Hydrogeology - Knowledge (XXG)

371: 140: 1087:). Dispersion in groundwater arises because each water "particle", passing beyond a soil particle, must choose where to go, whether left or right or up or down, so that the water "particles" (and their solute) are gradually spread in all directions around the mean path. This is the "microscopic" mechanism, on the scale of soil particles. More important, over long distances, can be the macroscopic inhomogeneities of the aquifer, which can have regions of larger or smaller permeability, so that some water can find a preferential path in one direction, some other in a different direction, so that the contaminant can be spread in a completely irregular way, like in a (three-dimensional) delta of a river. 1971:

must be constantly checked and it has a slow advance rate. It is not an effective drilling technique for consolidated formations, but does provide a small drilling footprint. Air rotary drilling is cost effective and works well for consolidated formations. It has a fast advance rate, but is not adequate for large diameter wells. Mud rotary drilling is especially cost effective for deep wells. It maintains good alignment, but requires a larger footprint. It has a very fast advance rate. Flooded reverse circulation dual rotary drilling is more expensive, but good for large well designs. It is versatile and maintains alignment. It has a fast advance rate.

2126:, 51% of the drinking water comes from groundwater supplies. Around 99% of the rural population depends on groundwater. In addition, 64% of the total groundwater of the country is used for irrigation, and some of it is used for industrial processes and recharge for lakes and rivers. In 2010, 22 percent of freshwater used in US came from groundwater and the other 78 percent came from surface water. Groundwater is important for some states that don't have access to fresh water. most of the fresh groundwater 65 percent is used for irrigation and the 21 percent is used for public purposes drinking mostly. 446: 183: 1815:

a mesh. In the finite volume method, volume integrals in a partial differential equation that contain a divergence term are converted to surface integrals, using the divergence theorem. These terms are then evaluated as fluxes at the surfaces of each finite volume. Because the flux entering a given volume is identical to that leaving the adjacent volume, these methods are conservative. Another advantage of the finite volume method is that it is easily formulated to allow for unstructured meshes. The method is used in many computational fluid dynamics packages.

663:, and geological formations and deposits. The stratigraphy relates the age and geometry of the many formations that compose the aquifer. The lithology refers to the physical components of an aquifer, such as the mineral composition and grain size. The structural features are the elements that arise due to deformations after deposition, such as fractures and folds. Understanding these aspects is paramount to understanding of how an aquifer is formed and how professionals can utilize it for groundwater engineering. 880: 750: 1861:(AEM) and the Boundary Element Method (BEM), which are closer to analytic solutions, but they do approximate the groundwater flow equation in some way. The BEM and AEM exactly solve the groundwater flow equation (perfect mass balance), while approximating the boundary conditions. These methods are more exact and can be much more elegant solutions (like analytic methods are), but have not seen as widespread use outside academic and research groups yet. 1998:

harmful chemicals can migrate from the garbage and into the surrounding groundwater if the protective base layer is cracked or otherwise damaged. Other chemicals, such as road salts and chemicals used on lawns and farms, can runoff into local reservoirs, and eventually into aquifers. As water goes through the water cycle, contaminants in the atmosphere can contaminate the water. This water can also make its way into groundwater.

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population without access to water. Because of this, a new municipal policy was created which drilled wells to assist those who could not afford to drill wells of their own. Because the city is in charge of drilling the new wells, they can better plan for the future sustainability of the groundwater in the region, by carefully placing the wells and taking growing populations into consideration.

43: 857:) is a measure of permeability that is a property of both the fluid and the porous medium (i.e. the hydraulic conductivity of water and of oil will not be the same even if in the same geologic formation). Transmissivity is the product of hydraulic conductivity and the aquifer thickness (typically used as an indication of the ability of an aquifer to deliver water to a well). 1895: 552: 159: 4056: 167: 631: 2675:. Paper based on: R.J. Oosterbaan, J. Boonstra and K.V.G.K. Rao, 1996, “The energy balance of groundwater flow”. Published in V.P.Singh and B.Kumar (eds.), Subsurface-Water Hydrology, p. 153-160, Vol.2 of Proceedings of the International Conference on Hydrology and Water Resources, New Delhi, India, 1993. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 1185: 194: 2019:, or EPA, have a hard time determining if chemicals used in fracking are present in nearby aquifers. In 2016, the EPA released a report which states that drinking water can be contaminated by fracking. This was a reversal of their previous policies after a $ 29 million study into the effects of fracking on local drinking water. 1275: 2101:

future sustainability of an area, and what changes can be made to ensure stability in the area. This would not be possible without the advancement of technology. As technology continues to progress, the simulations will increase in accuracy and allow for more complex studies and projects in groundwater engineering.

1429:(representing either the physical boundaries of the domain, or an approximation of the domain beyond that point). Often the initial conditions are supplied to a transient simulation, by a corresponding steady-state simulation (where the time derivative in the groundwater flow equation is set equal to 0). 2109:

As populations continue to grow, areas which were using groundwater at a sustainable rate are now beginning to face sustainability issues for the future. Populations of the size currently seen in large cities were not taken into consideration when the long term sustainability of aquifers. These large

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One of the most important aspects of groundwater engineering and hydrogeology is water well design and construction. Proper well design and construction are important to maintain the health of the groundwater and the people which will use the well. Factors which must be considered in well design are:

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The finite volume method is a method for representing and evaluating partial differential equations as algebraic equations. Similar to the finite difference method, values are calculated at discrete places on a meshed geometry. "Finite volume" refers to the small volume surrounding each node point on

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medium and non-uniform velocity distribution relative to seepage velocity). Besides needing to understand where the groundwater is flowing, based on the other hydrologic properties discussed above, there are additional aquifer properties which affect how dissolved contaminants move with groundwater.

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reports, well logs, and cross sections" of the aquifer. This information should be used to determine aquifer properties such as depth, thickness, transmissivity, and well yield. In this stage, the quality of the water in the aquifer should also be determined, and screening should occur to check for

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to the soil, which holds the contaminant back and does not allow it to progress until the quantity corresponding to the chemical adsorption equilibrium has been adsorbed. This effect is particularly important for less soluble contaminants, which thus can move even hundreds or thousands times slower

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California and Washington both require special certification of hydrogeologists to offer professional services to the public. Twenty-nine states require professional licensing for geologists to offer their services to the public, which often includes work within the domains of developing, managing,

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in central California, groundwater was pumped for use in fish farms, which resulted in the death of local meadows and other ecosystems. This resulted in a lawsuit and settlement against the fish companies. Development in southern California is threatening local aquifers, contaminating groundwater

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sees some of the largest controversies in groundwater usage due to the dry conditions California faces, high population, and intensive agriculture. Conflicts generally occur over pumping groundwater and shipping it out of the area, unfair use of water by a commercial company, and contamination of

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system, septic tanks can be used to dispose of waste at a safe rate. If septic tanks are not built or maintained properly, they can leak bacteria, viruses and other chemicals into the surrounding groundwater. Landfills are another potential source of groundwater contamination. As trash is buried,

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There are several methods of drilling which can be used when constructing a water well. They include: "Cable tool, Air rotary, Mud rotary, and Flooded reverse circulation dual rotary" drilling techniques. Cable tool drilling is inexpensive and can be used for all types of wells, but the alignment

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There are three main types of wells, shallow, deep, and artesian. Shallow wells tap into unconfined aquifers, and are, generally, shallow, less than 15 meters deep. Shallow wells have a small diameter, usually less than 15 centimeters. Deep wells access confined aquifers, and are always

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Technological improvements have advanced topographical mapping, and have also improved the quality of lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere simulations. These simulations are useful on their own; however, when used together, they help to give an even more accurate prediction of the

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After factors such as depth and well yield are determined, the well design and drilling approach must be established. Drilling method is selected based on "soil conditions, well depth, design, and costs." At this stage, cost estimates are prepared, and plans are adjusted to meet budgetary needs.

