Plant hormone - Knowledge (XXG)

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the seed coat so the radical of the seedling can break through the seed coat. Different types of seed coats can be made up of living or dead cells, and both types can be influenced by hormones; those composed of living cells are acted upon after seed formation, whereas the seed coats composed of dead cells can be influenced by hormones during the formation of the seed coat. ABA affects testa or seed coat growth characteristics, including thickness, and effects the GA-mediated embryo growth potential. These conditions and effects occur during the formation of the seed, often in response to environmental conditions. Hormones also mediate endosperm dormancy: Endosperm in most seeds is composed of living tissue that can actively respond to hormones generated by the embryo. The endosperm often acts as a barrier to seed germination, playing a part in seed coat dormancy or in the germination process. Living cells respond to and also affect the ABA:GA ratio, and mediate cellular sensitivity; GA thus increases the embryo growth potential and can promote endosperm weakening. GA also affects both ABA-independent and ABA-inhibiting processes within the endosperm.

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senescence-associated gene expression, responses to abiotic and biotic stresses, basal thermo tolerance and fruit yield. A possible role of salicylic acid in signaling disease resistance was first demonstrated by injecting leaves of resistant tobacco with SA. The result was that injecting SA stimulated pathogenesis related (PR) protein accumulation and enhanced resistance to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection. Exposure to pathogens causes a cascade of reactions in the plant cells. SA biosynthesis is increased via isochorismate synthase (ICS) and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway in plastids. It was observed that during plant-microbe interactions, as part of the defense mechanisms, SA is initially accumulated at the local infected tissue and then spread all over the plant to induce systemic acquired resistance at non-infected distal parts of the plant. Therefore with increased internal concentration of SA, plants were able to build resistant barriers for pathogens and other adverse environmental conditions

384:, within the plant affects metabolic reactions and cellular growth and production of other hormones. Plants start life as a seed with high ABA levels. Just before the seed germinates, ABA levels decrease; during germination and early growth of the seedling, ABA levels decrease even more. As plants begin to produce shoots with fully functional leaves, ABA levels begin to increase again, slowing down cellular growth in more "mature" areas of the plant. Stress from water or predation affects ABA production and catabolism rates, mediating another cascade of effects that trigger specific responses from targeted cells. Scientists are still piecing together the complex interactions and effects of this and other phytohormones. 639:, an amino acid which is in all cells. Ethylene has very limited solubility in water and therefore does not accumulate within the cell, typically diffusing out of the cell and escaping the plant. Its effectiveness as a plant hormone is dependent on its rate of production versus its rate of escaping into the atmosphere. Ethylene is produced at a faster rate in rapidly growing and dividing cells, especially in darkness. New growth and newly germinated seedlings produce more ethylene than can escape the plant, which leads to elevated amounts of ethylene, inhibiting 372:, causing bud dormancy and the alteration of the last set of leaves into protective bud covers. Since it was found in freshly abscissed leaves, it was initially thought to play a role in the processes of natural leaf drop, but further research has disproven this. In plant species from temperate parts of the world, abscisic acid plays a role in leaf and seed dormancy by inhibiting growth, but, as it is dissipated from seeds or buds, growth begins. In other plants, as ABA levels decrease, growth then commences as 842: 137: 275:, before cells have fully differentiated. After production, they are sometimes moved to other parts of the plant, where they cause an immediate effect; or they can be stored in cells to be released later. Plants use different pathways to regulate internal hormone quantities and moderate their effects; they can regulate the amount of chemicals used to biosynthesize hormones. They can store them in cells, inactivate them, or cannibalise already-formed hormones by 546:, reduced cell elongation and other physical alterations. These findings mean that plants properly expressing brassinosteroids grow more than their mutant counterparts. Brassinosteroids bind to BRI1 localized at the plasma membrane which leads to a signal cascade that further regulates cell elongation. This signal cascade however is not entirely understood at this time. What is believed to be happening is that BR binds to the BAK1 complex which leads to a 790: 408: 926:(NO) – serves as signal in hormonal and defense responses (e.g. stomatal closure, root development, germination, nitrogen fixation, cell death, stress response). NO can be produced by a yet undefined NO synthase, a special type of nitrite reductase, nitrate reductase, mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase or non enzymatic processes and regulate plant cell organelle functions (e.g. ATP synthesis in chloroplasts and mitochondria). 5427: 693: 302:). Because of these low concentrations, it has been very difficult to study plant hormones, and only since the late 1970s have scientists been able to start piecing together their effects and relationships to plant physiology. Much of the early work on plant hormones involved studying plants that were genetically deficient in one or involved the use of tissue-cultured plants grown 722: 335: 624: 506: 1080: 377:

some protection from premature growth. Abscisic acid accumulates within seeds during fruit maturation, preventing seed germination within the fruit or before winter. Abscisic acid's effects are degraded within plant tissues during cold temperatures or by its removal by water washing in and out of the tissues, releasing the seeds and buds from dormancy.

