1610:
Both cases can lead to deletions, rearrangements, and other mutations. Recent evidence has suggested that mitochondria have enzymes that proofread mtDNA and fix mutations that may occur due to free radicals. It is believed that a DNA recombinase found in mammalian cells is also involved in a repairing recombination process. Deletions and mutations due to free radicals have been associated with the aging process. It is believed that radicals cause mutations which lead to mutant proteins, which in turn led to more radicals. This process takes many years and is associated with some aging processes involved in oxygen-dependent tissues such as brain, heart, muscle, and kidney. Auto-enhancing processes such as these are possible causes of degenerative diseases including
399:
1425:
this strands is widespread, and appears to originate with an identification of the majority coding strand as the heavy in one influential article in 1999. In humans, the light strand of mtDNA carries 28 genes and the heavy strand of mtDNA carries only 9 genes. Eight of the 9 genes on the heavy strand code for mitochondrial tRNA molecules. Human mtDNA consists of 16,569 nucleotide pairs. The entire molecule is regulated by only one regulatory region which contains the origins of replication of both heavy and light strands. The entire human mitochondrial DNA molecule has been mapped.
1656:
mitochondrion will occur in chromosomal DNA, which is inherited in a
Mendelian pattern. Another result is that a chromosomal mutation will affect a specific tissue due to its specific needs, whether those may be high energy requirements or a need for the catabolism or anabolism of a specific neurotransmitter or nucleic acid. Because several copies of the mitochondrial genome are carried by each mitochondrion (2–10 in humans), mitochondrial mutations can be inherited maternally by mtDNA mutations which are present in mitochondria inside the
1631:
been isolated. Mitochondria need a certain protein to undergo fission. If this protein (generated by the nucleus) is not present, the mitochondria grow but they do not divide. This leads to giant, inefficient mitochondria. Mistakes in chromosomal genes or their products can also affect mitochondrial replication more directly by inhibiting mitochondrial polymerase and can even cause mutations in the mtDNA directly and indirectly. Indirect mutations are most often caused by radicals created by defective proteins made from nuclear DNA.
222:
29:
419:(diseases due to malfunction of mitochondria) can be inherited both maternally and through chromosomal inheritance, the way in which they are passed on from generation to generation can vary greatly depending on the disease. Mitochondrial genetic mutations that occur in the nuclear DNA can occur in any of the chromosomes (depending on the species). Mutations inherited through the chromosomes can be autosomal dominant or recessive and can also be sex-linked dominant or recessive. Chromosomal inheritance follows normal
1684:. When a certain tissue reaches a certain ratio of mutant versus wildtype mitochondria, a disease will present itself. The ratio varies from person to person and tissue to tissue (depending on its specific energy, oxygen, and metabolism requirements, and the effects of the specific mutation). Mitochondrial diseases are very numerous and different. Apart from diseases caused by abnormalities in mitochondrial DNA, many diseases are suspected to be associated in part by mitochondrial dysfunctions, such as
407:
1676:) makes them very hard to accurately recognize, diagnose and trace. Some diseases are observable at or even before birth (many causing death) while others do not show themselves until late adulthood (late-onset disorders). This is because the number of mutant versus wildtype mitochondria varies between cells and tissues, and is continuously changing. Because cells have multiple mitochondria, different mitochondria in the same cell can have different variations of the
1577:. One strand begins to replicate first, displacing the other strand. This continues until replication reaches the origin of replication on the other strand, at which point the other strand begins replicating in the opposite direction. This results in two new mtDNA molecules. Each mitochondrion has several copies of the mtDNA molecule and the number of mtDNA molecules is a limiting factor in
427:
mitochondria or the cytoplasm; this may lead to slight, if any, noticeable symptoms. On the other hand, some devastating mtDNA mutations are easy to diagnose because of their widespread damage to muscular, neural, and/or hepatic tissues (among other high-energy and metabolism-dependent tissues) and because they are present in the mother and all the offspring.
1514:, or one long transcript. The production of primers occurs by processing of light strand transcripts with the Mitochondrial RNase MRP (Mitochondrial RNA Processing). The requirement of transcription to produce primers links the process of transcription to mtDNA replication. Full length transcripts are cut into functional tRNA, rRNA, and mRNA molecules.
2879:
Courtenay, Monique D.; Gilbert, John R.; Jiang, Lan; Cummings, Anna C.; Gallins, Paul J.; Caywood, Laura; Reinhart-Mercer, Lori; Fuzzell, Denise; Knebusch, Claire; Laux, Renee; McCauley, Jacob L.; Jackson, Charles E.; Pericak-Vance, Margaret A.; Haines, Jonathan L.; Scott, William K. (February 2012).
1671:
range in severity from asymptomatic to fatal, and are most commonly due to inherited rather than acquired mutations of mitochondrial DNA. A given mitochondrial mutation can cause various diseases depending on the severity of the problem in the mitochondria and the tissue the affected mitochondria are
1749:
and unidentified remains. Many researchers believe that mtDNA is better suited to identification of older skeletal remains than nuclear DNA because the greater number of copies of mtDNA per cell increases the chance of obtaining a useful sample, and because a match with a living relative is possible
1630:
Because mitochondrial growth and fission are mediated by the nuclear DNA, mutations in nuclear DNA can have a wide array of effects on mtDNA replication. Despite the fact that the loci for some of these mutations have been found on human chromosomes, specific genes and proteins involved have not yet
1456:
There are many other variations among the codes used by other mitochondrial m/tRNA, which happened not to be harmful to their organisms, and which can be used as a tool (along with other mutations among the mtDNA/RNA of different species) to determine relative proximity of common ancestry of related
456:
It is possible, even in twin births, for one baby to receive more than half mutant mtDNA molecules while the other twin may receive only a tiny fraction of mutant mtDNA molecules with respect to wildtype (depending on how the twins divide from each other and how many mutant mitochondria happen to be
1609:
from mistakes that occur during the production of ATP through the electron transport chain. These mistakes can be caused by genetic disorders, cancer, and temperature variations. These radicals can damage mtDNA molecules or change them, making it hard for mitochondrial polymerase to replicate them.