926:≤ porosity) and indicates the amount of water released due to drainage from lowering the water table in an unconfined aquifer. The value for specific yield is less than the value for porosity because some water will remain in the medium even after drainage due to intermolecular forces. Often the 2073:

century. Nineteen of Colorado's 63 counties depend mostly on groundwater for supplies and domestic uses. The Colorado Geological Survey has three significant reports on groundwater in the Denver Basin. The first report Geology of Upper Cretaceous, Paleocene and Eocene Strata in the Southwestern

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Wells are constructed for use in developing nations, as well as for use in developed nations in places which are not connected to a city water system. Wells are designed and maintained to uphold the integrity of the aquifer, and to prevent contaminants from reaching the groundwater. Controversy

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Since the first wells were made thousands of years ago, groundwater systems have been changed by human activity. 50 years ago, the sustainability of these systems on a larger scale began to come into consideration, becoming one of the main focuses of groundwater engineering. New ideas and

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Well screens ensure that only water makes it to the surface, and sediments remain beneath the Earth's surface. Screens are placed along the shaft of the well to filter out sediment as water is pumped towards the surface. Screen design can be impacted by the nature of the soil, and natural pack

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Most of these questions can be addressed through simulation of the hydrologic system (using numerical models or analytic equations). Accurate simulation of the aquifer system requires knowledge of the aquifer properties and boundary conditions. Therefore, a common task of the hydrogeologist is

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In Brazil, overpopulation caused municipally provided water to run low. Due to the shortage of water, people began to drill wells within the range normally served by the municipal water system. This was a solution for people in high socioeconomic standing, but left much of the underprivileged

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New advancements have arisen in topographical mapping to improve sustainability. Topographic mapping has been updated to include radar, which can penetrate the ground to help pinpoint areas of concern. In addition, large computations can use gathered data from maps to further the knowledge of

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was an American scientist who is often called the "father of modern groundwater hydrology". He standardized key terms in the field as well as determined principles regarding occurrence, movement, and discharge. He proved that the flow of water obeys Darcy's law. He also proposed the use of

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Groundwater contamination happens when other fluids seep into the aquifer and mix with existing groundwater. Pesticides, fertilizers, and gasoline are common contaminants of aquifers. Underground storage tanks for chemicals such as gasoline are especially concerning sources of groundwater

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Denver Basin, The second report Bedrock Geology, Structure, and Isopach Maps of the Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene Strata between Greeley and Colorado Springs, The third publication Cross Sections of the Freshwater Bearing Strata of the Denver Basin between Greeley and Colorado Springs.

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Hydrogeology is the study of the laws governing the movement of subterranean water, the mechanical, chemical, and thermal interaction of this water with the porous solid, and the transport of energy, chemical constituents, and particulate matter by flow (Domenico and Schwartz, 1998).

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geophysical methods and recorders on wells, as well as suggested pumping tests to gather quantitative information on the properties of aquifers. Meinzer also highlighted the importance of studying the geochemistry of water, as well as the impact of high salinity levels in aquifers.

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After construction of the well, testing must be done to assess productivity, efficiency and yield of the well, as well as determine the impacts of the well on the aquifer. Several different tests should be completed on the well in order to test all relevant qualities of the well.

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to its input file based interface, and typically incorporating pre- and post-processing of user data. Many other models have been developed to work with MODFLOW input and output, making linked models which simulate several hydrologic processes possible (flow and transport models,

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gets most of its water from underground. Because of this, there have been issues regarding groundwater engineering practices. As many as 65,000 people were affected when high levels of PFCs were found in the Widefield Aquifer. Groundwater use in Colorado dates back to before the

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It is important not to confuse diffusion with dispersion, as the former is a physical phenomenon and the latter is an empirical hydrodynamic factor which is cast into a similar form as diffusion, because its a convenient way to mathematically describe and solve the question.

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Important parts of a well include the well seals, casings or liners, drive shoes, well screen assemblies, and a sand or gravel pack (optional). Each of these components ensures that the well only draws from one aquifer, and no leakage occurs at any stage of the process.

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drilled by machine. All deep wells bring water to the surface using mechanical pumps. In artesian wells, water flows naturally without the use of a pump or some other mechanical device. This is due to the top of the well being located below the water table.

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dispersivity. Because of this, α is often claimed to be dependent on the length scale of the problem — the dispersivity found for transport through 1 m of aquifer is different from that for transport through 1 cm of the same aquifer material.

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Porosity does not directly affect the distribution of hydraulic head in an aquifer, but it has a very strong effect on the migration of dissolved contaminants, since it affects groundwater flow velocities through an inversely proportional relationship.

1079:) is an empirical factor which quantifies how much contaminants stray away from the path of the groundwater which is carrying it. Some of the contaminants will be "behind" or "ahead" the mean groundwater, giving rise to a longitudinal dispersivity (α 1703: 1539:(AEM) and the boundary integral equation method (BIEM — sometimes also called BEM, or Boundary Element Method) are only discretized at boundaries or along flow elements (line sinks, area sources, etc.), the majority of the domain is mesh-free. 3138:, US Filter / Johnson Screens. — Practical book illustrating the actual process of drilling, developing and utilizing water wells, but it is a trade book, so some of the material is slanted towards the products made by Johnson Well Screens. 354:(flow from high pressure to low), often through fractures and conduits in circuitous paths. Taking into account the interplay of the different facets of a multi-component system often requires knowledge in several diverse fields at both the 2110:

population sizes are beginning to stress groundwater supply. This has led to the need for new policies in some urban areas. These are known as proactive land-use management, where cities can move proactively to conserve groundwater.

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One of the main tasks a hydrogeologist typically performs is the prediction of future behavior of an aquifer system, based on analysis of past and present observations. Some hypothetical, but characteristic questions asked would be:

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Finite Element programs are more flexible in design (triangular elements vs. the block elements most finite difference models use) and there are some programs available (SUTRA, a 2D or 3D density-dependent flow model by the USGS;

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is a mechanism for bringing groundwater to the surface by drilling or digging and bringing it up to the surface with a pump or by hand using buckets or similar devices. The first historical instance of water wells was in the

1777:, a commercial modelling environment for subsurface flow, solute and heat transport processes; OpenGeoSys, a scientific open-source project for thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical (THMC) processes in porous and fractured media; 3301:

Chiang, W.-H., Kinzelbach, W., Rausch, R. (1998): Aquifer Simulation Model for WINdows – Groundwater flow and transport modeling, an integrated program. - 137 p., 115 fig., 2 tab., 1 CD-ROM; Berlin, Stuttgart (Borntraeger).

909:), are indirect aquifer properties (they cannot be measured directly); they indicate the amount of groundwater released from storage due to a unit depressurization of a confined aquifer. They are fractions between 0 and 1. 370: 824:) is also a directly measurable property; it is the fraction of the total rock which is filled with liquid water. This is also a fraction between 0 and 1, but it must also be less than or equal to the total porosity. 1324:

is a solution to the steady state groundwater flow equation (Laplace's Equation) for flow to a well. Unless there are large sources of water nearby (a river or lake), true steady-state is rarely achieved in reality.

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is one of the most commonly used and fundamental solutions to the groundwater flow equation; it can be used to predict the transient evolution of head due to the effects of pumping one or a number of pumping wells.

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was a French scientist who made advances in flow of fluids through porous materials. He conducted experiments which studied the movement of fluids through sand columns. These experiments led to the determination of

1132:), but, as the time necessary to cover a distance by diffusion is proportional to the square of the distance itself, it is less effective for spreading a solute over macroscopic distances on a short time scale. The 617:

aquifers), and either saturated or unsaturated; the type of aquifer affects what properties control the flow of water in that medium (e.g., the release of water from storage for confined aquifers is related to the

2358: 1567:). This results in a system which overall approximates the groundwater flow equation, but exactly matches the boundary conditions (the head or flux is specified in the elements which intersect the boundaries). 1785:

an easy to use MATLAB simulation toolbox, and Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM), but they are still not as popular in with practicing hydrogeologists as MODFLOW is. Finite element models are more popular in

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groundwater aquifers in recent years. This has made highly complex and individualized water cycle models possible, which has helped to make groundwater sustainability more applicable to specific situations.

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than water. The effect of this phenomenon is that only more soluble species can cover long distances. The retardation factor depends on the chemical nature of both the contaminant and the aquifer.

1559:, etc.) and solving the flow equation for each element (all material properties are assumed constant or possibly linearly variable within an element), then linking together all the elements using 1818:

PORFLOW software package is a comprehensive mathematical model for simulation of Ground Water Flow and Nuclear Waste Management developed by Analytic & Computational Research, Inc., ACRi.

