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air contributes to the Green House effect in the Earth's lower atmosphere layer and ozone layer as carbon is a heat trapping gas. By the year 2018, China was known to be the largest producer of heat trapping emission in the world, with carbon emissions from the country exceeding emissions from the United States and Europe combined. China also burned the most coal in industrial production, as well as everyday uses like cooking or heating than the rest of the world's use combined, as well as recorded to have used about 2.8 billion tons of coal being used in 2008. The burning of coal takes up around 68.7% of the country's total energy consumption. The rise of pollution has also led to heavy smog to pollute cities constantly and make the air quality in China almost insufferable to deal with. Around 64 people in China die each day due to poor air quality and thousands of people in the population die from premature deaths each year due to heavy toxic gases polluting the air in urban areas. The burning of coal in heavy production and other human activity in China also resulted in a mass amount of
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population be frugal with their belonging. Personal consumption was heavily looked down upon and people often reused their personal belongings due to the mass amount of poverty that plagued China during the Mao Era. The
Chinese population also had to deal with a scarce amount of products being available to purchase. By the 1990s however, people were free to easily deposit and buy as much goods and products as they pleased as the emergence of a wider variety of products due to higher production rates within China. However, the rise of consumer culture has led to the rise of wasteful habits as well as pollution. For example, by the 1990s, chopsticks were given out to be used and disposed off frequently. While this seems like a minor change in Chinese society, the easy disposal of chopsticks millions of trees being cut down to produce these disposable chopsticks that are handed out every day in China. However,
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production of commodities, promotion through mass media, and creating identities through commodities, have continued in Mao era and expanded as a side effect of CPC's industrialization goals. The state exerted comprehensive control over industrial production, corresponding with planned allocation of manufactured goods. Prioritizing accumulation of industrial capital, the state suppressed individual desires on consumption, or channeled individual consumption to where the state considers "beneficial to the society". Theoretically the state controls who gets what, but in reality, this is impossible, as the state gives out contradictory signals about consumption. The best example of this kind of contradiction is embodied by the manufacturing and distribution of three major luxury items known as the "big three" (三大件): sewing machine, wristwatch and bicycle.
393:. However, after Deng Xiaoping started to make economic reforms in order to reduce famines, Chinese farmers were to privately grow and produce their own source of food, and were allowed to directly sell their products to consumers. As the state no longer controlled food production and set fixed prices on products, this led to agricultural production and consumption in China increased rapidly. However, many farmers chose to hunt wildlife in order to provide for themselves and sell, and this led to the rise of wet markets in China. Often, these wild animals would be kept in poor conditions and caged close to one another. The transfer of diseases from animals to one another would become quite common as a result due to these poor regulations in these wet markets. These wet markets would also create damage to the environment and ecosystem as many
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available, even in remote areas. Production of the big three expanded dramatically in later years of the Mao era, satisfying many peoples' desires to own them. Taking wristwatches as an example, in 1968 annual watch production in
Shanghai exceeded 1 million for the first time, doubled to 2.28 million in just 2 years in 1970. At the same time, the state's policies and narrative about consumption changed from promoting frugalism to encouraging consumption. As "the big three" become increasingly popular in China, they have lost their initial elite status, and eventually replaced by the "new big three" after the reform and opening: television, refrigerator and washing machine.
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frugal living (艰苦朴素). Fetishism, or the worship of commodities, continued to exist in various forms. For instance, ownership of a wristwatch was connected to privileged social status, since watches were not only expensive but also requires coupons. For women, mastery in using sewing machines was considered to be highly favorable, as being able to sew would indicate likelihood of being a better wife. Throughout Mao era, uneven distribution of industrial products continued to enlarge the three main social differences: urban vs. rural; industrial vs. agricultural and intellectual vs. manual labor (
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feature in common: they sell a wide range of products. It is worth noting that some specialized dealerships like
Chinese Underwear (中国内衣) and Yongsheng Children's Clothing (永生童装) also call themselves department stores, but this suggests the name "department store" itself was considered new, fashionable and sought after. Among them four were the most prominent: Xianshi (先施), Yongan (永安), Xinxin (新新) and Daxin (大新), together they were referred to as the "Four Majors" (四大). Most department stores located on the Nanking Road, at the core of the
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colors and dense fiber, making them very comfortable to wear. Wide availability of imported textile gave rise to a gradual but definitive change in garment styles. Western style garments infiltrated the vast majority of China, not limited to coastal regions or large cities. Prior to 1894, garments in China mostly retained their traditional forms and design, but gradual change began to take place as foreign materials became readily available, contact with foreigners increased, and importers started to work more on promoting their products.