1424:
Mitochondrial DNA traditionally had the two strands of DNA designated the heavy and the light strand, due to their buoyant densities during separation in cesium chloride gradients, which was found to be related to the relative G+T nucleotide content of the strand. However, confusion of labeling of
2695:
Carrieri, Giuseppina; Bonafè, Massimiliano; De Luca, Maria; Rose, Giuseppina; Varcasia, Ottavia; Bruni, Amalia; Maletta, Raffaele; Nacmias, Benedetta; Sorbi, Sandro; Corsonello, Francesco; Feraco, Emidio; Andreev, Kirill F.; Yashin, Anatoli I.; Franceschi, Claudio; De
Benedictis, Giovanna (March
1655:
synthesis. Only about 3% of them code for ATP production proteins. This means most of the genetic information coding for the protein makeup of mitochondria is in chromosomal DNA and is involved in processes other than ATP synthesis. This increases the chances that a mutation that will affect a
426:
Because of the complex ways in which mitochondrial and nuclear DNA "communicate" and interact, even seemingly simple inheritance is hard to diagnose. A mutation in chromosomal DNA may change a protein that regulates (increases or decreases) the production of another certain protein in the
2015:
Anderson, S.; Bankier, A. T.; Barrell, B. G.; de Bruijn, M. H. L.; Coulson, A. R.; Drouin, J.; Eperon, I. C.; Nierlich, D. P.; Roe, B. A.; Sanger, F.; Schreier, P. H.; Smith, A. J. H.; Staden, R.; Young, I. G. (April 1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".
1740:
laboratories occasionally use mtDNA comparison to identify human remains, and especially to identify older unidentified skeletal remains. Although unlike nuclear DNA, mtDNA is not specific to one individual, it can be used in combination with other evidence (anthropological evidence,
2362:
Anderson, S.; Bankier, A. T.; Barrell, B. G.; de Bruijn, M. H. L.; Coulson, A. R.; Drouin, J.; Eperon, I. C.; Nierlich, D. P.; Roe, B. A.; Sanger, F.; Schreier, P. H.; Smith, A. J. H.; Staden, R.; Young, I. G. (1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".
1503:, H1, H2, and L (heavy strand 1, heavy strand 2, and light strand promoters). The H2 promoter transcribes almost the entire heavy strand and the L promoter transcribes the entire light strand. The H1 promoter causes the transcription of the two mitochondrial rRNA molecules.
1650:
In total, the mitochondrion hosts about 3000 different types of proteins, but only about 13 of them are coded on the mitochondrial DNA. Most of the 3000 types of proteins are involved in a variety of processes other than ATP production, such as
1537:
assemble at the mitochondrial promoters and begin transcription. The actual molecular events that are involved in initiation are unknown, but these factors make up the basal transcription machinery and have been shown to function in vitro.
3059:
Gill, Peter; Ivanov, Pavel L.; Kimpton, Colin; Piercy, Romelle; Benson, Nicola; Tully, Gillian; Evett, Ian; Hagelberg, Erika; Sullivan, Kevin (February 1994). "Identification of the remains of the
Romanov family by DNA analysis".
2829:
Ruiz-Pesini, Eduardo; Lapeña, Ana-Cristina; Díez-Sánchez, Carmen; Pérez-Martos, Acisclo; Montoya, Julio; Alvarez, Enrique; Díaz, Miguel; Urriés, Antonio; Montoro, Luis; López-Pérez, Manuel J.; Enríquez, José A. (September 2000).
3179:
Li, Xiangqi; Liu, Lianyong; Xi, Qian; Zhao, Xuemei; Fang, Mingshuang; Ma, Junhua; Zhu, Zhaohui; Wang, Xing; Shi, Chao; Wang, Jingnan; Zhu, Hongling; Zhang, Jichen; Zhang, Chaobao; Hu, Shuanggang; Ni, Minjie; Gu, Mingjun (2016).
1581:. After the mitochondrion has enough mtDNA, membrane area, and membrane proteins, it can undergo fission (very similar to that which bacteria use) to become two mitochondria. Evidence suggests that mitochondria can also undergo
1548:
translations have still not been successful, probably due to the difficulty of isolating sufficient mt mRNA, functional mt rRNA, and possibly because of the complicated changes that the mRNA undergoes before it is translated.
365:, with each such molecule normally containing a full set of the mitochondrial genes. Each human mitochondrion contains, on average, approximately 5 such mtDNA molecules, with the quantity ranging between 1 and 15. Each human
352:
carried in mitochondrial DNA, or nuclear DNA coding for mitochondrial components. Slight problems with any one of the numerous enzymes used by the mitochondria can be devastating to the cell, and in turn, to the organism.
410:
The reason for maternal inheritance in mitochondrial DNA is that when the sperm enters the egg cell, it discards its middle part, which contains its mitochondria, so that only its head with the nucleus penetrates the egg
369:
contains approximately 100 mitochondria, giving a total number of mtDNA molecules per human cell of approximately 500. The amount of mitochondria per cell also varies by cell type, with some examples being:
233:, with 23 chromosome pairs, and the human mitochondrial genome to scale at bottom left (annotated "MT"). Its genome is relatively tiny compared to the rest, and its copy number per human cell varies from 0 (
2475:
Tanaka, Masashi; Fuku, Noriyuki; Nishigaki, Yutaka; Matsuo, Hitoshi; Segawa, Tomonori; Watanabe, Sachiro; Kato, Kimihiko; Yoko, Kiyoshi; Ito, Masafumi; Nozawa, Yoshinori; Yamada, Yoshiji (February 2007).