1716:). The similar backwards difference is only conditionally stable, but it is explicit and can be used to "march" forward in the time direction, solving one grid node at a time (or possibly in 1829:. This versatile porous flow simulator includes capabilities to model multiphase, thermal, stress, and multicomponent reactive chemistry. Current work using this code includes simulation of 1516:

schemes still in use today, but they were calculated by hand, using paper and pencil, by human "calculators"), but they have become very important through the availability of fast and cheap

1128:, that describes the random thermal movement of molecules and small particles in gases and liquids. It is an important phenomenon for small distances (it is essential for the achievement of 2651: 716:

casing). Commonly, in wells tapping unconfined aquifers the water level in a well is used as a proxy for hydraulic head, assuming there is no vertical gradient of pressure. Often only

3209:. Written by practicing hydrogeologists, this inclusive handbook provides a concise, easy-to-use reference for hydrologic terms, equations, pertinent physical parameters, and acronyms 2702:

Subsurface drainage by (tube)wells: Well spacing equations for fully and partially penetrating wells in uniform or layered aquifers with or without anisotropy and entrance resistance

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The groundwater flow equation, in its most general form, describes the movement of groundwater in a porous medium (aquifers and aquitards). It is known in mathematics as the

1589:). For example, the first-order time derivative is often approximated using the following forward finite difference, where the subscripts indicate a discrete time location, 648:

is a collection of water underneath the surface, large enough to be useful in a spring or a well. Aquifers can be unconfined, where the top of the aquifer is defined by the

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particles or within a fractured rock. Typically, the majority of groundwater (and anything dissolved in it) moves through the porosity available to flow (sometimes called

3452:, CRC Press. — Great explanation of mathematical methods used in deriving solutions to hydrogeology problems (solute transport, finite element and inverse problems too). 1595: 2355: 1159:

The retardation factor is another very important feature that make the motion of the contaminant to deviate from the average groundwater motion. It is analogous to the

3166:, Academic Press, Inc., Orlando Florida. — Classic book intended for engineers with mathematical background but it can be read by hydrologists and geologists as well. 865:) is a property of the porous medium alone, and does not change with different fulids (e.g. different density or viscosity; it is used more in the petroleum industry. 3124:

Second Edition, Wiley. — Good book for consultants, it has many real-world examples and covers additional topics (e.g. heat flow, multi-phase and unsaturated flow).

390:(typically less than 450 meters below the land surface). The very shallow flow of water in the subsurface (the upper 3 m) is pertinent to the fields of 2278: 2048:

would allegedly threaten the ecosystem of bird and wildlife species because of its use of up to 1.3 million cubic meters of groundwater, which could impact

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The forward finite difference approximation is unconditionally stable, but leads to an implicit set of equations (that must be solved using matrix methods, e.g.

2016: 990:(Oil and Gas). As fault zone is a zone of weakness that helps to increase the weathered zone thickness and hence the help in ground water recharge. Along with 2704:, 9 pp. Principles used in the "WellDrain" model. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line: 1460:

to arrive at a simple, elegant solution, but the required derivation for all but the simplest domain geometries can be quite complex (involving non-standard

982:. This is because different mechanism and deformed rocks can alter the porosity and hence the permeability within fault zone. Fluids involved generally are 4094: 302:

arises in the use of groundwater when its usage impacts surface water systems, or when human activity threatens the integrity of the local aquifer system.

3287:, Academic Press. — Updates the 1st edition with new examples, new material with respect to model calibration and uncertainty, and online Python scripts ( 681:) cause water to move from one place to another; water flows from locations of high h to locations of low h. Hydraulic head is composed of pressure head ( 1205:, which describes fluid flow through a medium with high levels of porosity. Darcy's work is considered to be the beginning of quantitative hydrogeology. 1993:

contamination. As these tanks corrode, they can leak, and their contents can contaminate nearby groundwater. For buildings which are not connected to a

1520:. A quick survey of the main numerical methods used in hydrogeology, and some of the most basic principles are shown below and further discussed in the 2652:

http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX2830902895&v=2.1&u=nclivensu&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=88753af7557df17de94c1979354d8c74

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is commonly applied to study the movement of water, or other fluids through porous media, and constitutes the basis for many hydrogeological analyses.

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methods solve the groundwater flow equation by breaking the problem area (domain) into many small elements (squares, rectangles, triangles, blocks,

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ruled poor groundwater regulations have allowed pumping to diminish the flows in the Scott River and disturbed the natural habitat of salmon. In

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Perlman, Howard, and USGS. “Groundwater Use in the United States.” Groundwater Use, the USGS Water Science School, water.usgs.gov/edu/wugw.html.

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Foster, Stephen D; Hirata, Ricardo; Howard, Ken W. F (2010). "Groundwater use in developing cities: Policy issues arising from current trends".

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methods, or something possibly in between. Typically, analytic methods solve the groundwater flow equation under a simplified set of conditions

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Solute Transport Modelling – An Introduction to Models and Solution Strategies. - 205 p., 66 fig., 11 tab.; Berlin, Stuttgart (Borntraeger).

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some primary and derived physical properties are introduced below. Aquifers are broadly classified as being either confined or unconfined (

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To use the groundwater flow equation to estimate the distribution of hydraulic heads, or the direction and rate of groundwater flow, this

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aspects of hydrogeology (the processes are uncoupled). As the field of hydrogeology matures, the strong interactions between groundwater,

768:) is a directly measurable aquifer property; it is a fraction between 0 and 1 indicating the amount of pore space between unconsolidated 2241: 1527:

There are two broad categories of numerical methods: gridded or discretized methods and non-gridded or mesh-free methods. In the common

1140:, is typically quite small, and its effect can often be neglected (unless groundwater flow velocities are extremely low, as they are in 3009:

Chaminé, Helder I (2015). "Water resources meet sustainability: New trends in environmental hydrogeology and groundwater engineering".

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The energy balance of groundwater flow applied to subsurface drainage in anisotropic soils by pipes or ditches with entrance resistance

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http://www.hwe.org.ps/Education/Birzeit/GroundwaterEngineering/Chapter%204%20-%20Groundwater%20Potential%20and%20Discharge%20Areas.pdf

2306: 346:. The study of the interaction between groundwater movement and geology can be quite complex. Groundwater does not always follow the 3615: 3471: 3457: 3442: 3434: 3416: 3394: 3364: 3344: 3329: 3317: 3307: 3275: 3249: 3235: 3221: 3206: 3188: 3171: 3157: 3143: 3129: 1934:

There are five main areas to be considered when planning and constructing a new water well, along with the factors above. They are:

1468:, etc.). Analytic solutions typically are also simply an equation that can give a quick answer based on a few basic parameters. The 126: 3466:, George Allen and Unwin, London. — Book on BIEM (sometimes called BEM) with examples, it makes a good introduction to the method. 186: 4087: 1371:(PDE) must be solved. The most common means of analytically solving the diffusion equation in the hydrogeology literature are: 1094:

about the system we are simulating. There are many small details about the aquifer which are effectively averaged when using a

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equations, which have applications in many diverse fields. Steady groundwater flow (Laplace equation) has been simulated using

3560:— a series of instructional manuals covering common procedures in hydrogeology. They are freely available online as PDF files. 2015:

are not tested by government agencies responsible for determining the effects of fracking on groundwater, laboratories at the

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research are advancing groundwater engineering into the 21st century, while still considering groundwater conservation.

1826: 64: 1720:, since one node depends only on its immediate neighbors). Rather than the finite difference method, sometimes the Galerkin 1286:, and has many analogs in other fields. Many solutions for groundwater flow problems were borrowed or adapted from existing 696:

Hydraulic head is a directly measurable property that can take on any value (because of the arbitrary datum involved in the

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levels. The following is a more traditional introduction to the methods and nomenclature of saturated subsurface hydrology.

3573:— an educational repository of groundwater modeling software which offers support for most software, some of which is free. 107: 4219: 4134: 3270:, Academic Press. — An introduction to groundwater modeling, a little bit old, but the methods are still very applicable. 2477:"Structural controls on bedrock weathering in crystalline basement terranes and its implications on groundwater resources" 1368: 1340: 975: 60: 3550:— a good place to find free data (for both US surface water and groundwater) and free groundwater modeling software like 79: 3349:

Wang H. F., Theory of Linear Poroelasticity with Applications to Geomechanics and Hydrogeology, Princeton Press, (2000).