391:. Soon after plants are water-stressed and the roots are deficient in water, a signal moves up to the leaves, causing the formation of ABA precursors there, which then move to the roots. The roots then release ABA, which is translocated to the foliage through the vascular system and modulates potassium and sodium uptake within the 763:. This unusual property means that MeJA can act as an airborne signal to communicate herbivore attack to other distant leaves within one plant and even as a signal to neighboring plants. In addition to their role in defense, JAs are also believed to play roles in seed germination, the storage of protein in seeds, and root growth. 322:

abscisic acid, auxins, brassinosteroids, cytokinins and ethylene. This list was later expanded, and brassinosteroids, jasmonates, salicylic acid, and strigolactones are now also considered major plant hormones. Additionally there are several other compounds that serve functions similar to the major hormones, but their status as

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pathogens, showing signs that they could induce resistance toward these pathogenic bacteria. Accordingly, there are higher CK levels in plants that have increased resistance to pathogens compared to those which are more susceptible. For example, pathogen resistance involving cytokinins was tested using the

678:), the accumulated ethylene strongly stimulates upward elongation. This response is an important mechanism for the adaptive escape from submergence that avoids asphyxiation by returning the shoot and leaves to contact with the air whilst allowing the release of entrapped ethylene. At least one species ( 534:) pollen in 1979. Brassinosteroids are a class of steroidal phytohormones in plants that regulate numerous physiological processes. This plant hormone was identified by Mitchell et al. who extracted ingredients from Brassica pollen only to find that the extracted ingredients’ main active component was 1023:

ABA controls embryo dormancy, and GA embryo germination. Seed coat dormancy involves the mechanical restriction of the seed coat. This, along with a low embryo growth potential, effectively produces seed dormancy. GA releases this dormancy by increasing the embryo growth potential, and/or weakening

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Jasmonate mutants are more readily consumed by herbivores than wild type plants, indicating that JAs play an important role in the execution of plant defense. When herbivores are moved around leaves of wild type plants, they reach similar masses to herbivores that consume only mutant plants, implying

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that produced abnormal growth in rice plants. It was later discovered that GAs are also produced by the plants themselves and control multiple aspects of development across the life cycle. The synthesis of GA is strongly upregulated in seeds at germination and its presence is required for germination

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levels increase. Without ABA, buds and seeds would start to grow during warm periods in winter and would be killed when it froze again. Since ABA dissipates slowly from the tissues and its effects take time to be offset by other plant hormones, there is a delay in physiological pathways that provides

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Embryo dormancy is characterized by a high ABA:GA ratio, whereas the seed has high abscisic acid sensitivity and low GA sensitivity. In order to release the seed from this type of dormancy and initiate seed germination, an alteration in hormone biosynthesis and degradation toward a low ABA/GA ratio,

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cells. Cytokinins and auxins often work together, and the ratios of these two groups of plant hormones affect most major growth periods during a plant's lifetime. Cytokinins counter the apical dominance induced by auxins; in conjunction with ethylene, they promote abscission of leaves, flower parts,

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In plants these steroidal hormones play an important role in cell elongation via BR signaling. The brassinosteroids receptor brassinosteroid insensitive 1 (BRI1) is the main receptor for this signaling pathway. This BRI1 receptor was found by Clouse et al. who made the discovery by inhibiting BR and

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event just before seed dispersal. The nuclear protein Ethylene Insensitive2 (EIN2) is regulated by ethylene production, and, in turn, regulates other hormones including ABA and stress hormones. Ethylene diffusion out of plants is strongly inhibited underwater. This increases internal concentrations

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in the plant's cells produce a signal for ethylene production to decrease, allowing leaf expansion. Ethylene affects cell growth and cell shape; when a growing shoot or root hits an obstacle while underground, ethylene production greatly increases, preventing cell elongation and causing the stem to

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Synergism in plant hormones refers to the how of two or more hormones result in an effect that is more than the individual effects. For example, auxins and cytokinins often act in cooperation during cellular division and differentiation. Both hormones are key to cell cycle regulation, but when they

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Demole E, Lederer E, Mercier D (1962). "Isolement et détermination de la structure du jasmonate de méthyle, constituant odorant caractéristique de l'essence de jasmin" [Isolation and determination of the structure of methyl jasmonate, a fragrant constituent characteristic of jasmine oil].

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Among the plant hormones, the three that are known to help with immunological interactions are ethylene (ET), salicylates (SA), and jasmonates (JA), however more research has gone into identifying the role that cytokinins play in this. Evidence suggests that cytokinins delay the interactions with

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that moves fluids around the body—plants use more passive means to move chemicals around their bodies. Plants utilize simple chemicals as hormones, which move more easily through their tissues. They are often produced and used on a local basis within the plant body. Plant cells produce hormones

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response, which is to grow upright, allowing it to grow around an object. Studies seem to indicate that ethylene affects stem diameter and height: when stems of trees are subjected to wind, causing lateral stress, greater ethylene production occurs, resulting in thicker, sturdier tree trunks and

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While there’s not much of a relationship between this hormone and physical plant behavior, there are behavioral changes that go on inside the plant in response to it. Cytokinin defense effects can include the establishment and growth of microbes (delay leaf senescence), reconfiguration of

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Not all plant cells respond to hormones, but those cells that do are programmed to respond at specific points in their growth cycle. The greatest effects occur at specific stages during the cell's life, with diminished effects occurring before or after this period. Plants need hormones at very

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Different hormones can be sorted into different classes, depending on their chemical structures. Within each class of hormone, chemical structures can vary, but all members of the same class have similar physiological effects. Initial research into plant hormones identified five major classes:

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Salicylic acid (SA) serves as a key hormone in plant innate immunity, including resistance in both local and systemic tissue upon biotic attacks, hypersensitive responses, and cell death. Some of the SA influences on plants include seed germination, cell growth, respiration, stomatal closure,

936:(enhanced biomass accumulation and increased sensitivity to drought) have led some to speculate on the existence of an as yet unidentified karrikin-like endogenous hormone in plants. The cellular karrikin signalling pathway shares many components with the strigolactone signalling pathway. 902:– encompasses all small secreted peptides that are involved in cell-to-cell signaling. These small peptide hormones play crucial roles in plant growth and development, including defense mechanisms, the control of cell division and expansion, and pollen self-incompatibility. The small 932:– are not plant hormones as they are not produced by plants themselves but are rather found in the smoke of burning plant material. Karrikins can promote seed germination in many species. The finding that plants which lack the receptor of karrikin receptor show several developmental 828:

is volatile and can act as a long-distance signal to neighboring plants to warn of pathogen attack. In addition to its role in defense, SA is also involved in the response of plants to abiotic stress, particularly from drought, extreme temperatures, heavy metals, and osmotic stress.

879:(AM) fungi. More recently, another role of SLs was identified in the inhibition of shoot branching. This discovery of the role of SLs in shoot branching led to a dramatic increase in the interest in these hormones, and it has since been shown that SLs play important roles in 308:

that were subjected to differing ratios of hormones, and the resultant growth compared. The earliest scientific observation and study dates to the 1880s; the determination and observation of plant hormones and their identification was spread out over the next 70 years.

912:– are strongly basic molecules with low molecular weight that have been found in all organisms studied thus far. They are essential for plant growth and development and affect the process of mitosis and meiosis. In plants, polyamines have been linked to the control of 655:

swell. The resulting thicker stem is stronger and less likely to buckle under pressure as it presses against the object impeding its path to the surface. If the shoot does not reach the surface and the ethylene stimulus becomes prolonged, it affects the stem's natural

1068:(a derivative of JA, also found in plants) has been shown to inhibit proliferation in a number of cancer cell lines, although there is still debate over its use as an anti-cancer drug, due to its potential negative effects on healthy cells. 271:

specific times during plant growth and at specific locations. They also need to disengage the effects that hormones have when they are no longer needed. The production of hormones occurs very often at sites of active growth within the

291:. Plants can also break down hormones chemically, effectively destroying them. Plant hormones frequently regulate the concentrations of other plant hormones. Plants also move hormones around the plant diluting their concentrations. 2390: 1693:

Feurtado JA, Ambrose SJ, Cutler AJ, Ross AR, Abrams SR, Kermode AR (February 2004). "Dormancy termination of western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl. Ex D. Don) seeds is associated with changes in abscisic acid metabolism".

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together. In micropropagation, different PGRs are used to promote multiplication and then rooting of new plantlets. In the tissue-culturing of plant cells, PGRs are used to produce callus growth, multiplication, and rooting.

703:(GAs) include a large range of chemicals that are produced naturally within plants and by fungi. They were first discovered when Japanese researchers, including Eiichi Kurosawa, noticed a chemical produced by a fungus called 353:, before its chemical properties were fully known. Once it was determined that the two compounds are the same, it was named abscisic acid. The name refers to the fact that it is found in high concentrations in newly 766:

JAs have been shown to interact in the signalling pathway of other hormones in a mechanism described as “crosstalk.” The hormone classes can have both negative and positive effects on each other's signal processes.

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Else MA, Coupland D, Dutton L, Jackson MB (January 2001). "Decreased root hydraulic conductivity reduces leaf water potential, initiates stomatal closure, and slows leaf expansion in flooded plants of castor oil

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to occur. In seedlings and adults, GAs strongly promote cell elongation. GAs also promote the transition between vegetative and reproductive growth and are also required for pollen function during fertilization.

215:. The biosynthesis of plant hormones within plant tissues is often diffuse and not always localized. Plants lack glands to produce and store hormones, because, unlike animals—which have two circulatory systems ( 684:) has been found to be incapable of making ethylene while retaining a conventional morphology. This suggests ethylene is a true regulator rather than being a requirement for building a plant's basic body plan. 171:

levels, cellular division, and growth. They are naturally produced within plants, though very similar chemicals are produced by fungi and bacteria that can also affect plant growth. A large number of related

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secondary metabolism or even induce the production of new organs such as galls or nodules. These organs and their corresponding processes are all used to protect the plants against biotic/abiotic factors.

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development and growth. Leaf abscission is initiated by the growing point of a plant ceasing to produce auxins. Auxins in seeds regulate specific protein synthesis, as they develop within the flower after

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of tissues, are responsible for mediating auxin transport throughout the plant, and affect internodal length and leaf growth. They were called kinins in the past when they were first isolated from

538:. This finding meant the discovery of a new class of plant hormones called Brassinosteroids. These hormones act very similarly to animal steroidal hormones by promoting growth and development. 601:. Tobacco studies reveal that over expression of CK inducing IPT genes yields increased resistance whereas over expression of CK oxidase yields increased susceptibility to pathogen, namely 1922:

Tomic S, Gabdoulline RR, Kojic-Prodic B, Wade RC (1998). "Classification of auxin related compounds based on similarity of their interaction fields: Extension to a new set of compounds".