294:, where traffic is dense. The erection of department stores also established the area's figure as modern and luxurious, as department stores provide goods and services that are usually associated with "modernity", like timepieces, glasses, cigarettes and jewelry while driving "traditional" businesses like catering, bath houses and home improvements out of the area. In this way, department stores not only redefined consumption, but also reshaped Shanghai's landscape and powered a surge in consumption.
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Era, most markets were eliminated, and it was extremely difficult for the
Chinese population to buy necessities for themselves in order to survive. These extreme markets show the negative consequences of consumer culture's rise in China, as these markets have reached the point where they can no longer be controlled by the Chinese government, despite many efforts being made to do so. Due to the lack of regulation from the government, these markets would sell the services of wet nurses,
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shopping as a must-do chore that should be finished quickly. Department stores are built around exactly opposite philosophy. They are dedicated to make shopping become an experience by itself through carefully arranging the shopping space in a way that picking items offer an all-around sensory stimulation. Department stores also became pioneers in employing advanced technology like elevators and air conditioning to create a modern and comfortable shopping environment.
426:. Over 5000 different endangered animals have been found to be sold in these smuggling rings. The Wildlife Protection Law that was passed in 1989 is one example of the Chinese government trying to regulate extreme markets like the wet market, however failed. This law made it illegal to buy or consume animals that were internationally protected and endangered, but consumption still continued. This has contributed to many animals like Tigers and
381:, young brides and even children. They would lead to the rise of human trafficking becoming a more common occurrence in the country, the adoption created a new consumer market in China, wet markets causing harm to the environment, and the rise of the sexual awakening in China. The rise of extreme markets in China is also a symbol that mass consumerism and consumer culture in China is now seemingly out of control.
307:. Commonly referred to as the National Products Movement (国货运动), it is a series of loosely connected thoughts that divides products into "national" and "foreign", thus promoting, sometimes coercing consumers to buy "national goods". Consumption of national goods were considered to be beneficial to the country, while foreign goods were considered to be hostiles and should be boycotted.
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were brighter and cheaper. Kerosene became widely used by
Chinese households starting from 1880s as they were imported to China in bulk. In 1887 kerosene make up 1.3% of the total value of imported goods, in 1894 it was already 4.9%, more than tripled in seven years. In terms of volume, it was 23 million gallons in 1886, and tripled to 69 million gallons in 1894, also tripled.
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422:, and Brazilian lizards are a few examples of animals that are sold at these markets. Smuggling rings started to transfer the skin and meat of these animals to wet markets despite the Chinese government's effort to reduce the number of endangered animals sold at these markets. These smuggling rings will extend from China to regions all the way in
319:(关于使用国货) in 1936: "Unless you are in urgent need of something that is only made available by foreign manufacturers, like books and stationeries, otherwise you should use national goods as long as they are available." He also pointed out he saved a fortune through buying brushes and Chinese crude paper instead of western stationeries.
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wealth and luxury, a lifestyle that was valued highly in China's new consumer culture. Many who also consumed the meat of these endangered animals may believe in superstitions where the consumption of these animals' meat would enhance certain behavior. Animals from all around the world, not just local
Chinese wildlife, such as the
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back in the end of the 1970s, the
Chinese population has grown accustomed to eating large proportions of food, especially meat. The consumption of meat was now considered in Chinese society to be a symbol of luxury, which was life that many people in China desired to have and showcase to their peers. Meat like
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The rise of consumerism in China has helped boost the market and raise China's economy but has played a part in severe damage to the environment and air pollution in China and the rest of the world. During the Mao Era, being wasteful was heavily looked down upon and it was encouraged that the
Chinese
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Imported goods flooding into China also gave rise to new thoughts, the most notable being worries and bitterness towards China's lack of industrial power. People began to increasingly define their own identities through consuming branded commodities, those concerns evolved into a prolonged political
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appeared in western Europe and North
America in late 19th century and made their way to large cities in China shortly afterwards, bringing into China new forms of consumerism. Traditional retail modes emphasize specialization and letting customers find items they need as quickly as possible, viewing
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Also the rise of production has led to high releases of carbon emissions in the air as many factories spread across China burn fossil fuels like coal in order to produce goods to satisfy the growing demand of products by consumers in China and around the world. The buildup of carbon emission in the
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that has become a common occurrence in China. Many children who are left unsupervised for a short period of time are at risk of being kidnapped and sold in these extreme markets, even if they are in their own homes. Many parents who are victims of having their children go missing often have to make
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who were already at risk of being extinct were now being sold off for consumption. Rising incomes as a result of the new economic reforms, that allowed for more people to purchase rare animals in these wet markets. The consumption of these endangered animals in banquets was portrayed as a symbol of
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to be raised for future consumption. Due to constant grazing, many areas that were one grassland have turned to deserts in China with nearly a million acres of land in China being turned to a desert. This allows for more loose soil and dust to be picked up by the wind and travel around in the air,
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that sell wild animals for consumption, and well as underground sex shops. The introduction of extreme markets in China would emerge soon after the end of the
Cultural Revolution in China and economic reforms started being made that would advance consumer culture in Chinese society. During the Mao
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Many influential figures have been avid promoters of national products. From government officials to famous writers to industrialists, people wrote in militant and provocative languages to portray foreign goods and those who sell them as invaders, while national goods were pivotal to the country's
278:(Canton), outdoor billboards are also very common. As of 1934, there are more than 4000 square meters of billboards in Shanghai. Sometimes there were also promotion teams wielding advertisements on the street, giving out small samples of products or merchandises like calendars, posters or diaries.