2953: 182: 3686: 2938: 2668: 3579:— a video collection of interviews of eminent hydrogeologists who have made a material difference to the profession. 1845:, migration of both nuclear and chemical contaminants, environmental isotope migration in the unsaturated zone, and 86: 4170: 4080: 3312:

Elango, L and Jayakumar, R (Eds.)(2001) Modelling in Hydrogeology, UNESCO-IHP Publication, Allied Publ., Chennai,

2665:. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line : 2147: 2854: 1083:), and some will be "to the sides of" the pure advective groundwater flow, leading to a transverse dispersivity (α 53: 4250: 3653: 2593:; Welty, Claire; Rehfeldt, R. Kenneth (1992). "A critical review of data on field-scale dispersion in aquifers". 2135: 2036: 1473: 1418: 1269: 1129: 1748: 1747:

developed, documented and distributed by the USGS. Many commercial products have grown up around it, providing

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contaminants around (the sub-field of contaminant hydrogeology). The contaminants which are man-made (e.g.,

953: 1167:. Unlike diffusion and dispersion, which simply spread the contaminant, the retardation factor changes its 780:

is an expression of the connectedness of the pores. For instance, an unfractured rock unit may have a high

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less than unity); many of the empirically derived laws of groundwater flow can be alternately derived in

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Matlock, Dan. 'Fundamentals of Water Well Design, Construction and Testing.' Pacific Groundwater Group.

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function of water content; this complicates the solution of the unsaturated groundwater flow equation.

2968: 2411:"Modeling a Large-Scale Historic Aquifer Test: Insight into the Hydrogeology of a Regional Fault Zone" 1739:

is a well-known example of a general finite difference groundwater flow model. It is developed by the

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Contamination of groundwater due to fracking has long been debated. Since chemicals commonly used in

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and a conservation of mass for a small control volume. The equation is often used to predict flow to

1213: 858: 732: 532: 486: 4060: 2884: 2279:"10 TPG • JAN/FEB 2012 www.aipg.org What Geology Students Need To Know About Professional Licensure" 1698:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial h}{\partial t}}=h'(t_{i})\approx {\frac {h_{i}-h_{i-1}}{\Delta t}}.} 958:

Fault zone hydrogeology is the study of how brittlely deformed rocks alter fluid flows in different

4072: 4010: 3974: 3944: 3691: 3643: 2548:, Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 193–217, 1778: 1426: 1406: 999: 311: 3090: 2374:

Bense, V.F.; Gleeson, T.; Loveless, S.E.; Bour, O.; Scibek, J. (2013). "Fault zone hydrogeology".

1171:, so that it can be much slower than that of water. This is due to a chemico-physical effect: the 879: 268:, and hydrogeology are often used interchangeably, though hydrogeology is the most commonly used. 3964: 3903: 3855: 3781: 3742: 3673: 3648: 3638: 3505: 3069: 3034: 2567: 2454: 2191: 1717: 1570: 1564: 1493: 1437: 1283: 1160: 773: 758: 754: 569: 474: 347: 200: 1760:

models and chemical reaction models), because of the simple, well documented nature of MODFLOW.

1098:

approach (e.g., tiny beds of gravel and clay in sand aquifers); these manifest themselves as an

720:

in hydraulic head through time are needed, so the constant elevation head term can be left out (

4265: 3954: 3908: 3870: 3467: 3453: 3438: 3430: 3412: 3404: 3390: 3378: 3360: 3340: 3325: 3313: 3303: 3292: 3271: 3245: 3231: 3217: 3202: 3184: 3167: 3153: 3139: 3125: 2853:"Introduction to Ground Water Extraction Technologies: Borehole, Shallow Well, and Tube Well" 2836: 2770: 2676: 2557: 2522: 2504: 2446: 2438: 2261: 2173: 1834: 1830: 1770: 1548: 1528: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1465: 1383: 1375: 1348: 1336: 1302: 419: 411: 399: 351: 147: 3216:

Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons. — Case studies and real-world problems with examples.

2410: 2238: 731:

or, the changes in hydraulic head recorded during the pumping of a well in a test are called

4214: 4129: 4048: 3969: 3939: 3865: 3850: 3760: 3601: 3497: 3280: 3263: 3180:

Springs and bottled water of the world: Ancient history, source, occurrence, quality and use

3061: 3026: 2826: 2816: 2610: 2549: 2512: 2496: 2430: 2391: 1709: 1379: 891: 874: 689:). The head gradient is the change in hydraulic head per length of flowpath, and appears in 478: 2632: 2475:

Pradhan, Rudra Mohan; Singh, Anand; Ojha, Arun Kumar; Biswal, Tapas Kumar (December 2022).

504:

Traditionally, the movement of groundwater has been studied separately from surface water,

3989: 3791: 3765: 3712: 3570: 3352:

Waltham T., Foundations of Engineering Geology, 2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis, (2001).

2992: 2981:

https://www.denverpost.com/2017/09/17/colorado-state-limit-pfcs-contamination-groundwater/

2795:

Tegel, Willy; Elburg, Rengert; Hakelberg, Dietrich; Stäuble, Harald; Büntgen, Ulf (2012).

2672: 2639: 2362: 2245: 2209: 2162: 2157: 2032: 1535:(FEM) the domain is completely gridded ("cut" into a grid or mesh of small elements). The 1278:

Geometry of a partially penetrating well drainage system in an anisotropic layered aquifer

1125: 1121: 995: 991: 979: 490: 431: 427: 375: 253: 100: 3288: 2686:. The corresponding free computer program EnDrain can be downloaded from web page : 3493: 3022: 2812: 2606: 2541: 2492: 2426: 2387: 708:(this value can be negative, e.g., suction, but is positive in saturated aquifers), and 30:

This article is about subterranean hydrology. For the rest of the hydrologic cycle, see

4284: 4245: 4204: 4119: 4036: 3984: 3918: 3880: 3875: 3827: 3707: 2831: 2796: 2517: 2476: 1552: 1294: 1253: 1231: 1202: 1164: 971: 803: 690: 672: 470: 454: 343: 249: 3480:

Fitts, C. R (2010). "Modeling aquifer systems with analytic elements and subdomains".

1794:

environments, where specialized models solve non-standard forms of the flow equation (

4298: 4229: 4144: 4015: 3796: 3732: 3681: 3509: 3426: 3073: 3038: 2954:

https://www.apmreports.org/story/2016/12/13/epa-fracking-contamination-drinking-water

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approximation is used in space (this is different from the type of FEM often used in

1586: 1344: 1287: 1039: 815: 556: 498: 497:

in a solid, therefore some solutions to hydrological problems have been adapted from

387: 383: 295: 291: 17: 2395: 2188:

is a spatial agro-hydro-salinity model with groundwater flow in a polygonal network;

1010: 4279: 4260: 4255: 4031: 3898: 3755: 3750: 3717: 3663: 3152:, Prentice-Hall. — A classic text; like an older version of Domenico and Schwartz. 2939:

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fracking-can-contaminate-drinking-water/

2040: 1954:

Aquifer suitability starts with determining possible locations for the well using "

1477: 1469: 1394: 1329: 1321: 1313: 967: 963: 656: 603: 593:

Will the plume of effluent leaving my neighbor's septic system flow to my drinking

587: 540: 536: 517: 509: 407: 391: 3544:— the maximum contaminant levels (mcl) for dissolved species in US drinking water. 2869: 3385:, Academic Press. — An introduction to analytic solution methods, especially the 3178: 2821: 2553: 1743:

as a modular and extensible simulation tool for modeling groundwater flow. It is

1585:), and the finite difference methods are based on these (they are derived from a 930:

or effective porosity is used as an upper bound to the specific yield. Typically

3979: 3845: 3801: 3786: 2590: 2205: 2201: 2049: 2044:

through construction and normal human activity. For example, a solar project in

1795: 1757: 1556: 1497: 1457: 1245: 1241: 1197: 1095: 983: 884: 828: 649: 619: 614: 505: 458: 435: 395: 319: 279: 241: 42: 2855:

http://www.wateringmalawi.org/Watering_Malawi/Resources_files/Boreholewells.pdf

2500: 1393:

similarity transform (also called the Boltzmann transform) is commonly how the

1359: 290:, and drains. The main concerns in groundwater engineering include groundwater 3959: 3934: 3913: 3890: 3817: 3722: 3065: 3030: 2027: 1870: 1791: 1787: 1461: 1298: 1172: 1023: 728: 713: 705: 594: 580: 482: 450: 415: 355: 2508: 2442: 4005: 3860: 3727: 2705: 2176:

is often used to understand sources and travel times in groundwater systems;