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Takahashi F, Suzuki T, Osakabe Y, Betsuyaku S, Kondo Y, Dohmae N, et al. (April 2018). "A small peptide modulates stomatal control via abscisic acid in long-distance signalling".

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Grove MD, Spencer GF, Rohwedder WK, Mandava N, Worley JF, Warthen JD, et al. (1979). "Brassinolide, a plant growth-promoting steroid isolated from Brassica napus pollen".

5395: 1045:. In addition to its use as a painkiller, SA is also used in topical treatments of several skin conditions, including acne, warts and psoriasis. Another derivative of SA, 418:

are compounds that positively influence cell enlargement, bud formation, and root initiation. They also promote the production of other hormones and, in conjunction with

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with location of synthesis and effects of application — this is the format used in the description templates at bottom of Knowledge (XXG) articles about plant hormones.

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ABA exists in all parts of the plant, and its concentration within any tissue seems to mediate its effects and function as a hormone; its degradation, or more properly

773:(JAME) has been shown to regulate genetic expression in plants. They act in signalling pathways in response to herbivory, and upregulate expression of defense genes. 3721:

Chiwocha SD, Dixon KW, Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Merritt DJ, Nelson DC, et al. (2009-10-01). "Karrikins: A new family of plant growth regulators in smoke".

3902: 3009:"Co(i)-ordinating defenses: NaCOI1 mediates herbivore- induced resistance in Nicotiana attenuata and reveals the role of herbivore movement in avoiding defenses" 422:, control the growth of stems, roots, and fruits, and convert stems into flowers. Auxins were the first class of growth regulators discovered. A Dutch Biologist 4060: 1313:

Ullah A, Manghwar H, Shaban M, Khan AH, Akbar A, Ali U, et al. (November 2018). "Phytohormones enhanced drought tolerance in plants: a coping strategy".

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Wang Y, Liu C, Li K, Sun F, Hu H, Li X, et al. (August 2007). "Arabidopsis EIN2 modulates stress response through abscisic acid response pathway".

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Ethylene also affects fruit ripening. Normally, when the seeds are mature, ethylene production increases and builds up within the fruit, resulting in a

4054: 516:(BRs) are a class of polyhydroxysteroids, the only example of steroid-based hormones in plants. Brassinosteroids control cell elongation and division, 713:

Gibberellins breaks the dormancy (in active stage) in seeds and buds and helps increasing the height of the plant. It helps in the growth of the stem

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Gomez-Roldan V, Fermas S, Brewer PB, Puech-Pagès V, Dun EA, Pillot JP, et al. (September 2008). "Strigolactone inhibition of shoot branching".

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Yan J, Tsuichihara N, Etoh T, Iwai S (October 2007). "Reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide are involved in ABA inhibition of stomatal opening".

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Shigenaga AM, Argueso CT (August 2016). "No hormone to rule them all: Interactions of plant hormones during the responses of plants to pathogens".

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come together, their synergistic interactions can enhance cell proliferation and organogenesis more effectively than either could in isolation.

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Tsai FY, Lin CC, Kao CH (January 1997). "A comparative study of the effects of abscisic acid and methyl jasmonate on seedling growth of rice".

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as a rooting compound applied to the cut surface; the auxins are taken into the plant and promote root initiation. In grafting, auxin promotes

5456: 3705: 1906: 1677: 1586: 1559: 1413: 777:(JA-Ile) accumulates in response to herbivory, which causes an upregulation in defense gene expression by freeing up transcription factors. 1037:

Willow bark has been used for centuries as a painkiller. The active ingredient in willow bark that provides these effects is the hormone

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the effects of JAs are localized to sites of herbivory. Studies have shown that there is significant crosstalk between defense pathways.

554:. These released transcription factors then bind to DNA that leads to growth and developmental processes and allows plants to respond to 542:

comparing it to the wildtype in Arabidopsis. The BRI1 mutant displayed several problems associated with growth and development such as

2633:"Potamogeton pectinatus Is Constitutively Incapable of Synthesizing Ethylene and Lacks 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-Carboxylic Acid Oxidase" 5319: 3878: 3664: 2812: 474: 345:(also called ABA) is one of the most important plant growth inhibitors. It was discovered and researched under two different names, 2588:"Interactions between plant hormones regulate submergence-induced shoot elongation in the flooding-tolerant dicot Rumex palustris" 2156:"Chemical genetics reveal the novel transmembrane protein BIL4, which mediates plant cell elongation in brassinosteroid signaling" 4214: 820:. In plants, SA plays a critical role in the defense against biotrophic pathogens. In a similar manner to JA, SA can also become 3140:"How does the multifaceted plant hormone salicylic acid combat disease in plants and are similar mechanisms utilized in humans?" 1127:

Méndez-Hernández HA, Ledezma-Rodríguez M, Avilez-Montalvo RN, Juárez-Gómez YL, Skeete A, Avilez-Montalvo J, et al. (2019).

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Akiyama K, Matsuzaki K, Hayashi H (June 2005). "Plant sesquiterpenes induce hyphal branching in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi".

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Pandey S, Ranade SA, Nagar PK, Kumar N (September 2000). "Role of polyamines and ethylene as modulators of plant senescence".

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CLE25 is known to act as a long-distance signal to communicate water stress sensed in the roots to the stomata in the leaves.