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Came with new products were new forms of commerce, like advertisements and department stores. The popularity of imported goods is also partly due to meticulous marketing techniques adopted by manufacturers and importers. Importers of foreign goods made good use of advertisements, as the newspapers
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So were foreign utensils. Mechanically produced safety matches, referred to as "foreign fire" by Chinese users, were easier to use than traditional fire-making tools and soon replaced the traditional lifestyle of making fire. Imported kerosene also replaced peanut oil in daily illumination as they
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instead of reusable ones became a symbol of a civilized lifestyle, particularly by China's middle class that could afford this behavior. Many food markets and eating establishments have been switching to disposable products like chopsticks since the 1980s. Also, due to economic changes introduced
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Views on national goods often contain a gendered perspective. Urban women and students used to spend a significant amount on imported cosmetics and garments, but ubiquitous propaganda, sensations of nationalism and public opinion pressure soon led to women being major advocates of national goods.
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Better quality/performance and relative cheap price soon made imported goods vastly popular especially in coastal regions of China after 1870s. Before the consumption of imported goods were limited to rich people in coastal regions, but as traffic infrastructure improves over time, imported goods
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was gradually demolished by a series of foreign invasions. Along with western industrial capitalist enterprises came manufactured goods from the west and Japan, hence the emergence of consumer culture, Lifestyles were radically transformed when industrial products became readily available at much
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Shanghai, with its large numbers of rich or middle-class people and convenient transportation, was the most notable place in nurturing new consumption forms. From 1920 to 1949, at least 82 shopping sites in Shanghai identify themselves as department stores. They came in various sizes, having one
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and magazines sprouted after 1895. From 1898 to 1912, the number of Chinese newspapers and magazines skyrocketed from approximately 100 to more than 500. Including those have demised, the number would be from 700 to 800. As of 1913, 51 million copies of newspapers and magazines had been shipped.
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listed around 50 words that contain "foreign" in his famous 1893 book Words of Warning to a Prosperous Age, all of them point to an imported product. The popularity of "foreign" containing words suggest people have been very familiar with imported products, if not all of them had experienced the
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Technological superiority is another major reason for the vast popularity of imported goods. From 1788 to 1840, costs of textile lowered for more than 90% in England, making imported cloth much cheaper than domestic products, and they were much better in quality. Imported English cloth had vivid
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Consumerism and consumer culture did not demise during the Mao era. Brand hierarchies were replaced by a series of Chinese brands ran by state owned enterprises. During this period forms of consumer culture altered in response to the country's political atmosphere, which emphasizes hard work and
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Conventional ideas usually perceive Mao era as being frugal and anti-capitalism, but consumerism have survived the Mao era in various forms, despite CPC claimed to eliminate capitalism and establish an egalitarian socialist country. Core processes of consumerism that emerged before Mao era—mass
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Before late 1950s the "big three" are very hard to get in China, their use was limited to rich families as they were mainly produced by foreign companies. But as the country's industry recovers from prolonged warfare and increased state control on economy, the big three became more and more
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in 1793: "The celestial empire......has all kinds of exotic and valuable items as you have seen......We do not need to trade with you for anything." At that time China showed no interest to British goods or foreign goods in general, but the situation soon began to change in 19th century.
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cheaper prices than local goods made in traditional ways. Consumerism in the late imperial and Republican eras were heavily intertwined with the process of establishing China as a nation, despite the absence of tariff tools due to China ceding its sovereignty to major world powers after
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Women organizations also provided convenience for buying national goods. Shanghai Women's Association (上海妇女会) established the Women's National Goods Consumption Union (妇女国货消费合作社), making national goods available at cheaper prices and more places. Actresses and female singers like
116:, including economic inequalities increased as a new elite class rise through rent seeking and privatization of state assets. Within two decades China transformed from a poor but rather economically egalitarian socialist country to a market economy in which
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The rise of consumerism and production in China that began after the economic changes led to the reemergence of markets that existed before the communist era in China and the rise of extreme markets in China.