2278:
Barroso Lima, Nicholas Costa; Prosdocimi, Francisco (17 February 2018). "The heavy strand dilemma of vertebrate mitochondria on genome sequencing age: number of encoded genes or G + T content?".
2525:
Theodoratou, Evropi; Din, Farhat V.N.; Farrington, Susan M.; Cetnarskyj, Roseanne; Barnetson, Rebecca A.; Porteous, Mary E.; Dunlop, Malcolm G.; Campbell, Harry; Tenesa, Albert (February 2010).
2644:
Angireddy, Rajesh; Kazmi, Hasan Raza; Srinivasan, Satish; Sun, Li; Iqbal, Jameel; Fuchs, Serge Y.; Guha, Manti; Kijima, Takashi; Yuen, Tony; Zaidi, Mone; Avadhani, Narayan G. (August 2019).
4015:
767:
Unlike the other proteins, humanin does not remain in the mitochondria, and interacts with the rest of the cell and cellular receptors. Humanin can protect brain cells by inhibiting
441:
varies from cell (in this case, the fertilized oocyte) to cell depending both on the number it inherited from its mother cell and environmental factors which may favor mutant or
389:: Mature metaphase II egg cells can contain 100,000 mitochondria, and 50,000–1,500,000 copies of the mitochondrial genome (corresponding to up to 90% of the egg cell DNA).
3182:"Short-term serum deprivation causes no significant mitochondrial DNA mutation in vascular smooth muscle cells revealed by a new next generation sequencing technology"
2181:
1960:
1902:
1765:'s remains were identified using a comparison between mtDNA extracted from his remains and the mtDNA of the son of the female-line great-granddaughter of his sister.
1672:
in. Conversely, several different mutations may present themselves as the same disease. This almost patient-specific characterization of mitochondrial diseases (see
3516:
151:
110:
3105:"Mitochondrial DNA sequence heteroplasmy in the Grand Duke of Russia Georgij Romanov establishes the authenticity of the remains of Tsar Nicholas II"
1781:
487:
It was originally incorrectly believed that the mitochondrial genome contained only 13 protein-coding genes, all of them encoding proteins of the
2195:
Zimmerman, Earl G.; Akins, Darrin R.; Planz, John V.; Schurr, Michael J. (September 1988). "A rapid procedure for isolating mitochondrial DNA".
1510:
takes place on the heavy strand a polycistronic transcript is created. The light strand produces either small transcripts, which can be used as
333:
for mitochondrial RNA, and therefore most mitochondrial DNA mutations lead to functional problems, which may be manifested as muscle disorders (
4036:
4005:
3646:
3270:
3159:
300:
3013:
Stone, Anne C.; Starrs, James E.; Stoneking, Mark (1 January 2001). "Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of the
Presumptive Remains of Jesse James".
4010:
1800:
1773:
1769:
1834:
1824:
642:
4041:
470:
319:
156:
3509:
2067:
1597:, and protein exchanges are constantly occurring. mtDNA shared among mitochondria (despite the fact that they can undergo fusion).
1493:
is controlled by nuclear genes and is specifically suited to make as many mitochondria as that particular cell needs at the time.
1792:
1777:
98:
2097:
Satoh, M; Kuroiwa, T (September 1991). "Organization of multiple nucleoids and DNA molecules in mitochondria of a human cell".
1441:" are "UAA", "UAG", and "UGA". In vertebrate mitochondria "AGA" and "AGG" are also stop codons, but not "UGA", which codes for
127:
3103:
Ivanov, Pavel L.; Wadhams, Mark J.; Roby, Rhonda K.; Holland, Mitchell M.; Weedn, Victor W.; Parsons, Thomas J. (April 1996).
1437:
is, for the most part, universal, with few exceptions: mitochondrial genetics includes some of these. For most organisms the "
457:
on each side of the division). In a few cases, some mitochondria or a mitochondrion from the sperm cell enters the oocyte but
1517:
The process of transcription initiation in mitochondria involves three types of proteins: the mitochondrial RNA polymerase (
1457:
species. (The more related two species are, the more mtDNA/RNA mutations will be the same in their mitochondrial genome).
3631:
3502:
2782:"Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups and risk of transient ischaemic attack and ischaemic stroke: a genetic association study"
1829:
2696:
2001). "Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups and APOE4 allele are non-independent variables in sporadic
Alzheimer's disease".
2440:
Asin-Cayuela, Jordi; Gustafsson, Claes M. (2007). "Mitochondrial transcription and its regulation in mammalian cells".
1819:
458:
2988:
1511:
2230:
Welter, Cornelius; Meese, Eckart; Blin, Nikolaus (1988). "Rapid step-gradient purification of mitochondrial DNA".
1521:), mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM), and mitochondrial transcription factors B1 and B2 (TFB1M, TFB2M).
3778:
3263:
304:
277:
is the entirety of hereditary information contained in human mitochondria. Mitochondria are small structures in
37:
with the protein-coding (red, orange, yellow), ribosomal RNA (blue), and transfer RNA genes (white). Non-coding
3832:
3616:
488:
434:
the mitochondria within the fertilized oocyte is what the new life will have to begin with (in terms of mtDNA),
221:
295:(nDNA). In humans, as in most multicellular organisms, mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother's
340:
Because they provide 30 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule in contrast to the 2 ATP molecules produced by
1742:
28:
3785:
3768:
3738:
3711:
1807:
1709:
1693:
1619:
1615:
1611:
115:
1460:
Using these techniques, it is estimated that the first mitochondria arose around 1.5 billion years ago.