1894: 1481: 1409:, which is another common method for deriving the Theis solution — from the 1387: 1117: 1112: 1055: 1051: 987: 959: 836: 660: 551: 423: 339: 315: 158: 31: 2840: 2684: 2666: 2526: 2450: 166: 469:

relationships used to describe the flow of water through porous media are

4224: 4139: 3501: 2797:"Early Neolithic Water Wells Reveal the World's Oldest Wood Architecture" 2185: 2065: 1505: 1301:, which have radial symmetry, so the flow equation is commonly solved in 1144: 1059: 1047: 1035: 1015: 927: 744: 610: 439: 208: 175: 2951:

EPA reverses course, highlights fracking contamination of drinking water

2711: 2708: 2687: 1432:

There are two broad categories of how the (PDE) would be solved; either

1184: 4195: 4104: 3837: 3624: 3551: 3408: 2722: 2690: 2434: 2141: 1879: 1799: 1736: 1501: 1444:, while numerical methods solve it under more general conditions to an 1274: 1249: 1188:

Henry Darcy, whose work set the foundation of quantitative hydrogeology

1043: 1031: 712:

can be measured relative to a surveyed datum (typically the top of the

645: 639: 630: 521: 493:

analogies. Transient groundwater flow is analogous to the diffusion of

323: 257: 237: 193: 2924:

http://www.groundwater.org/get-informed/groundwater/contamination.html

2614: 622:, while it is related to the specific yield for unconfined aquifers). 2979:"Colorado mulls state limit for groundwater contamination from PFCs" 1899: 1774: 1022:

Often we are interested in how the moving groundwater will transport

793: 359: 3557: 2328: 792:(none of the pores are connected). An example of this phenomenon is 652:, or confined, where the aquifer exists underneath a confining bed. 414:

fluids, etc.) in deeper formations is also a concern of geologists,

2969:

http://waterinthewest.stanford.edu/groundwater/conflicts/index.html

1903: 1893: 1846: 1472:

is a very simple (yet still very useful) analytic solution to the

1358: 1183: 1054:(transport along the main direction of flow at seepage velocity), 1014:

Transport and fate of radioactive contaminants in pore water in a

1009: 878: 748: 629: 576: 513: 403: 386:

dealing with the flow of water through aquifers and other shallow

335: 327: 233: 212: 204: 197: 151: 3535: 2885:

https://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$ department/deptdocs.nsf/all/wwg408

2409:

Hadley, Daniel R.; Abrams, Daniel B.; Roadcap, George S. (2020).

796:, which, when in its unfractured state, can make a poor aquifer. 3576: 3541: 3529: 1955: 1822: 1504:

in general. Numerical methods have been around much longer than

1141: 1027: 769: 590:

facility travel through the aquifer to my well and make me sick?

494: 466: 331: 287: 283: 245: 4159: 4155: 4076: 3597: 3091:

http://www.groundwater.org/get-informed/basics/groundwater.html

2307:"Rising sea levels attributed to global groundwater extraction" 3164:

Quantitative Hydrogeology: Groundwater Hydrology for Engineers

1002:

also facilitate the groundwater mainly in hard rock terrains.

36: 655:

There are three aspects that control the nature of aquifers:

3563: 2744: 3587: 3583:

IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre

3464:

The Boundary Integral Equation Method for Porous Media Flow

2182:

is considered the "father of modern groundwater hydrology";

1563:

across the boundaries between the elements (similar to the

282:

which is concerned with groundwater movement and design of

3593: 3590:— For information on OCONUS surface water and groundwater. 3547: 3337:

Groundwater Hydrology: Conceptual and Computational Models

2949:

Scheck, Tom and Tong, Scott. APM Reports (December 2016).

2934:

Vaidyanathan, Gayathri. Scientific American (April 2016).

2880:

Sutton, Deb. Alberta Agriculture and Forestry (May 2017).

2707:. Free download "WellDrain" software from web page : 2239:

https://ceg.osu.edu/courses/groundwater-engineering-5240-0

2234:

The Ohio State University, College of Engineering (2018).

978:, can be facilitated or impeded due to the existence of a 2991:“Groundwater.” Colorado Geological Survey, 5 March 2018, 2150:: groundwater flow equations based on the energy balance; 1496:

is quite large, obviously being of use to most fields of

1403:, which is more useful for non-Cartesian coordinates, and 1351:

for which groundwater flow equations are also available.

1347:

or ditches. An alternative subsurface drainage method is

1252:

is proportional to the cross-sectional area of flow, the

3582: 2633:

https://bae.okstate.edu/faculty-sites/Darcy/1pagebio.htm

3322:

Rausch, R., Schäfer W., Therrien, R., Wagner, C., 2005

3194:

Good, accessible overview of hydrogeological processes.

2993:

https://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/water/groundwater/

1915:

A reliable aquifer, providing a continuous water supply

1090:

Dispersivity is actually a factor which represents our

727:

A record of hydraulic head through time at a well is a

144: 3289:

https://github.com/Applied-Groundwater-Modeling-2nd-Ed

3283:, Woessner, William W., & Hunt, Randall J., 2015, 314:

subject; it can be difficult to account fully for the

1598: 1050:), can be transported through three main mechanisms, 27:

Study of the distribution and movement of groundwater

3526:— worldwide association for groundwater specialists. 901:) and its depth-integrated equivalent, storativity ( 143:

Boy drinks from a tap at a NEWAH WASH water project

4238: 4193: 3998: 3927: 3889: 3836: 3810: 3774: 3741: 3700: 3672: 3631: 3523: 3177:LaMoreaux, Philip E.; Tanner, Judy T, eds. (2001), 2212:

are larger concepts which hydrogeology is a part of

2198:

are subjects the hydrogeologist is concerned about;

