type semiconductor
1024:
949:Structured materials
694:
662:
616:
504:systems operate via
341:
145:
68:photoelectric effect
2842:Hydrogen production
2692:Microbial fuel cell
2466:2022NatCo..13.5046G
2409:2020JElS..167f6502K
2268:2022JHzM..43629239Z
2014:2005JChPh.122n4305I
1919:2013Sci...342..836K
1884:1981SoEnM...4..301K
1806:2011NanoL..11.2353W
1772:(42): 17021â17027.
1693:1985JSSCh..59..291D
1626:Electrochimica Acta
1573:2008ECSTr...6q..37W
1509:2008JElS..155B.903D
1261:Hydrogen Production
1071:hydrogen production
1066:catalytic oxidation
1040:
710:
678:
632:
521:economic efficiency
443:photosynthetic cell
391:
260:
161:
96:photovoltaic effect
72:photovoltaic effect
35:. The second is a
2600:Alkaline fuel cell
2186:10.1039/C1EE01812D
1077:Reaction mechanism
1042:
1028:
987:Tungsten(VI) oxide
968:
966:Hematite structure
712:
698:
680:
666:
634:
620:
459:
404:
379:
273:
248:
247:
149:
100:photovoltaic cells
2832:Energy conversion
2827:Materials science
2814:
2813:
2158:10.1021/cg9012125
2130:10.1021/jp1109459
2089:(36): 6405â6408.
2060:10.1021/ja908730h
2054:(12): 4202â4207.
2023:10.1063/1.1869492
1974:978-1-84973-647-3
1913:(6160): 836â840.
1849:10.1021/nn700320y
1814:10.1021/nl2006802
1778:10.1021/jp9616573
1725:Physical Review B
1581:10.1149/1.2832397
1517:10.1149/1.2946478
1360:Photoelectrolysis
1350:Photodissociation
1031:
701:
669:
650:solar irradiation
623:
549:photovoltaic cell
493:for use as fuel.
398:
382:
369:
352:
267:
251:
246:
230:
217:
200:
185:
171:
164:
152:
33:photovoltaic cell
2864:
2671:Zincâair battery
2579:
2572:
2565:
2556:
2532:
2528:
2522:
2519:
2513:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2493:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2420:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2371:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2321:
2310:
2304:
2303:
2253:
2244:
2238:
2235:
2229:
2226:
2220:
2217:
2211:
2208:
2199:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2124:(9): 3794â3802.
2113:
2107:
2106:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2025:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1960:
1947:
1946:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1800:(6): 2353â2357.
1788:
1782:
1781:
1757:
1751:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1720:
1714:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1672:
1666:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1609:. Archived from
1599:
1593:
1592:
1561:ECS Transactions
1556:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1546:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1462:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1442:
1431:
1422:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1412:
1406:. Archived from
1401:
1392:
1267:renewable energy
1248:air purification
1051:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1029:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1001:Bismuth vanadate
938:potassium borate
927:
926:
925:
915:
914:
913:
902:
901:
900:
884:
883:
882:
864:
863:
862:
852:
851:
850:
839:
838:
837:
803:
802:
801:
789:
788:
787:
775:
774:
773:
749:
748:
747:
721:
719:
718:
713:
711:
709:
706:
699:
689:
687:
686:
681:
679:
677:
674:
667:
643:
641:
640:
635:
633:
631:
628:
621:
588:
587:
586:
575:titanium dioxide
413:
411:
410:
405:
403:
402:
396:
390:
387:
380:
375:
374:
367:
358:
357:
350:
282:
280:
279:
274:
272:
271:
265:
259:
256:
249:
239:
234:
228:
223:
222:
215:
206:
205:
198:
189:
183:
175:
169:
162:
160:
157:
150:
2872:
2871:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2797:
2764:
2696:
2675:
2624:
2588:
2583:
2541:
2536:
2535:
2529:
2525:
2520:
2516:
2511:
2507:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2319:
2317:
2312:
2311:
2307:
2251:
2246:
2245:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2209:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2080:
2079:
2075:
2044:
2043:
2039:
1997:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1962:
1961:
1950:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1869:
1868:
1864:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1763:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1744:
1722:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1708:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1623:
1622:
1618:
1607:pveducation.org
1601:
1600:
1596:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1544:
1542:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1440:
1438:
1433:
1432:
1425:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1399:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1315:
1299:
1297:Further reading
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1263:
1244:
1212:water treatment
1208:
1206:Water Treatment
1200:
1179:
1171:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1115:
1108:
1104:
1096:
1079:
1058:
1022:
1021:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1003:
996:
992:
984:
977:
973:
960:
951:
934:
924:
921:
920:
919:
917:
912:
909:
908:
907:
905:
899:
896:
895:
894:
892:
881:
878:
877:
876:
874:
871:
861:
858:
857:
856:
854:
849:
846:
845:
844:
842:
836:
833:
832:
831:
829:
811:conduction band
800:
797:
796:
795:
793:
786:
783:
782:
781:
779:
772:
769:
768:
767:
765:
757:discovered the
755:Akira Fujishima
751:
746:
743:
742:
741:
739:
692:
691:
660:
659:
614:
613:
595:
585:
582:
581:
580:
578:
545:
514:water splitting
451:
366:
349:
339:
338:
214:
197:
143:
142:
92:
41:photosensitizer
27:similarly to a
17:
12:
11:
5:
2870:
2868:
2860:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2837:Photochemistry
2834:
2829:
2819:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2774:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2755:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2596:
2594:
2593:By electrolyte
2590:
2589:
2584:
2582:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2547:
2540:
2539:External links
2537:
2534:
2533:
2523:
2514:
2505:
2440:
2383:
2326:
2305:
2239:
2230:
2221:
2212:
2200:
2191:
2163:
2152:(2): 856â861.