3773:
3671:
2175:
1954:
1896:
1788:
1673:
1668:
1640:
1594:
1586:
1578:
1570:
1405:
420:
416:
345:
308:
175:
2646:"Cytochrome c oxidase dysfunction enhances phagocytic function and osteoclast formation in macrophages"
144:
3993:
3918:
3903:
3733:
3681:
3656:
3596:
3471:
3256:
2942:
2372:
2025:
1796:
1590:
1582:
1461:
667:
449:
168:
38:
34:
1745:, and the like) to establish identification. mtDNA is also used to exclude possible matches between
3661:
3478:
2134:"Nitric oxide-dependent mitochondrial biogenesis generates Ca2+ signaling profile of lupus T cells"
406:
323:
163:
430:
The number of affected mtDNA molecules inherited by a specific offspring can vary greatly because
3233:
3132:
3085:
3038:
2721:
2507:
2396:
2303:
2255:
2049:
1574:
1500:
1476:
541:
132:
3723:
3635:
3446:
3203:
3155:
3124:
3077:
3030:
2970:
2931:"Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA of humans as revealed by restriction endonuclease analysis"
2911:
2861:
2811:
2762:
2713:
2677:
2626:
2575:
2548:
2499:
2457:
2388:
2344:
2295:
2247:
2212:
2163:
2114:
2041:
1997:
1942:
1884:
1839:
1713:
1685:
288:
261:
188:
86:
771:. Despite its name, versions of humanin also exist in other animals, such as rattin in rats.
361:
In humans, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) forms closed circular molecules that contain 16,569 DNA
3913:
3812:
3193:
3116:
3069:
3022:
2960:
2950:
2901:
2893:
2851:
2843:
2801:
2793:
2752:
2705:
2667:
2657:
2616:
2606:
2538:
2489:
2449:
2414:
2380:
2334:
2287:
2239:
2204:
2153:
2145:
2106:
2033:
1987:
1932:
1876:
1737:
1721:
1465:
349:
3968:
3963:
398:
207:
3805:
3626:
3574:
3483:
1697:
64:
1589:) genetic material among each other. Mitochondria sometimes form large matrices in which
2946:
2527:"Association between common mtDNA variants and all-cause or colorectal cancer mortality"
2376:
2071:
2029:
3696:
3620:
2906:
2881:
2856:
2831:
2806:
2781:
2672:
2645:
2621:
2594:
2158:
2133:
1937:
1920:
1746:
366:
278:
75:
2965:
2930:
2797:
2339:
2322:
1880:
4030:
3676:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
2739:
Martín-Jiménez, Rebeca; Lurette, Olivier; Hebert-Chatelain, Etienne (1 August 2020).
2208:
2110:
1758:
1606:
1226:
1010:
962:
780:
3089:
2511:
2307:
103:
3651:
3525:
3466:
3432:
3427:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3279:
3042:
2780:
Chinnery, Patrick F; Elliott, Hannah R; Syed, Anila; Rothwell, Peter M (May 2010).
2725:
2400:
2259:
2053:
1705:
1681:
1566:
1562:
1434:
714:
646:
438:
330:
270:
234:
230:
211:
192:
3136:
2478:"Women With Mitochondrial Haplogroup N9a Are Protected Against Metabolic Syndrome"
2291:
2323:"The mitochondrial genome: structure, transcription, translation and replication"
1660:
before fertilization, or (as stated above) through mutations in the chromosomes.
285:
for the cell to use, and are hence referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell.
3870:
3865:
3728:
3706:
3701:
3569:
3287:
3237:
2149:
1762:
374:
292:
2453:
1842:
for lists of databases which help users find others with their Y-DNA and mtDNA.
3890:
3880:
3875:
3860:
3800:
3790:
3691:
3666:
3640:
3591:
3581:
3529:
2897:
2832:"Human mtDNA Haplogroups Associated with High or Reduced Spermatozoa Motility"
1468:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1346:
1202:
1106:
938:
380:
344:, mitochondria are essential to all higher organisms for sustaining life. The
341:
303:
can occur under certain circumstances. Mitochondrial inheritance is therefore
2882:"Mitochondrial Haplogroup X is associated with successful aging in the Amish"
3842:
3586:
3564:
3545:
3494:
2543:
2526:
1652:
1479:
1472:
1322:
1082:
1034:
768:
362:
244:
226:
53:
3207:
3034:
2955:
2915:
2865:
2815:
2766:
2717:
2681:
2662:
2630:
2552:
2503:
2461:
2348:
2299:
2167:
2001:
1946:
1561:
gene) is used in the copying of mtDNA during replication. Because the two (
3198:
3181:
3128:
3081:
2992:
2974:
2757:
2740:
2709:
2579:
2392:
2251:
2216:
2118:
2045:
1888:
1864:
3828:
3612:
3419:
3296:
1992:
1975:
1701:
1545:
1370:
986:
914:
500:
442:
386:
334:
255:
238:
3998:
3852:
3763:
3758:
3221:
3120:
3073:
2611:
2243:
1250:
1154:
1130:
1058:
890:
841:
822:
753:
748:
732:
719:
587:
496:
492:
201:
3227:
3026:
2494:
2477:
495:
was discovered, and was found to be encoded by the mitochondrial gene
3908:
3795:
3559:
3555:
3550:
2384:
2037:
1717:
1689:
1657:
1522:
1518:
1394:
1309:
1298:
1285:
1274:
1178:
1165:
1141:
698:
685:
672:
651:
626:
613:
600:
574:
561:
548:
312:
282:
182:
139:
3104:
423:, despite the fact that the phenotype of the disease may be masked.