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between cells are utilized. Vascular tissues are used to move hormones from one part of the plant to another; these include

200:). Early in the study of plant hormones, "phytohormone" was the commonly used term, but its use is less widely applied now. 4584: 2099:"Evolutionarily conserved BIL4 suppresses the degradation of brassinosteroid receptor BRI1 and regulates cell elongation" 5303: 4890: 4405: 4081: 2922:"Jasmonates: an update on biosynthesis, signal transduction and action in plant stress response, growth and development" 1061: 1049:

has been found to suppress proliferation of lymphoblastic leukemia, prostate, breast, and melanoma human cancer cells.

5385: 5139: 618: 1780:"Dynamic analysis of ABA accumulation in relation to the rate of ABA catabolism in maize tissues under water deficit" 982:

The propagation of plants by cuttings of fully developed leaves, stems, or roots is performed by gardeners utilizing

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by the roots of its host plant. It was later shown that SLs that are exuded into the soil also promote the growth of

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This class of PGR is composed of one chemical compound normally produced in the leaves of plants, originating from

276: 5269: 760: 1604:"Ethylene upregulates auxin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis seedlings to enhance inhibition of root cell elongation" 136: 5407: 5252: 4302: 482: 364:, especially when plants are under stress. In general, it acts as an inhibitory chemical compound that affects 635:

is a gas and a very simple organic compound, consisting of just six atoms. It forms through the breakdown of

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species by treating them with naturally occurring CK (trans-zeatin) to see their response to the bacteria

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Hormones are transported within the plant by utilizing four types of movements. For localized movement,

5402: 4166: 987: 917: 876: 486: 125: 3414:"Strigolactones Biosynthesis and Their Role in Abiotic Stress Resilience in Plants: A Critical Review" 1602:

Swarup R, Perry P, Hagenbeek D, Van Der Straeten D, Beemster GT, Sandberg G, et al. (July 2007).

841: 580:(CKs) are a group of chemicals that influence cell division and shoot formation. They also help delay 211:

that in small amounts promote and influence the growth, development, and differentiation of cells and

5124: 4976: 4648: 4207: 4008: 3521: 3370: 3319: 3050:"Silverleaf whitefly induces salicylic acid defenses and suppresses effectual jasmonic acid defenses" 2885:

Lorenzo O, Solano R (October 2005). "Molecular players regulating the jasmonate signalling network".

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cascade. This phosphorylation cascade then causes BIN2 to be deactivated which causes the release of

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first described auxins. They affect cell elongation by altering cell wall plasticity. They stimulate

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Sipes DL, Einset JW (August 1983). "Cytokinin stimulation of abscission in lemon pistil explants".

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Madan RK, Levitt J (April 2014). "A review of toxicity from topical salicylic acid preparations".

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Voesenek LA, Benschop JJ, Bou J, Cox MC, Groeneveld HW, Millenaar FF, et al. (January 2003).

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Planas-Riverola A, Gupta A, Betegón-Putze I, Bosch N, Ibañes M, Caño-Delgado AI (March 2019).

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Plant hormones affect seed germination and dormancy by acting on different parts of the seed.

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When used in field conditions, plant hormones or mixtures that include them can be applied as

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Jackson MB (1985). "Ethylene and Responses of Plants to Soil Waterlogging and Submergence".

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Yamagami A, Nakazawa M, Matsui M, Tujimoto M, Sakuta M, Asami T, Nakano T (February 2009).

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was the first brassinosteroid to be identified and was isolated from extracts of rapeseed (

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Yamagami A, Saito C, Nakazawa M, Fujioka S, Uemura T, Matsui M, et al. (July 2017).

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along with a decrease in ABA sensitivity and an increase in GA sensitivity, must occur.

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Synthetic plant hormones or PGRs are used in a number of different techniques involving

124:, however in these cases they do not play a hormonal role and can better be regarded as 5324: 5289: 5242: 5224: 5188: 4944: 4771: 4749: 4715: 4690: 4673: 4663: 4658: 4540: 4358: 4343: 4297: 4292: 4176: 4029: 3996: 3827: 3800: 3776: 3749: 3440: 3413: 3166: 3139: 3074: 3049: 2946: 2921: 2862: 2837: 2706: 2681: 2608: 2587: 2563: 2542: 2518: 2493: 2367: 2340: 2234: 2209: 2131: 2098: 2074: 2047: 1891: 1837: 1628: 1603: 1464: 1390: 1365: 1290: 1263: 1239: 1214: 1155: 1128: 1038: 976: 845: 816:) and is of great interest to human medicine, as it is the precursor of the painkiller 797: 640: 555: 530: 441:

Auxins act to inhibit the growth of buds lower down the stems in a phenomenon known as

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Li W, Nguyen KH, Chu HD, Ha CV, Watanabe Y, Osakabe Y, et al. (November 2017).

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that affect even different regions of the cell producing the hormone.