67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3564:International Ground Water Modeling Center (IGWMC) 3462:Liggett, James A. & Liu, Phillip .L-F., 1983. 3197:Porges, Robert E. & Hammer, Matthew J., 2001. 2078:New trends in groundwater engineering/hydrogeology 1983:Issues in groundwater engineering and hydrogeology 1697: 1421:, we need both initial conditions (heads at time ( 402:, as well as to hydrogeology. The general flow of 382:Hydrogeology, as stated above, is a branch of the 3425:, Developments in Water Science; 10. Elsevier. - 3183:, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag, 2967:"Groundwater, Rivers, Ecosystems, and Conflicts" 2542:"Mechanisms of Contaminant Transport in Aquifers" 240:that deals with the distribution and movement of 2165:: field integrating hydrogeology with geophysics 1456:Analytic methods typically use the structure of 1293:It is often derived from a physical basis using 543:may be a contributing factor to sea-level rise. 278:, another name for hydrogeology, is a branch of 2870:http://groundwater.ucdavis.edu/files/156563.pdf 2540:Sethi, Rajandrea; Di Molfetta, Antonio (2019), 2470: 2468: 2156:: field specifically analyzing hydrogeology in 3407:view on groundwater; includes a great deal on 2906: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2767:Finite Volume Methods for Hyperbolic Problems, 2118:Dependency on groundwater in the United States 1781:(a commercial general modelling environment), 1728:) with finite differences still used in time. 1476:, typically used to analyze the results of an 609:In order to further characterize aquifers and 4171: 4088: 3609: 3548:US Geological Survey water resources homepage 3383:Analytic Element Modeling of Groundwater Flow 2747:. Helmholtz centre for environmental research 2725:. Helmholtz centre for environmental research 2351:Birzeit University, Groundwater Engineering. 2286:American Institute of Professional Geologists 2017:United States Environmental Protection Agency 974:. Fluid movements, that can be quantified as 883:Illustration of seasonal fluctuations in the 8: 3524:International Association of Hydrogeologists 3004: 3002: 3000: 1975:designs can be used to maximize efficiency. 1120:is a fundamental physical phenomenon, which 2138:is a broad category hydrogeology fits into; 2052:. In September 2014, California passed the 1417:No matter which method we use to solve the 788:between its constituent grains), but a low 4178: 4164: 4156: 4095: 4081: 4073: 3616: 3602: 3594: 2144:is an analysis tool for steady-state flow; 1339:is a groundwater flow equation applied to 528:and/or remediating groundwater resources. 3285:Applied Groundwater Modeling, 2nd Edition 3120:Domenico, P.A. & Schwartz, W., 1998. 2830: 2820: 2769:Cambridge University Press, Aug 26, 2002 2516: 2353:Groundwater potential and Discharge Areas 1918:The quality of the accessible groundwater 1857:These include mesh-free methods like the 1669: 1656: 1649: 1637: 1599: 1597: 1244:in 1856, which states that the amount of 127:Learn how and when to remove this message 2031:groundwater by development projects. In 1825:software package is available free from 1413:to the diffusion equation in free space. 1273: 693:as being proportional to the discharge. 550: 444: 369: 366:Hydrogeology in relation to other fields 192: 181: 165: 157: 138: 3359:Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons. 3148:Freeze, R.A. & Cherry, J.A., 1979. 2963: 2961: 2227: 1773:, a commercial unsaturated flow model; 1732:Application of finite difference models 1248:discharging through a given portion of 827:The water content is very important in 3357:Applied Contaminant Transport Modeling 2882:Design and Construction of Water Wells 2865:Harter, Thomas. ANR Publication 8086. 2329:"NCDEQ-DWR :: Basic Hydrogeology" 2258:Principles of Groundwater Engineering, 2064:Due to its arid climate, the state of 2054:Sustainable Groundwater Management Act 3538:— Groundwater Education and Research. 3355:Zheng, C., and Bennett, G.D., 2002, 3201:, National Ground Water Association, 1573:are a way of representing continuous 1543:General properties of gridded methods 602:determining aquifer properties using 7: 2936:Fracking can contaminate groundwater 2256:Walton, William C. (November 1990). 1764:Application of finite element models 1386:transforms (to reduce the number of 65:adding citations to reliable sources 4055: 3450:Applied Mathematics in Hydrogeology 1930:Any prior drilling into the aquifer 1810:Application of finite volume models 937:is orders of magnitude larger than 919:) is also a ratio between 0 and 1 ( 869:Specific storage and specific yield 3122:Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology 2867:Water Well Design and Construction 1947:Well Screen Design and Development 1890:Water well design and construction 1683: 1610: 1602: 1363:Relative groundwater travel times. 1209:Oscar Edward Meinzer: 20th century 25: 3266:& Woessner, William W., 1992 1328:Both above equations are used in 579:dry up if the farmer doubles his 4278: 4054: 4043: 4042: 4030: 3662: 3244:Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall. 3230:Second Edition, Prentice Hall. 1042:) or naturally occurring (e.g., 1006:Contaminant transport properties 704:can be measured with a pressure 568:Can the aquifer support another 453:is a device used to measure the 422:. Groundwater is a slow-moving, 294:, conservation of supplies, and 41: 3577:The Hydrogeologist Time Capsule 3558:US Geological Survey TWRI index 3086:Groundwater Foundation (2018). 2919:Groundwater Foundation (2018). 2396:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.09.008 2236:Groundwater Engineering (5240). 1355:Calculation of groundwater flow 677:Differences in hydraulic head ( 52:needs additional citations for 3536:Centre for Groundwater Studies 3257:Numerical groundwater modeling 3199:The Compendium of Hydrogeology 1878:century BC in modern-day 1827:Los Alamos National Laboratory 1643: 1630: 986:(fresh and marine waters) and 442:terms, but no inertial term). 1: 3372:Analytic groundwater modeling 1806:and groundwater flow, etc.). 1369:partial differential equation 634:Typical aquifer cross-section 3542:EPA drinking water standards 3268:Applied Groundwater Modeling 3011:Environmental Earth Sciences 2822:10.1371/journal.pone.0051374 2554:10.1007/978-3-030-20516-4_10 2035:in northern California, the 1071:Hydrodynamic dispersivity (α 508:, and even the chemical and 3687:Geological history of Earth 3339:. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. 2765:LeVeque, Randall J., 2002, 1941:"Well Design Considerations 1924:Operating costs of the well 586:Did the chemicals from the 4321: 3660: 3134:Driscoll, Fletcher, 1986. 2501:10.1038/s41598-022-15889-x 2148:Groundwater energy balance 1927:Expected yield of the well 1577:using discrete intervals ( 1267: 1229: 1110: 951: 872: 846: 813: 742: 670: 637: 520:, soil moisture, and even 187:Demänovská Cave of Liberty 29: 4274: 4251:Groundwater flow equation 4115: 4024: 3701:Composition and structure 3654:Index of geology articles 3588:US Army Geospatial Center 3212:Todd, David Keith, 1980. 3066:10.1007/s10040-010-0681-2 3031:10.1007/s12665-014-3986-y 2921:Groundwater Contamination 2136:Environmental engineering 2037:California Superior Court 1749:graphical user interfaces 1474:groundwater flow equation 1419:groundwater flow equation 1270:Groundwater flow equation 1264:Groundwater flow equation 1240:, empirically derived by 1193:Henry Darcy: 19th century 1155:Retardation by adsorption 524:are becoming more clear. 434:from the special case of 232:meaning the study of the 170:Boy under a waterfall in 3482:Water Resources Research 3228:Contaminant Hydrogeology 2650:"Meinzer, Oscar Edward" 2595:Water Resources Research 1802:dependent flow, coupled 1130:thermodynamic equilibria 853:Hydraulic conductivity ( 3532:— Groundwater in the UK 3448:Lee, Tien-Chang, 1999. 3401:Groundwater and seepage 3399:Harr, Milton E., 1962. 3387:Analytic element method 2629:Henry Darcy and His Law 2546:Groundwater Engineering 2309:. University of Utrecht 2169:Hydrology (agriculture) 2154:Fault zone hydrogeology 1921:How to monitor the well 1859:Analytic Element Method 1537:analytic element method 1401:separation of variables 1307:cylindrical coordinates 1180:History and development 1169:global average velocity 1067:Hydrodynamic dispersion 954:Fault zone hydrogeology 948:Fault zone hydrogeology 276:Groundwater engineering 4210:hydraulic conductivity 4125:hydraulic conductivity 3421:Kovacs, Gyorgy, 1981. 3162:de Marsily, G., 1986. 2096:The role of technology 1907: 1726:structural engineering 1714:Cholesky decomposition 1699: 1575:differential operators 1512:developed some of the 1364: 1279: 1258:hydraulic conductivity 1189: 1019: 888: 859:Intrinsic permeability 849:Hydraulic conductivity 843:Hydraulic conductivity 833:hydraulic conductivity 761: 685:) and elevation head ( 635: 560: 462: 379: 350:; groundwater follows 218: 190: 179: 172:Phu Sang National Park 163: 155: 3950:Environmental geology 3335:Rushton, K.R., 2003, 3214:Groundwater Hydrology 3136:Groundwater and Wells 2376:Earth-Science Reviews 2087:Topographical mapping 2046:San Bernardino County 1944:Well Drilling Methods 1897: 1700: 1547:Gridded Methods like 1533:finite element method 1362: 1277: 1238:constitutive equation 1187: 1134:diffusion coefficient 1013: 960:lithological settings 882: 831:hydrology, where the 752: 633: 554: 531:For example: aquifer 448: 373: 330:interactions between 262:groundwater hydrology 196: 185: 169: 161: 142: 18:Groundwater hydrology 3909:Planetary geophysics 3530:UK Groundwater Forum 3502:10.1029/2009WR008331 3242:Applied Hydrogeology 3114:General hydrogeology 3088:What is groundwater? 