3245:, reports on published data about human mitochondrial DNA variation
2847:
3973:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3898:
3836:
1725:
1677:
1534:
1530:
1381:
1357:
1333:
1261:
1237:
1213:
1189:
1117:
1093:
1069:
1045:
1021:
997:
973:
949:
925:
901:
405:
397:
220:
2741:"Damage in Mitochondrial DNA Associated with Parkinson's Disease"
1558:
1526:
861:
296:
3498:
3252:
3248:
491:. However, in 2001, a 14th biologically active protein called
266:
311:
presumes that half the genetic material of a fertilized egg (
2132:
Nagy G, Barcza M, Gonchoroff N, Phillips PE, Perl A (2004).
1557:
1736:
Human mtDNA can also be used to help identify individuals.
3242:
1791:
remains his mitochondrial DNA was compared with that of
1750:
even if numerous maternal generations separate the two.
1569:) strands on the circular mtDNA molecule have different
4016:
International System for Human
Cytogenetic Nomenclature
1776:
by comparison of their mitochondrial DNA with that of
1921:"Mitochondria in oocyte aging: current understanding"
3152:
The Last Days of
Richard III and the Fate of His DNA
1974:
Schwartz, Marianne; Vissing, John (22 August 2002).
1780:, whose maternal grandmother was Alexandra's sister
3986:
3889:
3851:
3821:
3749:
3605:
3536:
3459:
3445:
3418:
3295:
3286:
2568:
Nihon Rinsho. Japanese
Journal of Clinical Medicine
2327:
Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics
1799:(Queen Alexandra) was sister of Nicholas II mother
1646:
Contribution of mitochondrial versus nuclear genome
1486:
Replication, repair, transcription, and translation
200:
181:
174:
162:
150:
138:
126:
121:
109:
97:
92:
82:
63:
51:
46:
21:
2595:"Understanding mitochondrial myopathies: a review"
2273:
2271:
2269:
1865:"Mitochondrial DNA in anucleate human blood cells"
1724:and which are also believed to play a role in the
452:in the mitochondria varies from around two to ten.
1772:, last Empress of Russia, and her children were
1605:Mitochondrial DNA is susceptible to damage from
2935:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2421:. National Center for Biotechnology Information
1626:Chromosomally mediated mtDNA replication errors
3054:
3052:
1919:Zhang D, Keilty D, Zhang ZF, Chian RC (2017).
1914:
1912:
1863:Shuster RC, Rubenstein AJ, Wallace DC (1988).
3510:
3264:
1858:
1856:
499:which also encodes part of the mitochondrial
8:
2180:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1959:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1901:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2092:
2090:
2088:
1976:"Paternal Inheritance of Mitochondrial DNA"
3848:
3517:
3503:
3495:
3292:
3271:
3257:
3249:
2989:"Paleo-DNA Laboratory – Forensic Services"
866:
27:
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2905:
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2805:
2756:
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2661:
2620:
2610:
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2157:
1991:
1936:
785:
505:
1852:
16:Study of the human mitochondrial genome
2836:The American Journal of Human Genetics
2173:
1952:
1894:
1464:is that mitochondria originated as an
18:
4006:List of organisms by chromosome count
2321:Taanman, Jan-Willem (February 1999).
605:10,760–12,137 (overlap with MT-ND4L)
483:Electron transport chain, and humanin
301:paternal mtDNA transmission in humans
7:
3186:Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica
1770:Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)
329:Eighty percent of mitochondrial DNA
299:. There are theories, however, that
2593:Ahuja, Abhimanyu S. (21 May 2018).
1835:Human mitochondrial molecular clock
1825:Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups
1795:, whose maternal great-grandmother
1680:. This condition is referred to as
1544:is still not very well understood.
724:8,527–9,207 (overlap with MT-ATP8)
643:Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase
291:(mtDNA) is not transmitted through
1499:in humans is initiated from three
1453:in vertebrate mitochondrial mRNA.
471:Category:Human mitochondrial genes
402:Mitochondrial inheritance patterns
14:
1793:James Carnegie, 3rd Duke of Fife
1778:Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
3627:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
1980:New England Journal of Medicine
1462:A generally accepted hypothesis
439:number of affected mitochondria
2566:Goto, Y (September 1993). "".
2442:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
1806:Similarly were the remains of
1787:Similarly to identify Emperor
1601:Damage and transcription error
65:
1:
2798:10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70083-1
2340:10.1016/s0005-2728(98)00161-3
2292:10.1080/24701394.2016.1275603
1881:10.1016/s0006-291x(88)81291-9
320:mitochondrial DNA haplogroups
318:This allowed the creation of
4037:Human mitochondrial genetics
3015:Journal of Forensic Sciences
2929:Brown, W. M. (1 June 1980).
2209:10.1016/0735-0651(88)90004-0
2111:10.1016/0014-4827(91)90467-9
1830:Cambridge Reference Sequence
1803:(Empress Maria Feodorovna).
1553:Mitochondrial DNA polymerase
1392:
1368:
1344:
1320:
1296:
1272:
1248:
1224:
1200:
1176:
1152:
1128:
1104:
1080:
1056:
1032:
1008:
984:
960:
936:
912:
888:
315:) derives from each parent.
252:Human mitochondrial genetics
3150:Ashdown-Hill, John (2013).
2150:10.4049/jimmunol.173.6.3676
1820:Paternal mtDNA transmission
1585:and exchange (in a form of
1497:Mitochondrial transcription
860:The following genes encode
805:Positions in the mitogenome
779:The following genes encode
527:Positions in the mitogenome
4058:
3667:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
2454:10.1016/j.tibs.2007.01.003
2099:Experimental Cell Research
1869:Biochem Biophys Res Commun
1768:Similarly, the remains of
1638:
1449:in most organisms but for
477:human mitochondrial genome
468:
383:: 3 mitochondria per cell.
377:: 0 mitochondria per cell.
