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There is, in political geography, no
Germany proper to speak of. There are Kingdoms and Grand Duchies, and Duchies and Principalities, inhabited by Germans, and each separately ruled by an independent sovereign with all the machinery of State. Yet there is a natural undercurrent tending to a national
786:
shortly after. The unification process was reinforced one month later by a referendum, supported by an overwhelming majority. In contrast to the political situation in the 19th century, when
Austria had controlled large areas of non-German peoples, Austria became the subordinate partner in the new
474:
crown land, altogether making up the larger part of the
Austrian Empire. Except for Bohemia, Carniola, and Trento, these territories were not part of the German Confederation because they had not (in some cases not lately) been part of the former Holy Roman Empire, and none of them desired to be
956:
The German question was a central aspect of the origins of the Cold War. The legal and diplomatic intercourse between the Allies regarding the treatment of the German question brought forward the elements of intervention and coexistence which formed the basis for a relatively peaceful postwar
520:, which excluded the whole Austrian Empire with its German and its non-German possessions. They argued that Prussia, as the only Great Power with a predominantly German-speaking population, was best qualified to lead the newly unified Germany. Yet, the drafted
94:
solution") sought to unify only the northern German states and did not include any part of
Austria (either its German-inhabited areas or its areas dominated by other ethnic groups); this proposal was favored by the
739:, despite its friendly relations with Hitler, strongly opposed any kind of merger of Austria into Germany, and pressured and threatened Austrian politicians from pursuing such a course. Austria, meanwhile, adopted
421:
position argued that since the
Habsburgs had ruled the Holy Roman Empire for almost 400 years from 1440 to 1806 (the only break coming from the extinction of the Habsburg male line in 1740 to the election of
426:
in 1745), Austria was best suited to lead the unified nation. However, Austria posed a problem because the
Habsburgs ruled large chunks of non-German-speaking territory. The largest such area was the
491:, only the accession of the Habsburg Empire as a whole was acceptable because it had no intention to part from its non-German possessions and dismantle in order to remain in an all-German Empire.
574:, now at the helm of German politics, pursued the expulsion of Austria and managed to unite all German states except Austria under Prussian leadership, while the Habsburg lands were shaken by
237:
powers with territory reaching far beyond Holy Roman
Imperial borders. Meanwhile, the many smaller estates splintered further. In the 18th century the Holy Roman Empire consisted of
743:
which focused on the history of
Austria and opposed the absorption of Austria into Nazi Germany (according to the belief that Austrians were "better Germans"). Austrian Chancellor
393:. The Greater German movement within this National Assembly demanded the unification of all German-populated lands into one nation. In general or to an extent, the left favored a
524:
provided for the possibility for
Austria to join without its non-German possessions later. On March 30, 1849, the Frankfurt parliament offered the German Imperial crown to King
731:, an Austrian German by birth, had been a firm proponent of the unification of Germany and Austria. A demand for a Greater Germany was included in a 1920 party platform of the
1294:
528:, who rejected it. The revolution failed and several subsequent attempts by Prince Schwarzenberg to more closely unite the German Confederation headed by Austria (
309:
Austria, the largest and most powerful German state of the early 19th century. As a result, Catholics and
Austria-friendly, mostly southern states usually favored
1831:
961:
started with the creation of four occupation zones, continued with establishing two German states (West Germany and East Germany), was deepened in the period of
950:
1076:
Blumenau, Bernhard (2018). "German foreign policy and the "German Problem" during and after the Cold War". In B Blumenau; J Hanhimäki; B Zanchetta (eds.).
373:
359:. Additional complication was that the Austrians were reluctant to enter a unified Germany if it meant giving up their non-German speaking territories.
1584:
735:. Hitler's election in Germany set into motion increased pressure for a merger between Germany and Austria that swayed many Austrian politicians. But
664:
The idea of Austrian territories with a significant German-speaking population joining a Greater German state was maintained by some circles both in
793:("Eastern March") by the new German state. In a reference to the 19th-century "Greater German solution", the enlarged state was referred to as the
660:
that was enacted on 13 March 1938, and do you vote for the party of our leader Adolf Hitler?" The large circle is labeled "Yes", the smaller "No".