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Chemical compounds that regulate plant growth and development

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New York, London, Heidelberg: Springer. 1650: 4028: 3971: 3826: 3816: 3775: 3765: 3623: 3480: 3439: 3429: 3165: 3155: 3114: 3073: 3024: 2945: 2861: 2705: 2656: 2607: 2562: 2517: 2366: 2356: 2233: 2171: 2130: 2073: 2063: 1976: 1966: 1795: 1762: 1627: 1389: 1289: 1279: 1238: 1154: 1144: 5258:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) 2986:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092825 2682:"Gibberellin metabolism enzymes in rice" 1747:"Role of Abscisic Acid in Seed Dormancy" 840: 788: 720: 691: 622: 565: 504: 3698:The Biology of Subcellular Nitric Oxide 3412:Saeed W, Naseem S, Ali Z (2017-08-28). 2046:Tang J, Han Z, Chai J (December 2016). 1119: 864:. It was found that the germination of 631:Unlike the other major plant hormones, 3894: 3858:. Royal Holloway University of London. 3608:"Polyamines and programmed cell death" 1897:. 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Plant hormones affect 4781:Hypanthium (Floral cup) 3818:10.3389/fpls.2016.02049 3469:Trends in Plant Science 3431:10.3389/fpls.2017.01487 3226:Trends in Plant Science 2743:10.1023/A:1005761804191 2731:Plant Growth Regulation 2416:Plant Molecular Biology 2358:10.3389/fpls.2019.01777 1517:Plant Growth Regulation 1219:Cell Host & Microbe 1146:10.3389/fpls.2019.00077 670:Callitriche platycarpus 399:, closing the stomata. 255:from the leaves to the 203:Plant hormones are not 194:plant growth regulators 81:development. Unlike in 5396:by author abbreviation 5320:Plant taxonomy systems 5238:Botanical nomenclature 4167:Plant peptide hormones 3973:10.1038/sj.leu.2402419 3856:The Seed Biology Place 3565:Journal of Biosciences 2767:Helvetica Chimica Acta 1968:10.1073/pnas.032450399 1620:10.1105/tpc.107.052100 1550:Srivastava LM (2002). 1062:lymphoblastic leukemia 900:Plant peptide hormones 877:arbuscular mycorrhizal 852: 794: 726: 697: 681:Potamogeton pectinatus 628: 574: 510: 412: 339: 156: 116:, such as unicellular 39: 5403:Botanical expeditions 3066:10.1104/pp.106.090035 2974:Annu. Rev. 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It is found in 826:methyl salicylate 556:abiotic stressors 447:adventitious root 259:and flowers, and 145:purple coneflower 16:(Redirected from 5464: 5429: 5428: 5408:Individual trees 5083:Secondary growth 5054:Succulent plants 5042:Prostrate shrubs 4925:Apical dominance 4910:Plant physiology 4871:Epicuticular wax 4416: 4409: 4400:Plant morphology 4217: 4210: 4203: 4194: 4119:Brassinosteroids 4091: 4084: 4077: 4068: 4043: 4042: 4032: 3992: 3986: 3985: 3975: 3951: 3942: 3941: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3900: 3892: 3873:. New York, NY. 3866: 3860: 3859: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3830: 3820: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3779: 3769: 3760:(11): e1007076. 3745: 3739: 3738: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3693: 3687: 3686: 3644: 3638: 3637: 3627: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3560: 3554: 3553: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3484: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3443: 3433: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3369:(7210): 189–94. 3358: 3352: 3351: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3186: 3180: 3179: 3169: 3159: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3118: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3077: 3054:Plant Physiology 3045: 3039: 3038: 3028: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2969: 2960: 2959: 2949: 2926:Annals of Botany 2917: 2911: 2910: 2882: 2876: 2875: 2865: 2833: 2827: 2826: 2792: 2783: 2782: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2709: 2686:Plant Physiology 2677: 2671: 2670: 2660: 2637:Plant Physiology 2628: 2622: 2621: 2611: 2592:Annals of Botany 2583: 2577: 2576: 2566: 2547:Annals of Botany 2538: 2532: 2531: 2521: 2498:Annals of Botany 2489: 2483: 2482: 2454: 2448: 2447: 2411: 2405: 2404: 2402: 2401: 2387: 2381: 2380: 2370: 2360: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2301: 2295: 2294: 2269:(4): 1451–1464. 2254: 2248: 2247: 2237: 2220:(5): dev151894. 2205: 2194: 2193: 2175: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2134: 2094: 2088: 2087: 2077: 2067: 2043: 2034: 2033: 2022:10.1038/281216a0 1997: 1991: 1990: 1980: 1970: 1938: 1932: 1931: 1919: 1913: 1912: 1896: 1883: 1877: 1876: 1848: 1842: 1841: 1822:Ricinus communis 1816: 1810: 1809: 1799: 1775: 1769: 1768: 1766: 1742: 1736: 1735: 1690: 1684: 1683: 1660: 1654: 1648: 1642: 1641: 1631: 1599: 1593: 1592: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1547: 1541: 1540: 1512: 1506: 1505: 1477: 1471: 1470: 1460: 1454: 1453: 1451: 1450: 1441:. Archived from 1439:"Plant Hormones" 1435: 1429: 1428: 1426: 1425: 1414:"Plant hormones" 1410: 1404: 1403: 1393: 1361: 1355: 1354: 1310: 1304: 1303: 1293: 1283: 1259: 1253: 1252: 1242: 1210: 1204: 1203: 1175: 1169: 1168: 1158: 1148: 1124: 1088: 1083: 1082: 1066:Methyl jasmonate 973:micropropagation 757:methyl jasmonate 514:Brassinosteroids 501:Brassinosteroids 443:apical dominance 51:signal molecules 21: 5472: 5471: 5467: 5466: 5465: 5463: 5462: 5461: 5442: 5441: 5440: 5435: 5417: 5386:Botanical terms 5379: 5365: 5329: 5275:Citrus taxonomy 5253:Author citation 5219: 5113: 5092: 5014: 5008: 5004:Turgor pressure 4912: 4900: 4854: 4669:Floral symmetry 4587: 4579: 4509: 4498:Vascular bundle 4493:Vascular tissue 4452: 4412: 4403: 4402: 4388: 4359:Vascular plants 4324: 4320:Plant pathology 4244: 4226: 4221: 4191: 4186: 4138: 4100: 4095: 4051: 4046: 4007:(9): e1062199. 3994: 3993: 3989: 3953: 3952: 3945: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3893: 3881: 3868: 3867: 3863: 3852:"Seed Dormancy" 3849: 3848: 3844: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3747: 3746: 3742: 3720: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3695: 3694: 3690: 3667: 3646: 3645: 3641: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3562: 3561: 3557: 3511: 3510: 3506: 3462: 3461: 3457: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3360: 3359: 3355: 3318:(7043): 824–7. 3309: 3308: 3304: 3266: 3265: 3261: 3223: 3222: 3218: 3188: 3187: 3183: 3137: 3136: 3132: 3109:(10): 3321–38. 