275:human mitochondrial genome
242:
4042:Human mitochondrial genes
4011:List of sequenced genomes
3779:Chromosomal translocation
3652:A chromosome/B chromosome
3643:(or accessory chromosome)
2898:10.1007/s00439-011-1060-3
2232:Molecular Biology Reports
1542:Mitochondrial translation
1491:Mitochondrial replication
1445:instead. "AUA" codes for
747:
744:
713:
710:
666:
663:
641:
638:
540:
537:
461:are actively decomposed.
450:number of mtDNA molecules
33:The 16,569 bp long human
26:
3833:Telomere-binding protein
3647:Supernumerary chromosome
2280:Mitochondrial DNA Part A
2197:Gene Analysis Techniques
489:electron transport chain
3453:Human mitochondrial DNA
3230:: A mitogenome browser.
1743:circumstantial evidence
1620:coronary artery disease
22:Human mitochondrial DNA
3769:Structural alterations
2956:10.1073/pnas.77.6.3605
2663:10.1096/fj.201900010RR
1694:cardiovascular disease
1669:Mitochondrial diseases
1635:Mitochondrial diseases
1571:origins of replication
1473:symbiotic relationship
417:mitochondrial diseases
412:
403:
346:mitochondrial diseases
248:
3786:Numerical alterations
3774:Chromosomal inversion
3672:Homologous chromosome
2758:10.1089/dna.2020.5398
2710:10.1007/s004390100463
2544:10.1093/carcin/bgp237
1925:Facts Views Vis Obgyn
1674:Personalized medicine
1641:Mitochondrial disease
1639:Further information:
1579:mitochondrial fission
1573:, it replicates in a
1429:Genetic code variants
459:paternal mitochondria
409:
401:
309:Mendelian inheritance
243:Further information:
224:
3994:Extrachromosomal DNA
3682:Satellite chromosome
3657:Lampbrush chromosome
3597:Nuclear organization
3472:Human Genome Project
3447:Mitochondrial genome
2786:The Lancet Neurology
2745:DNA and Cell Biology
2419:www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
1993:10.1056/NEJMoa020350
1797:Alexandra of Denmark
1714:Parkinsons's disease
1700:, specific forms of
1607:free oxygen radicals
668:Cytochrome c oxidase
394:Inheritance patterns
254:is the study of the
122:External map viewers
39:mtDNA control region
35:mitochondrial genome
3687:Centromere position
3662:Polytene chromosome
3632:Circular chromosome
3479:List of human genes
3224:: A genome browser.
3199:10.1093/abbs/gmw059
2947:1980PNAS...77.3605B
2415:"The Genetic Codes"
2377:1981Natur.290..457A
2030:1981Natur.290..457A
1710:Alzheimer's disease
503:(made out of RNA):
324:population genetics
269:contained in human
237:) up to 1,500,000 (
93:Complete gene lists
3121:10.1038/ng0496-417
3074:10.1038/ng0294-130
2612:10.7717/peerj.4790
2244:10.1007/BF00539059
542:NADH dehydrogenase
445:mitochondrial DNA,
413:
404:
249:
176:Full DNA sequences
4024:
4023:
3982:
3981:
3719:Centromere number
3636:Linear chromosome
3492:
3491:
3484:Human archaeology
3441:
3440:
3234:Mitochondrial DNA
3161:978-0-7524-9205-6
3154:. History Press.
3027:10.1520/JFS14932J
2650:The FASEB Journal
2495:10.2337/db06-1105
2024:(5806): 457–465.
1840:Genetic genealogy
1801:Dagmar of Denmark
1782:Victoria of Hesse
1686:diabetes mellitus
1420:Location of genes
1417:
1416:
853:
852:
765:
764:
350:genetic disorders
289:Mitochondrial DNA
262:mitochondrial DNA
219:
218:
87:Mitochondrial DNA
72:13 (coding genes)
4049:
3849:
3813:Polyploidization
3641:Extra chromosome
3556:Genetic material
3519:
3512:
3505:
3496:
3293:
3273:
3266:
3259:
3250:
3211:
3201:
3166:
3165:
3147:
3141:
3140:
3100:
3094:
3093:
3056:
3047:
3046:
3010:
3004:
3003:
3001:
3000:
2991:. Archived from
2985:
2979:
2978:
2968:
2958:
2941:(6): 3605–3609.
2926:
2920:
2919:
2909:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2859:
2826:
2820:
2819:
2809:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2760:
2751:(8): 1421–1430.
2736:
2730:
2729:
2692:
2686:
2685:
2675:
2665:
2656:(8): 9167–9181.
2641:
2635:
2634:
2624:
2614:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2546:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2497:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2437:
2431:
2430:
2428:
2426:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2385:10.1038/290457a0
2371:(5806): 457–65.
2359:
2353:
2352:
2342:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2275:
2264:
2263:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2192:
2186:
2185:
2179:
2171:
2161:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2094:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2070:. Archived from
2064:
2058:
2057:
2038:10.1038/290457a0
2012:
2006:
2005:
1995:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1958:
1950:
1940:
1916:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1892:
1860:
1808:King Richard III
1732:Use in forensics
1722:male infertility
867:
786:
506:
479:are as follows.