685:
1014:, there are no mainstream political groups in Austria or Germany that advocate a "Greater Germany" today; those that do are often regarded as
1248:
1184:
Constructing and Deconstructing National Identity: Dramatic Discourse in Tom Murphy's The Patriot Game and Felix Mitterer's In Der Löwengrube
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327:, mostly northern German states. Another complicating factor was the Austrian Empire's inclusion of a large number of non-Germans, such as
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populations. Austria further comprised numerous possessions with predominantly non-German populations, including Czechs in the
292:, which was not a nation but a commonwealth association of sovereign states on the territory of the former Holy Roman Empire.
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Voting ballot from 10 April 1938. The ballot text reads, "Do you agree with the reunification of Austria with the German
1851:
615:. Protestant Prussia became the dominant power of the new state, and Austria-Hungary was excluded, remaining a separate
593:
Catholics in the south from being a predominant force in a mainly Protestant Prussian Germany. He successfully used the
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in 1871. Bismarck used the prestige gained from the victory to maintain the alliance with Bavaria and proclaimed the
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lands of the Habsburg Empire were not a subject of German debates. On the other hand, for Austrian prime minister
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envisioned (aside from the fact that large areas of the former Prussia were no longer part of Germany) than the
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Prussia's expansion into the German Empire from 1807 (dark blue): green territories added according to the 1815
1772:
1649:
1113:
529:
324:
755:' desire for a unified nation-state incorporating all Germans into a Greater Germany persisted and, in time,
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feeling and toward a union of the Germans into one great nation, ruled by one common head as a national unit.
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to convince the other German states, including the Kingdom of Bavaria, to stand with Prussia against the
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did not participate in the war. After Prussia's speedy victory, the debate was settled in favor of the
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unified German-speaking state. From 1938 to 1942, the former state of Austria was referred to as
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solution") favored unifying all German-speaking peoples under one state, and was promoted by the
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between the Weimar Republic and Austria. The move was protested by France, and bankers such as
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which among other things required Austria to renounce any designs on uniting with Germany.
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Maps of German and European revolutions of 1848–49 and German unification (omniatlas.com)
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was affirmed in a separate but related act. Furthermore, Germany was stripped of much of
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and the dissolution of the Austro–Hungarian monarchy in 1918 by the proclamation of the
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949:) regained their independence from German control. Germans in Eastern Europe were also
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was met with overwhelming approval of the German-Austrian people, and was confirmed by
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The solutions are also referred to by the names of the states they proposed to create,
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remains a separate country. Because of the idea's association with Nazism and rise of
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became official in 1943. As well as Germany (pre-World War II borders), Austria, and
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740:
720:. Large-volume money transfers followed, making the customs union impractical as the
709:
612:
394:
344:
260:'s domination of Europe. Facing the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the ruling
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explicitly rejected the offered mandate to the Frankfurt assembly, stating that the
182:(yellow) and independent German states (grey). The red line marks the border of the
62:. From 1815 to 1866, about 37 independent German-speaking states existed within the
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902:
901:. With the defeat of the Nazi regime in 1945, "Greater Germany" was separated into
898:
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In 1938, Hitler's long-desired union between his birthplace, Austria, and Germany (
728:
295:
While a number of factors swayed allegiances in the debate, the most prominent was
131:
17:
763:, leading to a stretch of resources and less willingness to intervene in Austria.
149:, the term was repurposed to refer to the matters pertaining to the division, and
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1134:"The National Archives - Milestones to peace: The Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye"
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Metternich and the German Question: States' Rights and Federal Duties, 1820–1834
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These efforts were finally terminated by Austria's humiliating defeat in 1866
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Thus, some members of the assembly, and Prussia in particular, promoted the
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of 1866. Yellow territories joined the German Empire in 1871 after the
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130:. They also drew upon similar contemporary efforts to create a unified
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Occupation zone borders in Germany, 1947. The territories east of the
186:; both Prussia and Austria controlled lands outside the Confederation.