3096: 3095: 3091: 3047: 3046: 3042: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2971: 2970: 2963: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2884: 2883: 2879: 2835: 2834: 2830: 2815: 2794: 2793: 2786: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2679: 2678: 2674: 2630: 2629: 2625: 2585: 2584: 2580: 2540: 2539: 2535: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2456: 2455: 2451: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2399: 2397: 2389: 2388: 2384: 2338: 2337: 2333: 2303: 2302: 2298: 2256: 2255: 2251: 2207: 2206: 2197: 2153: 2152: 2148: 2096: 2095: 2091: 2045: 2044: 2037: 1999: 1998: 1994: 1940: 1939: 1935: 1921: 1920: 1916: 1909: 1885: 1884: 1880: 1850: 1849: 1845: 1818: 1817: 1813: 1777: 1776: 1772: 1744: 1743: 1739: 1692: 1691: 1687: 1680: 1662: 1661: 1657: 1651:Srivastava 2002 1649: 1645: 1601: 1600: 1596: 1589: 1574: 1573: 1569: 1562: 1549: 1548: 1544: 1514: 1513: 1509: 1479: 1478: 1474: 1462: 1461: 1457: 1448: 1446: 1437: 1436: 1432: 1423: 1421: 1412: 1411: 1407: 1363: 1362: 1358: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1212: 1211: 1207: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1126: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1094:Forchlorfenuron 1084: 1077: 1074: 1055: 1035: 1030: 1014: 1008: 957: 893: 881:leaf senescence 839: 787: 719: 690: 675:Rumex palustris 621: 615: 564: 548:phosphorylation 503: 461:and less so to 436:secondary xylem 430:, a subtype of 405: 370:apical meristem 332: 319: 223:) powered by a 165:gene expression 134: 132:Characteristics 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5470: 5468: 5460: 5459: 5454: 5452:Plant hormones 5444: 5443: 5437: 5436: 5434: 5433: 5422: 5419: 5418: 5416: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5399: 5398: 5388: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5377: 5376:Related topics 5374: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5337: 5335: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5327: 5325:Taxonomic rank 5322: 5317: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5300: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5277: 5267: 5266: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5243:Botanical name 5235: 5229: 5227: 5225:Plant taxonomy 5221: 5220: 5218: 5217: 5216: 5215: 5210: 5209: 5208: 5201:Megasporangium 5198: 5197: 5196: 5189:Microsporangia 5181: 5180: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5143: 5142: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5116: 5114: 5112: 5111: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5093: 5091: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5074: 5073: 5072: 5071: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5050: 5049: 5044: 5034: 5029: 5027:Cushion plants 5018: 5016: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4980: 4979: 4974: 4964: 4962:Plant hormones 4959: 4954: 4953: 4952: 4945:Photosynthesis 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4916: 4914: 4906: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4862: 4860: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4810: 4809: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4783: 4778: 4777: 4776: 4775: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4757: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4726: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4718: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4664:Floral formula 4661: 4659:Floral diagram 4656: 4651: 4641: 4640: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4628: 4627: 4622: 4612: 4602: 4597: 4591: 4589: 4588:(incl. Flower) 4581: 4580: 4578: 4577: 4576: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4564: 4563: 4558: 4548: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4517: 4515: 4511: 4510: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4501: 4500: 4490: 4488:Storage organs 4485: 4480: 4479: 4478: 4468: 4462: 4460: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4424: 4422: 4413: 4411: 4410: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4374:Spermatophytes 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4344:Archaeplastida 4341: 4335: 4333: 4326: 4325: 4323: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4306: 4305: 4298:Phytogeography 4295: 4293:Phytochemistry 4290: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4254: 4252: 4250:Subdisciplines 4246: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4237: 4231: 4228: 4227: 4222: 4220: 4219: 4212: 4205: 4197: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4184: 4182:Strigolactones 4179: 4177:Salicylic acid 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4143: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4105: 4102: 4101: 4098:Plant hormones 4096: 4094: 4093: 4086: 4079: 4071: 4065: 4064: 4058: 4050: 4049:External links 4047: 4045: 4044: 3987: 3943: 3924:(4): 788–792. 3908: 3879: 3861: 3842: 3791: 3740: 3729:(4): 252–256. 3713: 3706: 3688: 3665: 3649:Plant Hormones 3639: 3618:(5): 1285–96. 3598: 3555: 3504: 3455: 3404: 3353: 3302: 3259: 3232:(6): 549–565. 3216: 3181: 3130: 3089: 3040: 2999: 2961: 2912: 2877: 2828: 2813: 2797:Plant Hormones 2784: 2773:(2): 675–685. 2756: 2721: 2672: 2643:(3): 901–908. 2623: 2578: 2533: 2484: 2465:(1): 145–174. 2449: 2406: 2382: 2331: 2312:(1–3): 73–80. 2296: 2249: 2195: 2166:(2): 415–421. 2146: 2089: 2035: 1992: 1953:(3): 1718–23. 1933: 1930:(26): CP1–U21. 1914: 1907: 1878: 1859:(10): 1320–5. 1843: 1811: 1770: 1757:(4): 319–344. 1737: 1685: 1678: 1655: 1643: 1614:(7): 2186–96. 1608:The Plant Cell 1594: 1587: 1567: 1560: 1542: 1523:(3): 303–314. 1507: 1488:(2): 163–170. 1472: 1455: 1430: 1405: 1356: 1305: 1254: 1225:(2): 163–172. 