215:
196:
76:non coding genes
67:
31:
19:
4057:
4056:
4052:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4047:
4046:
4027:
4026:
4025:
4020:
3978:
3885:
3847:
3817:
3806:Paleopolyploidy
3751:
3745:
3601:
3575:Heterochromatin
3538:
3532:
3523:
3493:
3488:
3455:
3437:
3414:
3282:
3277:
3218:
3178:
3175:
3173:Further reading
3170:
3169:
3162:
3149:
3148:
3144:
3109:Nature Genetics
3102:
3101:
3097:
3062:Nature Genetics
3058:
3057:
3050:
3012:
3011:
3007:
2998:
2996:
2987:
2986:
2982:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2738:
2737:
2733:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2565:
2564:
2560:
2524:
2523:
2519:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2439:
2438:
2434:
2424:
2422:
2413:
2412:
2408:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2277:
2276:
2267:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2194:
2193:
2189:
2172:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2096:
2095:
2086:
2077:
2075:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2014:
2013:
2009:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1951:
1918:
1917:
1910:
1893:
1862:
1861:
1854:
1849:
1816:
1756:
1747:missing persons
1734:
1698:lactic acidosis
1666:
1648:
1643:
1637:
1628:
1603:
1555:
1488:
1431:
1422:
858:
777:
511:
485:
473:
467:
396:
359:
247:
206:
187:
73:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4055:
4053:
4045:
4044:
4039:
4029:
4028:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
4002:
4001:
3990:
3988:
3984:
3983:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3895:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3857:
3855:
3846:
3845:
3840:
3825:
3823:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3766:
3761:
3755:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3697:Submetacentric
3694:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3638:
3629:
3624:
3623:or heterosome)
3617:Sex chromosome
3609:
3607:
3603:
3602:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3578:
3577:
3572:
3562:
3553:
3548:
3542:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3524:
3522:
3521:
3514:
3507:
3499:
3490:
3489:
3487:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3475:
3474:
3463:
3461:
3460:Related topics
3457:
3456:
3451:
3449:
3443:
3442:
3439:
3438:
3436:
3435:
3430:
3424:
3422:
3420:Sex chromosome
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3301:
3299:
3290:
3288:Nuclear genome
3284:
3283:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3268:
3261:
3253:
3247:
3246:
3240:
3231:
3225:
3217:
3216:External links
3214:
3213:
3212:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3160:
3142:
3115:(4): 417–420.
3095:
3068:(2): 130–135.
3048:
3005:
2980:
2921:
2892:(2): 201–208.
2886:Human Genetics
2871:
2848:10.1086/303040
2842:(3): 682–696.
2821:
2792:(5): 498–503.
2772:
2731:
2704:(3): 194–198.
2698:Human Genetics
2687:
2636:
2585:
2558:
2537:(2): 296–301.
2531:Carcinogenesis
2517:
2488:(2): 518–521.
2467:
2432:
2406:
2354:
2333:(2): 103–123.
2313:
2286:(2): 300–302.
2265:
2238:(2): 117–120.
2222:
2203:(5): 102–104.
2187:
2144:(6): 3676–83.
2124:
2105:(1): 137–140.
2084:
2059:
2007:
1986:(8): 576–580.
1966:
1908:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1815:
1812:
1755:
1752:
1733:
1730:
1665:
1662:
1647:
1644:
1636:
1633:
1627:
1624:
1602:
1599:
1554:
1551:
1487:
1484:
1430:
1427:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1339:
1338:15,888–15,953
1336:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1315:
1314:12,207–12,265
1312:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1267:
1266:15,956–16,023
1264:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1171:
1170:12,266–12,336
1168:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1103:
1102:
1099:
1098:12,138–12,206
1096:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1055:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1027:
1026:14,674–14,742
1024:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1007:
1006:
1003:
1000:
995:
992:
989:
983:
982:
979:
976:
971:
968:
965:
959:
958:
955:
952:
947:
944:
941:
935:
934:
931:
930:10,405–10,469
928:
923:
920:
917:
911:
910:
907:
904:
899:
896:
893:
887:
886:
883:
880:
877:
874:
871:
857:
854:
851:
850:
847:
844:
839:
836:
832:
831:
828:
825:
820:
817:
813:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
776:
773:
763:
762:
759:
756:
751:
746:
742:
741:
738:
735:
729:
728:
725:
722:
717:
712:
708:
707:
704:
701:
695:
694:
691:
688:
682:
681:
678:
675:
670:
665:
661:
660:
657:
656:14,747–15,887
654:
649:
640:
636:
635:
632:
631:14,149–14,673
629:
623:
622:
619:
618:12,337–14,148
616:
610:
609:
606:
603:
597:
596:
593:
592:10,470–10,766
590:
584:
583:
580:
579:10,059–10,404
577:
571:
570:
567:
564:
558:
557:
554:
551:
545:
544:
539:
535:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
484:
481:
466:
463:
454:
453:
446:
435:
421:Mendelian laws
395:
392:
391:
390:
384:
378:
358:
355:
281:that generate
217:
216:
204:
198:
197:
185:
179:
178:
172:
171:
166:
160:
159:
154:
148:
147:
142:
136:
135:
130:
124:
123:
119:
118:
113:
107:
106:
101:
95:
94:
90:
89:
84:
80:
79:
70:
61:
60:
57:
49:
48:
44:
43:
32:
24:
23:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4054:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4034:
4032:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4000:
3997:
3996:
3995:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3985:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3844:
3841:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3820:
3814:
3811:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3788:
3787:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3752:and evolution
3748:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3720:
3717:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3677:Isochromosome
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3520:
3515:
3513:
3508:
3506:
3501:
3500:
3497:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3448:
3444:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3274:
3269:
3267:
3262:
3260:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3222:ISOGG YBrowse
3220:
3219:
3215:
3209:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3172:
3163:
3157:
3153:
3146:
3143:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3099:
3096:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3009:
3006:
2995:on 2012-03-13
2994:
2990:
2984:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2925:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2875:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2825:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2735:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2691:
2688:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2637:
2632:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2589:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2574:(9): 2373–8.
2573:
2569:
2562:
2559:
2554:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2471:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2448:(3): 111–17.
2447:
2443:
2436:
2433:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2358:
2355:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2188:
2183:
2177:
2169:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2085:
2074:on 2011-08-13
2073:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2011:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1967:
1962:
1956:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1898:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1875:(3): 1360–5.