850:
680:. Proponents attempted to incorporate German Austria into the German
439:
431:
332:
751:(1934–1938) called Austria the "better German state". Nevertheless,
225:'s authority, as the mightiest two entities within it, the Austrian
644:, Austrian chancellor from 1934 to 1938, strongly opposed Hitler's
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abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in the course of the
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had to cope with a continuous loss of authority to its constituent
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of people who shared a common ethnicity and language, such as the
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977:", in order to remind all Germans of the “open” (unanswered)
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would mean the domination of the new state by the Protestant
1241:
The German Question and the International Order, 1943-1948
54:" was a debate in the 19th century, especially during the
929:(i.e. the bulk of Prussia), most of which was annexed to
684:. However, this was prohibited by the terms of both the
475:
included in a German nation-state. The Czech politician
27:
Mid-19th century debate about the unification of Germany
805:. The names were informal at first, but the change to
668:
and Germany. It was again promoted after the close of
38:
with each state viewing itself separate. Cartoon from
60:
unification of all or most lands inhabited by Germans
385:
In 1848, German liberals and nationalists united in
46:
Caption reads: "German Unity. A Tragedy in one Act."
1703:
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778:was unable to enforce the ban on such a union. The
969:from 1961 and existed until 1989/1990. After the
544:Language map from a German atlas, printed in 1881
430:, which also included large Slovak, Romanian and
1243:. New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
697:, though Austrian political parties such as the
578:conflicts, only superficially resolved with the
284:. The 1815 restoration by the Final Act of the
189:
897:This unification lasted only until the end of
1288:
799:("Greater German Reich") and colloquially as
8:
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1078:New Perspectives on the End of the Cold War
987:), which meant the call for reunification.
889:under Polish and Soviet administration and
585:At the same time, Bismarck established the
536:Austro-Prussian War and Franco-Prussian War
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305:would have implied a dominant position for
1295:
1281:
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708:In 1931, there was an attempt to create a
126:"). Both movements were part of a growing
402:, whereas the liberal center favored the
880:
619:. The Lesser German solution prevailed.
470:, which was still incorporated into the
160:
29:
1053:
917:but given full sovereignty by the 1955
913:by the Allied Powers. Austria was also
871:East and West Germany and reunification
855:
1080:. London: Routledge. pp. 92–116.
992:reunification of East and West Germany
990:Modern Germany's territory, after the
933:, with a small portion annexed to the
589:, seeking to prevent the Austrian and
1832:19th century in the Habsburg monarchy
1132:Archives, The National (2019-09-09).
221:proved especially detrimental to the
7:
839:Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany
853:under German military occupation).
580:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
502:, light blue territories after the
246:rivalry between Austria and Prussia
1355:States of the German Confederation
759:'s Italy became distracted by its
566:, the Prussian Minister President
377:First German National assembly at
315:. A unification of Germany led by
241:governed by distinct authorities.
233:, evolved into rivalling European
25:
58:, over the best way to achieve a
1796:
971:Uprising of 1953 in East Germany
945:), and the Slovenian lands (via
865:The Greater German Reich in 1943
858:
847:"General Government" territories
239:hundreds of separate territories
1066:. University of Delaware Press.
994:in 1990, is closer to what the
526:Frederick William IV of Prussia
1158:"Internet History Sourcebooks"
941:). Luxembourg, the Czech (via
705:pursued this idea regardless.
250:War of the Austrian Succession
1:
1630:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust
1042:German nationalism in Austria
699:Greater German People's Party
489:Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg
369:German revolutions of 1848–49
323:, a more palatable option to
168:
1060:Robert D. Billinger (1991).
268:in 1804. On August 6, 1806,
1778:Schleswig–Holstein question
1625:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann
1239:Lewkowicz, Nicolas (2010).
1868:
1660:Karl August von Hardenberg
1398:North German Confederation
1371:Confederation of the Rhine
1138:The National Archives blog
1012:Austrian national identity
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957:international order. The
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761:1936 invasion of Ethiopia
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252:, and then outlasted the
1773:Greater Austria proposal
1110:The Situation of Germany
927:historic eastern Germany
530:Greater Austria proposal
209:Over the centuries, the
82:and its supporters. The
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1822:19th century in Germany
1716:Austro-Prussian rivalry
1529:"Blood and Iron" speech
1500:Greater Poland uprising
1471:Frankfurter Wachensturm
1181:Birgit Ryschka (2008).
1162:sourcebooks.fordham.edu
1086:10.4324/9781315189031-6
1037:Legal status of Germany
410:constitutional monarchy
1729:Das Lied der Deutschen
1665:Klemens von Metternich
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532:) came to nothing.
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479:František Palacký
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1048:References
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