1205: 1170: 1118: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1111: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1090: 1089: 1073: 1070: 1054: 1051: 1039:salicylic acid 1034: 1033:Salicylic acid 1031: 1029: 1026: 1010:Main article: 1007: 1004: 977:tissue culture 956: 953: 952: 951: 937: 927: 921: 907: 892: 889: 856:Strigolactones 846:5-deoxystrigol 838: 837:Strigolactones 835: 798:Salicylic acid 793:Salicylic acid 786: 785:Salicylic acid 783: 718: 715: 696:Gibberellin A1 689: 686: 641:leaf expansion 617:Main article: 614: 611: 563: 560: 531:Brassica napus 502: 499: 404: 401: 331: 328: 318: 315: 221:cardiovascular 133: 130: 114:microorganisms 104:, and even in 77:tolerance and 59:concentrations 43:Plant hormones 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5469: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5449: 5447: 5432: 5424: 5423: 5420: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5397: 5394: 5393: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5381: 5375: 5372: 5371: 5368: 5362: 5361:Phytochemical 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5338: 5336: 5332: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5282: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5272: 5271: 5268: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5226: 5222: 5214: 5211: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5199: 5195: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5182: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5159: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5141: 5138: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5101: 5099: 5095: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5070: 5067: 5066: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5039: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5020: 5019: 5017: 5011: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4999:Transpiration 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4969: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4951: 4948: 4947: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4815: 4814: 4811: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4788: 4787: 4786:Inflorescence 4784: 4782: 4779: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4752: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4683: 4682: 4679: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4646: 4645: 4642: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4607: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4592: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4553: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4543: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4512: 4506: 4503: 4499: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4472: 4471:Ground tissue 4469: 4467: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4455: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4417: 4414: 4407: 4401: 4398: 4397: 4395: 4394:Plant anatomy 4391: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4327: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4315:Plant ecology 4313: 4311: 4310:Plant anatomy 4308: 4304: 4301: 4300: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4258:Archaeobotany 4256: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4247: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4229: 4225: 4218: 4213: 4211: 4206: 4204: 4199: 4198: 4195: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4144: 4141: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4109:Abscisic acid 4107: 4106: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4087: 4085: 4080: 4078: 4073: 4072: 4069: 4062: 4059: 4056: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4040: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3991: 3988: 3983: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3966:(4): 608–16. 3965: 3961: 3957: 3950: 3948: 3944: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3909: 3904: 3898: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3880:9781596918160 3876: 3872: 3865: 3862: 3857: 3853: 3846: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3795: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3754:PLOS Genetics 3751: 3744: 3741: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3723:Plant Science 3717: 3714: 3709: 3703: 3699: 3692: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3666:9780127098722 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3643: 3640: 3635: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3602: 3599: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3559: 3556: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3508: 3505: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3459: 3456: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3408: 3405: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3357: 3354: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3303: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3275:(1): 93–117. 3274: 3270: 3263: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3220: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3191:Plant Science 3185: 3182: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3131: 3126: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3093: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3060:(2): 866–75. 3059: 3055: 3051: 3044: 3041: 3036: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3003: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2932:(4): 681–97. 2931: 2927: 2923: 2916: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2893:(5): 532–40. 2892: 2888: 2881: 2878: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2848:(4): 428–35. 2847: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2829: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2814:9780127098722 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2769:(in French). 2768: 2760: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2725: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2676: 2673: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2610: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2582: 2579: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2537: 2534: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2504:(2): 229–48. 2503: 2499: 2495: 2488: 2485: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2453: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2422:(6): 633–44. 2421: 2417: 2410: 2407: 2396: 2392: 2386: 2383: 2378: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2300: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2250: 2245: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2204: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2147: 2142: 2138: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2093: 2090: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1996: 1993: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1937: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1918: 1915: 1910: 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