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refers to the emergence of social arrangements with Chinese characteristics in which the relations between lived culture and social resources are mediated through the rapid
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organizations among themselves in order to find their children. Many parents who have reported their child's disappearance to the authorities or even government officials.
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almost going extinct due to excessive Chinese consumption. Due to these markets and the poor conditions animals face, China is met with international pressure from
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and the following tax agreement in 1843. Tariff for British textile range from 13.38% to 29.93% previously but were slashed to 5.56 to 6.95% after 1843.
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spread to more remote areas, even in the countryside, rendering traditional handcrafts useless. As of 1936, only 24.4% peasants still weave their own cloth.
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The Republican era saw the establishment of commercial advertisements and brand hierarchies, especially globally famous brands. When the
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and subsequent sanctions, leading to the diminishing of foreign brands in China, although existing users still cherished items such as
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Approximately 60% to 70% of all the newspaper advertisements belonged to foreign companies or their agents. In larger cities like
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and numerous Swiss wristwatches, and many items still found their way to China during the Mao era in smaller quantities.
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released into the air. The increasing amount of sulfur dioxide gas in the air has resulted in multiple cases of
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This can be seen in the evolution of new words containing "foreign" (洋). Famous reformist writer and thinker
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528:"Unconventional luxury brand collaborations: a new form of luxury consumption among young adults in China"
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that states a Knowledge (XXG) editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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is extremely common in almost every Chinese meal today, and this results in an increasing amount of
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During the last decade of the Mao Era, around 36 million people in the Chinese population died from
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38:. This type of consumption is situated in contexts experienced primarily in mainland China such as
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underwent drastic economic changes that fueled the emergence of a large, vibrant and diverse
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would actively endorse national goods and personally buy them to promote their popularity.
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survival from the perspective of promoting capital growth. One quintessential example is
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interrupted Chinese plans to promote national goods and industrial capitalism.
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Unending Capitalism: How Consumerism Negated China's Communist Revolution
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Unending Capitalism: How Consumerism Negated China's Communist Revolution
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Industrially manufactured goods like cloth flooded into China after the
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Despite comprehensive efforts from various parties, the elevation of
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Emergence of imported goods and the disintegration of natural economy
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The women and children sold in these extreme markets are victims of
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China Made: Consumer Culture and the Creation of the Nation
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Rovai, Serena (2014), Atwal, Glyn; Bryson, Douglas (eds.),
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due to the much lower tariff rate specified in the unequal
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personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
1052:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–19.
997:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–12.
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made a very famous comment on the issue when he spoke to
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Diaz Ruiz, Carlos; Cruz, Angela Gracia B. (2023-01-01).
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movement in 1930s, dedicated to establishing China as a
112:. However, the rise of consumerism came with a range of
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315:, a famous writer and poet, who wrote in his article
916:. Cambridge: Havard University Press. pp. 4–5.
573:, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 130–134,
766:(in Chinese). Vol. 3. 北京: 中华书局. p. 1388.
93:) that the party claimed it would try to bridge.
661:(in Chinese). Taipei: 台湾商务印书馆. pp. 30–31.
120:, a measure of income inequality, keep rising.
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567:"The Evolution of Luxury Consumption in China"
891:(in Chinese). 北京: 社会科学文献出版社. pp. 51–52.
866:(in Chinese). 北京: 社会科学文献出版社. pp. 89–92.
829:(in Chinese). 上海: 上海汉文正楷书局. 1936. p. 85.
711:(in Chinese). 北京: 中央编译出版社. pp. 141–142.
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781:(in Chinese). 沈阳: 辽宁人民出版社. pp. 238–239.
636:(in Chinese). Taipei: 台湾商务印书馆. p. 35.
1240:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
611:(in Chinese). 北京: 中央编译出版社. pp. 7–13.
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736:(in Chinese). 上海: 上海社会科学院出版社. p. 35.
174:Learn how and when to remove this message
840:中国民主建国会重庆市委员会 (1982). "美孚石油公司在重庆的经济掠夺".
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53:emerged in China in the final years of
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974:from the original on 10 December 2023
751:(in Chinese). 北京: 中华书局. p. 1403.
686:(in Chinese). 北京: 人民出版社. p. 44.