2135:
2108:
2073:
2037:
2008:(14): 144305.
1995:
1991:
1980:
1973:
1948:
1897:
1878:(3): 301â308.
1862:
1843:(4): 637â642.
1827:
1783:
1761:
1752:
1742:
1731:(19): 195112.
1715:
1706:
1687:(3): 291â300.
1667:
1658:
1643:
1616:
1613:on 2010-07-18.
1594:
1551:
1522:
1483:
1473:
1447:
1423:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1370:Photosynthesis
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1345:Photochemistry
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1298:
1295:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1262:
1259:
1243:
1240:
1207:
1204:
1199:
1196:
1188:photooxidation
1178:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1143:
1142:(h) + OH â TiO
1139:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1094:
1087:photocatalysis
1078:
1075:
1057:
1056:Oxidation form
1054:
1035:
1012:
1002:
999:
994:
990:
983:
982:Tungsten oxide
980:
975:
971:
959:
956:
950:
947:
942:lithium borate
933:
930:
922:
910:
897:
879:
870:
867:
859:
847:
834:
828:Change of the
798:
784:
770:
750:
744:
737:
729:
728:
725:
722:
705:
673:
656:
653:
627:
610:
609:
606:
603:
594:
591:
583:
544:
541:
529:semiconductors
506:photocatalysis
450:
447:
439:
438:
437:
436:
435:
434:
433:
432:
431:
430:
429:
428:
427:
426:
425:
424:
423:
422:
421:
420:
419:
418:
417:
416:
415:
414:
401:
395:
386:
378:
373:
364:
361:
356:
347:
308:
307:
306:
305:
304:
303:
302:
301:
300:
299:
298:
297:
296:
295:
294:
293:
292:
291:
290:
289:
288:
287:
286:
285:
284:
283:
270:
264:
255:
245:
242:
237:
233:
227:
221:
212:
209:
204:
195:
192:
188:
182:
178:
174:
168:
156:
91:
90:Two principles
88:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2869:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2800:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2680:Biofuel cells
2678:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2580:
2575:
2573:
2568:
2566:
2561:
2560:
2557:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2527:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2509:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2403:(6): 066502.
2402:
2398:
2394:
2387:
2384:
2379:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2327:
2316:
2309:
2306:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2243:
2240:
2234:
2231:
2225:
2222:
2216:
2213:
2207:
2205:
2201:
2195:
2192:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2167:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2139:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2077:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2041:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1984:
1981:
1976:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1787:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1756:
1753:
1746:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1671:
1668:
1662:
1659:
1654:
1647:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1598:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1555:
1552:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1474:1-57356-248-3
1470:
1466:
1461:
1460:
1451:
1448:
1436:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1413:on 2011-06-11
1409:
1405:
1398:
1391:
1388:
1381:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1365:Photohydrogen
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1294:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1268:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1242:Air Treatment
1241:
1239:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1224:biofiltration
1221:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1203:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1189:
1184:
1176:
1174:
1148:
1137:
1122:
1116:(h) +RX â TiO
1111:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1067:
1064:to promote a
1063:
1062:semiconductor
1055:
1053:
1033:
1018:
1000:
998:
988:
981:
979:
964:
957:
955:
948:
946:
943:
939:
931:
929:
903:
889:
868:
866:
826:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
790:
776:
762:
760:
756:
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560:GrÀtzel cell
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533:service life
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487:solar energy
463:electrolizes
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2708:Blue energy
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2847:Fuel cells
2821:Categories
2586:Fuel cells
2320:2023-01-17
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1677:Blasse, G.
1567:(17): 37.
1545:2011-05-02
1536:SLAC Today
1441:2013-12-29
1417:2011-05-02
1382:References
1220:wastewater
1216:stormwater
1105:(hv) â TiO
1083:photolysis
547:The first
64:solar cell
2482:2041-1723
2435:216411125
2427:0013-4651
2360:2152-6575
2300:249139350
2284:0304-3894
1943:206550249
1589:135984508
807:titanates
753:In 1967,
525:Corrosion
523:barrier.
377:⟶
372:−
208:⟶
108:excitonic
2806:Glossary
2770:Hydrogen
2500:36068193
2378:29977658
2292:35739758
2103:20665613
2068:20201513
2032:15847520
1935:24233719
1857:19206593
1837:ACS Nano
1822:21568321
1313:See also
1232:atrazine
1214:of both
1135:+ HO + H
958:Hematite
819:band gap
652:spectrum
571:adsorbed
491:hydrogen
467:hydrogen
55:via the
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2793:Vehicle
2788:Storage
2783:Station
2778:Economy
2629:By fuel
2491:9448774
2462:Bibcode
2405:Bibcode
2369:6028155
2264:Bibcode
2010:Bibcode
1915:Bibcode
1907:Science
1880:Bibcode
1802:Bibcode
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1277:History
1153:(e) + O
1131:O â TiO
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2431:S2CID
2296:S2CID
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1939:S2CID
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794:BaTiO
780:SrTiO
477:with
475:anode
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