3054:Hydrogeology Journal 2745:"OpenGeoSys Website" 2216:Coastal hydrogeology 2196:water supply network 2180:Oscar Edward Meinzer 2013:hydraulic fracturing 1995:wastewater treatment 1843:oil shale extraction 1783:FEATool Multiphysics 1741:US Geological Survey 1596: 1561:conservation of mass 1411:fundamental solution 1214:Oscar Edward Meinzer 420:petroleum geologists 61:improve this article 4239:Governing equations 4107:properties used in 4011:Petroleum geologist 3975:Forensic geophysics 3945:Engineering geology 3692:Timeline of geology 3644:Glossary of geology 3494:2010WRR....46.7521F 3023:2015EES....73.2513C 2813:2012PLoSO...751374T 2631:September 3, 2003. 2607:1992WRR....28.1955G 2493:2022NatSR..1211815P 2427:2020GrWat..58..453H 2388:2013ESRv..127..171B 2105:Growing populations 1938:Aquifer Suitability 1779:COMSOL Multiphysics 1508:have (In the 1920s 1427:boundary conditions 1341:subsurface drainage 1225: 1221:Governing equations 1107:Molecular diffusion 1092:lack of information 539:and the pumping of 310:Hydrogeology is an 228:meaning water, and 146:in Puware Shikhar, 4285:Geology portal 4266:Hooghoudt equation 4037:Geology portal 3965:Geologic modelling 3904:Geophysical survey 3856:Geodetic astronomy 3782:Structural geology 3743:Historical geology 3674:History of geology 3649:History of geology 3639:Outline of geology 3569:2008-12-09 at the 3403:, Dover. — a more 2671:2009-02-19 at the 2638:2018-04-16 at the 2481:Scientific Reports 2435:10.1111/gwat.12922 2361:2018-12-22 at the 2244:2019-01-29 at the 2192:Spring (hydrology) 1908: 1695: 1571:Finite differences 1565:divergence theorem 1518:personal computers 1365: 1337:Hooghoudt equation 1284:diffusion equation 1280: 1254:hydraulic gradient 1190: 1161:retardation factor 1028:petroleum products 1020: 889: 774:effective porosity 762: 636: 561: 463: 380: 352:pressure gradients 348:surface topography 219: 191: 180: 164: 156: 4292: 4291: 4153: 4152: 4070: 4069: 3955:Planetary geology 3871:Planetary geodesy 3427:Conformal mapping 3423:Seepage Hydaulics 3405:civil engineering 3379:Haitjema, Henk M. 3297:978-0-12-058103-0 3281:Anderson, Mary P. 3264:Anderson, Mary P. 2710:, or from : 2689:, or from : 2683:. On line : 2681:978-0-7923-3651-8 2615:10.1029/92WR00607 2563:978-3-030-20514-0 2266:978-0-873-71283-5 2260:p. 1. CRC Press. 2174:Isotope hydrology 1690: 1617: 1549:finite difference 1529:finite difference 1522:Groundwater model 1514:finite difference 1494:numerical methods 1488:Numerical methods 1466:conformal mapping 1407:Green's functions 1349:drainage by wells 1236:Darcy's law is a 1124:characterized as 400:civil engineering 312:interdisciplinary 236:) is the area of 148:Udayapur District 137: 136: 129: 111: 16:(Redirected from 4312: 4283: 4282: 4180: 4173: 4166: 4157: 4097: 4090: 4083: 4074: 4058: 4057: 4046: 4045: 4035: 4034: 3970:Forensic geology 3940:Economic geology 3866:Gravity of Earth 3761:Paleoclimatology 3666: 3618: 3611: 3604: 3595: 3513: 3429:well explained. 3193: 3102: 3099: 3093: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3006: 2995: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2956: 2947: 2941: 2932: 2926: 2917: 2911: 2908: 2887: 2878: 2872: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2844: 2834: 2824: 2792: 2786: 2783: 2777: 2763: 2757: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2719: 2713: 2698: 2692: 2660: 2654: 2648: 2642: 2627:Oklahoma State. 2625: 2619: 2618: 2601:(7): 1955–1974. 2587: 2581: 2580: 2579: 2578: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2520: 2472: 2463: 2462: 2406: 2400: 2399: 2371: 2365: 2349: 2343: 2342: 2340: 2339: 2325: 2319: 2318: 2316: 2314: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2294: 2293: 2283: 2275: 2269: 2254: 2248: 2232: 1898:A water well in 1704: 1702: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1689: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1661: 1660: 1650: 1642: 1641: 1629: 1618: 1616: 1608: 1600: 1452:Analytic methods 1139: 912:Specific yield ( 892:Specific storage 875:Specific storage 189:, "Emerald Lake" 132: 125: 121: 118: 112: 110: 69: 45: 37: 21: 4320: 4319: 4315: 4314: 4313: 4311: 4310: 4309: 4295: 4294: 4293: 4288: 4277: 4270: 4256:Theis equation 4234: 4189: 4184: 4154: 4149: 4111: 4101: 4071: 4066: 4029: 4020: 3994: 3990:Mineral physics 3923: 3885: 3832: 3806: 3792:Plate tectonics 3770: 3766:Palaeogeography 3737: 3713:Crystallography 3696: 3668: 3667: 3658: 3627: 3622: 3571:Wayback Machine 3520: 3479: 3476: 3374: 3369: 3259: 3254: 3191: 3176: 3116: 3111: 3109:Further reading 3106: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3085: 3081: 3051: 3050: 3046: 3008: 3007: 2998: 2990: 2986: 2978: 2974: 2966: 2959: 2948: 2944: 2933: 2929: 2918: 2914: 2909: 2890: 2879: 2875: 2864: 2860: 2852: 2848: 2794: 2793: 2789: 2784: 2780: 2764: 2760: 2750: 2748: 2743: 2742: 2738: 2728: 2726: 2721: 2720: 2716: 2699: 2695: 2673:Wayback Machine 2661: 2657: 2649: 2645: 2640:Wayback Machine 2626: 2622: 2591:Gelhar, Lynn W. 2589: 2588: 2584: 2576: 2574: 2564: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2474: 2473: 2466: 2408: 2407: 2403: 2373: 2372: 2368: 2363:Wayback Machine 2350: 2346: 2337: 2335: 2333:www.ncwater.org 2327: 2326: 2322: 2312: 2310: 2305: 2304: 2300: 2291: 2289: 2281: 2277: 2276: 2272: 2255: 2251: 2246:Wayback Machine 2233: 2229: 2224: 2210:water resources 2163:Hydrogeophysics 2132: 2120: 2107: 2098: 2089: 2080: 2062: 2033:Siskiyou County 2025: 2009: 2004: 1990: 1985: 1892: 1867: 1855: 1838: 1831:methane hydrate 1812: 1766: 1734: 1682: 1665: 1652: 1651: 1633: 1622: 1609: 1601: 1594: 1593: 1545: 1490: 1454: 1357: 1272: 1266: 1234: 1228: 1223: 1211: 1195: 1182: 1157: 1137: 1126:Brownian motion 1122:Albert Einstein 1115: 1109: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1069: 1008: 972:carbonate rocks 956: 950: 942: 935: 924: 917: 906: 899: 877: 871: 851: 845: 820:Water content ( 818: 812: 753:High porosity, 747: 741: 675: 669: 642: 628: 549: 518:water chemistry 510:microbiological 491:heat conduction 438:(viscosity and 432:fluid mechanics 428:Reynolds number 376:Ivan Aivazovsky 368: 308: 252:of the Earth's 133: 122: 116: 113: 70: 68: 58: 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4318: 4316: 4308: 4307: 4297: 4296: 4290: 4289: 4275: 4272: 4271: 4269: 4268: 4263: 4261:Thiem equation 4258: 4253: 4248: 4242: 4240: 4236: 4235: 4233: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4205:hydraulic head 4201: 4199: 4191: 4190: 4185: 4183: 4182: 4175: 4168: 4160: 4151: 4150: 4148: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4120:hydraulic head 4116: 4113: 4112: 4102: 4100: 4099: 4092: 4085: 4077: 4068: 4067: 4065: 4064: 4052: 4040: 4025: 4022: 4021: 4019: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3995: 3993: 3992: 3987: 3985:Mining geology 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3931: 3929: 3925: 3924: 3922: 3921: 3919:Tectonophysics 3916: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3895: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3884: 3883: 3881:Geopositioning 3878: 3876:Remote sensing 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3842: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3830: 3828:Marine geology 3825: 3820: 3814: 3812: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3778: 3776: 3772: 3771: 3769: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3747: 3745: 3739: 3738: 3736: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3708:Cosmochemistry 3704: 3702: 3698: 3697: 3695: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3678: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3635: 3633: 3629: 3628: 3623: 3621: 3620: 3613: 3606: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3585: 3580: 3574: 3561: 3555: 3545: 3539: 3533: 3527: 3519: 3518:External links 3516: 3515: 3514: 3475: 3474: 3460: 3446: 3419: 3397: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3367: 3353: 3350: 3347: 3333: 3320: 3310: 3299: 3278: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3252: 3238: 3224: 3210: 3195: 3189: 3174: 3160: 3146: 3132: 3117: 3115: 3112: 3110: 3107: 3104: 3103: 3094: 3079: 3044: 3017:(6): 2513–20. 2996: 2984: 2972: 2957: 2942: 2927: 2912: 2888: 2873: 2858: 2846: 2807:(12): e51374. 2787: 2778: 2758: 2736: 2714: 2693: 2655: 2643: 2620: 2582: 2562: 2532: 2464: 2421:(3): 453–463. 2401: 2366: 2344: 2320: 2298: 2270: 2249: 2226: 2225: 2223: 2220: 2219: 2218: 2213: 2199: 2189: 2183: 2177: 2171: 2166: 2160: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2131: 2128: 2119: 2116: 2106: 2103: 2097: 2094: 2088: 2085: 2079: 2076: 2061: 2058: 2024: 2021: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1981: 1959:contaminants. 