351:Setbacks of the growth of consumerism
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364:These extreme markets would include
1025:. December 26, 2003. Archived from
455:Negative impacts on the environment
792:陆, 国香 (Oct 1936). "论农村信用及农村信用调查".
108:, including a growing interest in
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1165:Growing Consumer Culture of China
811:桑, 兵 (1991). "清末民初传播业的民间化与社会变迁".
571:Luxury Brands in Emerging Markets
18:Growing consumer culture of China
1199:As China Goes, So Goes the World
1107:As China Goes, So Goes the World
1078:As China Goes, So Goes the World
187:Late imperial and republican era
132:
1228:Guide to Chinese Climate Policy
964:"消费行为下的家国情怀——20世纪30年代中国国货运动再思考"
1140:University of California Press
684:中国资本主义发展史 第二卷 旧民主主义革命时期的中国资本主义
532:International Marketing Review
317:On the Usage of National Goods
96:After the reform and opening,
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64:substantial military failures
962:谭, 玉秀; 范, 立君 (4 July 2022).
281:A revolution in retailing,
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1203:Farrar, Straus and Giroux
1169:Farrar, Straus and Giroux
1111:Farrar, Straus and Giroux
1082:Farrar, Straus and Giroux
482:causing more population.
332:Japanese invasion in 1937
28:Consumer culture of China
1226:Sandalow, David (2019).
941:(in Chinese). 扬州: 广陵书社.
937:郁, 达夫 (2021). "关于使用国货".
579:10.1057/9781137330536_12
544:10.1108/IMR-04-2022-0099
298:Consumption and ideology
292:International Settlement
40:China's one-child policy
1230:. New York. p. 10.
659:消费中国：资本主义的敌人如何成为消费主义的信徒
634:消费中国：资本主义的敌人如何成为消费主义的信徒
71:Chinese Communist Party
1019:"上海轻工业志 第八章钟表 第一节行业沿革"
154:by rewriting it in an
114:negative externalities
83:Singer sewing machines
732:上海社会科学院经济研究所 (1989).
428:Himalayan black bears
254:New forms of commerce
1205:. pp. 184–185.
1197:Gerth, Karl (2010).
1171:. pp. 181–183.
1163:Gerth, Karl (2010).
1113:. pp. 175–176.
1105:Gerth, Karl (2010).
1084:. pp. 147–148.
1076:Gerth, Karl (2010).
1048:Gerth, Karl (2020).
993:Gerth, Karl (2020).
912:Gerth, Karl (2004).
889:打造消费天堂：百货公司与近代上海城市文化
864:打造消费天堂：百货公司与近代上海城市文化
657:Gerth, Karl (2021).
632:Gerth, Karl (2021).
432:animal rights groups
338:China in the Mao era
59:self-imposed autarky
506:to occur in China.
462:disposable products
436:European Parliament
124:Rise of consumerism
827:上海市市镇报告（1932-1934）
402:, Asian leopards,
395:endangered animals
156:encyclopedic style
143:is written like a
1134:Sang, Ye (2006).
1029:on April 27, 2016
948:978-7-5554-1477-3
588:978-1-349-46108-0
500:fluorinated gases
448:human trafficking
442:Human trafficking
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1201:. New York:
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978:10 December
764:中国近代对外贸易史资料
538:(7): 1–21.
385:Wet markets
371:sex workers
366:wet markets
79:Parker pens
848:: 124–125.
800:(10): 5–6.
734:上海对外贸易（上册）
594:2024-06-25
510:References
212:an embassy
196:See also:
75:Korean War
1236:cite book
1023:上海市地方志办公室
552:0265-1335
504:acid rain
479:livestock
276:Guangzhou
224:Opium War
164:June 2024
1256:Category
972:Archived
815:(6): 54.
412:pangolin
264:Shanghai
492:methane
475:chicken
420:turtles
313:Yu Dafu
268:Tianjin
246:goods.
214:led by
150:Please
46:History
1209:
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939:郁达夫杂文选
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842:重庆工商史料
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498:, and
473:, and
408:otters
391:famine
325:Hu Die
206:. The
813:近代史研究
490:gas,
416:bears
272:Wuhan
98:China
36:China
1242:link
1207:ISBN
1173:ISBN
1144:ISBN
1115:ISBN
1086:ISBN
1054:ISBN
1035:2023
999:ISBN
980:2023
968:光明日报
943:ISBN
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893:ISBN
868:ISBN
794:农行月刊
779:盛世危言
713:ISBN
688:ISBN
663:ISBN
638:ISBN
613:ISBN
583:ISBN
548:ISSN
471:pork
467:beef
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274:and
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