1952: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1932: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1916: 1891: 1888: 1866: 1863: 1854: 1851: 1836: 1811: 1808: 1765: 1762: 1733: 1730: 1706: 1705: 1694: 1688: 1685: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1648: 1645: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1625: 1621: 1615: 1612: 1607: 1604: 1553:finite element 1544: 1541: 1489: 1486: 1470:Theis equation 1453: 1450: 1415: 1414: 1404: 1398: 1395:Theis solution 1391: 1356: 1353: 1332:(pump tests). 1322:Thiem equation 1314:Theis equation 1268:Main article: 1265: 1262: 1230:Main article: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1210: 1207: 1194: 1191: 1181: 1178: 1165:chromatography 1156: 1153: 1111:Main article: 1108: 1105: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1065: 1007: 1004: 952:Main article: 949: 946: 940: 933: 922: 915: 904: 897: 873:Main article: 870: 867: 847:Main article: 844: 841: 835:is a strongly 814:Main article: 811: 808: 757:Low porosity, 743:Main article: 740: 737: 673:Hydraulic head 671:Main article: 668: 667:Hydraulic head 665: 638:Main article: 627: 624: 599: 598: 591: 584: 573: 548: 545: 455:hydraulic head 426:fluid (with a 384:earth sciences 367: 364: 307: 304: 162:Checking wells 135: 134: 76:"Hydrogeology" 49: 47: 40: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4317: 4306: 4303: 4302: 4300: 4287: 4286: 4281: 4273: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4237: 4231: 4230:water content 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4192: 4188: 4181: 4176: 4174: 4169: 4167: 4162: 4161: 4158: 4146: 4145:water content 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4117: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4098: 4093: 4091: 4086: 4084: 4079: 4078: 4075: 4063: 4062: 4053: 4051: 4050: 4041: 4039: 4038: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4023: 4017: 4016:Volcanologist 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4003: 4001: 3997: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3932: 3930: 3926: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3896: 3894: 3892: 3888: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3851:Earth's orbit 3849: 3847: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3797:Geomorphology 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3779: 3777: 3775:Dynamic Earth 3773: 3767: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3749: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3734: 3733:Sedimentology 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3699: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3682:Geochronology 3680: 3679: 3677: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3636: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3614: 3612: 3607: 3605: 3600: 3599: 3596: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3562: 3559: 3556: 3553: 3549: 3546: 3543: 3540: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3528: 3525: 3522: 3521: 3517: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3477: 3473: 3472:0-04-620011-8 3469: 3465: 3461: 3459: 3458:1-56670-375-1 3455: 3451: 3447: 3444: 3443:0-444-99755-5 3440: 3436: 3435:0-444-99755-5 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3418: 3417:0-486-66881-9 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3396: 3395:0-12-316550-4 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3377: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3365:0-471-38477-1 3362: 3358: 3354: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3345:0-470-85004-3 3342: 3338: 3334: 3332: 3331: 3330:3-443-01055-5 3327: 3321: 3319: 3318:81-7764-218-9 3315: 3311: 3309: 3308:3-443-01039-3 3305: 3300: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3276:0-12-059485-4 3273: 3269: 3265: 3262: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3250:0-13-088239-9 3247: 3243: 3240:Fetter, C.W. 3239: 3237: 3236:0-13-751215-5 3233: 3229: 3226:Fetter, C.W. 3225: 3223: 3222:0-471-87616-X 3219: 3215: 3211: 3208: 3207:1-56034-100-9 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3190:3-540-61841-4 3186: 3182: 3181: 3175: 3173: 3172:0-12-208916-2 3169: 3165: 3161: 3159: 3158:0-13-365312-9 3155: 3151: 3147: 3145: 3144:0-9616456-0-1 3141: 3137: 3133: 3131: 3130:0-471-59762-7 3127: 3123: 3119: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3083: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3045: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2997: 2994: 2988: 2985: 2982: 2976: 2973: 2970: 2964: 2962: 2958: 2955: 2952: 2946: 2943: 2940: 2937: 2931: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2916: 2913: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2889: 2886: 2883: 2877: 2874: 2871: 2868: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2850: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2791: 2788: 2782: 2779: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2762: 2759: 2746: 2740: 2737: 2724: 2718: 2715: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2703: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2685: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2659: 2656: 2653: 2647: 2644: 2641: 2637: 2634: 2630: 2624: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2586: 2583: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2536: 2533: 2528: 2524: 2519: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2471: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2405: 2402: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2360: 2357: 2354: 2348: 2345: 2334: 2330: 2324: 2321: 2308: 2302: 2299: 2287: 2280: 2274: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2231: 2228: 2221: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2133: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2124:United States 2117: 2115: 2111: 2104: 2102: 2095: 2093: 2086: 2084: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2067: 2059: 2057: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2029: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2006: 2001: 1999: 1996: 1988:Contamination 1987: 1982: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1957: 1950:Well Testing" 1949: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1936: 1935: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1913: 1912: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1872: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1853:Other methods 1852: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1839:sequestration 1832: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1816: 1809: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1755: 1754:surface water 1750: 1746: 1745:free software 1742: 1738: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1692: 1686: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1646: 1638: 1634: 1626: 1623: 1619: 1613: 1605: 1592: 1591: 1590: 1588: 1587:Taylor series 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1492:The topic of 1487: 1485: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1446:approximation 1443: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1412: 1408: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1396: 1392: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1374: 1373: 1372: 1370: 1361: 1354: 1352: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1333: 1331: 1330:aquifer tests 1326: 1323: 1318: 1315: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1291: 1289: 1288:heat transfer 1285: 1276: 1271: 1263: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1233: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1208: 1206: 1204: 1199: 1192: 1186: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1146: 1143: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1040:radionuclides 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1017: 1012: 1005: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 955: 947: 945: 943: 936: 929: 925: 918: 910: 908: 900: 893: 886: 881: 876: 868: 866: 864: 860: 856: 850: 842: 840: 838: 834: 830: 825: 823: 817: 816:water content 810:Water content 809: 807: 805: 801: 797: 795: 791: 787: 784:(it has many 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 760: 759:poorly sorted 756: 751: 746: 738: 736: 734: 730: 725: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 694: 692: 688: 684: 680: 674: 666: 664: 662: 658: 653: 651: 647: 641: 632: 625: 623: 621: 616: 612: 607: 605: 604:aquifer tests 596: 592: 589: 585: 582: 578: 574: 571: 567: 566: 565: 558: 553: 546: 544: 542: 538: 534: 529: 525: 523: 519: 515: 514:surface water 511: 507: 502: 500: 499:heat transfer 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 460: 456: 452: 447: 443: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 416:geophysicists 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 377: 372: 365: 363: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 305: 303: 299: 297: 296:water quality 293: 292:contamination 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 267: 263: 260:). 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