1874:
1870:
1866:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1846:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1804:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1726:aging process
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1654:
1645:
1642:
1634:
1632:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1608:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1508:transcription
1504:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1492:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1428:
1426:
1419:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1227:Phenylalanine
1225:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1076:
1074:9,991–10,058
1073:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1011:Glutamic acid
1009:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
993:
990:
988:
985:
980:
977:
975:
972:
969:
966:
964:
963:Aspartic acid
961:
956:
953:
951:
948:
945:
942:
940:
937:
932:
929:
927:
924:
921:
918:
916:
913:
908:
905:
903:
900:
897:
894:
892:
889:
884:
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
868:
865:
863:
855:
848:
845:
843:
840:
837:
834:
833:
829:
826:
824:
821:
818:
815:
814:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
787:
784:
782:
774:
772:
770:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
743:
739:
736:
734:
731:
730:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
709:
705:
702:
700:
697:
696:
692:
689:
687:
684:
683:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
662:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
644:
637:
633:
630:
628:
625:
624:
620:
617:
615:
612:
611:
607:
604:
602:
599:
598:
594:
591:
589:
586:
585:
581:
578:
576:
573:
572:
568:
565:
563:
560:
559:
555:
552:
550:
547:
546:
543:
536:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
508:
507:
504:
502:
498:
494:
490:
482:
480:
478:
475:Genes in the
472:
464:
462:
460:
451:
447:
444:
440:
436:
433:
432:
431:
428:
424:
422:
418:
408:
400:
393:
388:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
372:
371:
368:
364:
356:
354:
351:
347:
343:
338:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
316:
314:
310:
306:
305:non-Mendelian
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
263:
257:
253:
246:
240:
236:
232:
228:
223:
213:
209:
205:
203:
199:
194:
190:
186:
184:
180:
177:
173:
170:
167:
165:
161:
158:
157:Chromosome MT
155:
153:
149:
146:
145:Chromosome MT
143:
141:
137:
134:
133:Chromosome MT
131:
129:
125:
120:
117:
114:
112:
108:
105:
102:
100:
96:
91:
88:
85:
81:
77:
71:
69:
62:
58:
55:
50:
45:
40:
36:
30:
25:
20:
3718:
3686:
3526:Cytogenetics
3467:Human genome
3452:
3280:Human genome
3192:(9): 862–4.
3189:
3185:
3151:
3145:
3112:
3108:
3098:
3065:
3061:
3021:(1): 173–6.
3018:
3014:
3008:
2997:. Retrieved
2993:the original
2983:
2938:
2934:
2924:
2889:
2885:
2874:
2839:
2835:
2824:
2789:
2785:
2775:
2748:
2744:
2734:
2701:
2697:
2690:
2653:
2649:
2639:
2602:
2598:
2588:
2571:
2567:
2561:
2534:
2530:
2520:
2485:
2481:
2470:
2445:
2441:
2435:
2423:. Retrieved
2418:
2409:
2368:
2364:
2357:
2330:
2326:
2316:
2283:
2279:
2235:
2231:
2225:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2176:cite journal
2141:
2137:
2127:
2102:
2098:
2076:. Retrieved
2072:the original
2062:
2021:
2017:
2010:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1955:cite journal
1931:(1): 29–38.
1928:
1924:
1897:cite journal
1872:
1868:
1810:identified.
1805:
1786:
1767:
1757:
1735:
1706:osteoporosis
1682:heteroplasmy
1667:
1664:Presentation
1649:
1629:
1604:
1556:
1541:
1540:
1516:
1507:
1505:
1496:
1495:
1490:
1489:
1459:
1455:
1435:genetic code
1432:
1423:
1410:1,602–1,670
1386:5,826–5,891
1362:5,512–5,579
1290:7,446–7,514
1218:4,402–4,469
1194:8,295–8,364
1146:3,230–3,304
1122:4,263–4,331
1050:4,329–4,400
1002:5,761–5,826
978:7,518–7,585
954:5,657–5,729
906:5,587–5,655
859:
846:1,671–3,229
835:Large (LSU)
816:Small (SSU)
809:
804:
799:
794:
789:
778:
766:
737:8,366–8,572
715:ATP synthase
703:9,207–9,990
690:7,586–8,269
677:5,904–7,445
647:Cytochrome b
566:4,470–5,511
553:3,307–4,262
531:
526:
521:
516:
509:
486:
476:
474:
455:
429:
425:
414:
375:Erythrocytes
360:
339:
328:
317:
287:
274:
271:mitochondria
259:
251:
250:
235:erythrocytes
231:human genome
229:showing the
169:Chromosome M
3739:Polycentric
3729:Monocentric
3712:Holocentric
3707:Acrocentric
3702:Telocentric
3692:Metacentric
3570:Euchromatin
3530:chromosomes
3238:MedlinePlus
1789:Nicholas II
1763:Jesse James
1688:, forms of
1616:Alzheimer's
1612:Parkinson's
1575:D-loop mode
1439:stop codons
870:Amino Acid
381:Lymphocytes
293:nuclear DNA
4031:Categories
3891:Centromere
3822:Structures
3801:Polyploidy
3791:Aneuploidy
3592:Nucleosome
3582:Chromosome
2999:2012-06-13
2078:2012-06-13
2068:"Untitled"
1847:References
1774:identified
1475:within an
1469:prokaryote
1451:methionine
1447:isoleucine
1443:tryptophan
1347:Tryptophan
1303:Ser (AGY)
1279:Ser (UCN)
1203:Methionine
1159:Leu (CUN)
1135:Leu (UUR)
1107:Isoleucine
939:Asparagine
882:Positions
827:648–1,601
469:See also:
363:base pairs
342:glycolysis
335:myopathies
225:Schematic
3843:Protamine
3750:Processes
3734:Dicentric
3587:Chromatid
3565:Chromatin
3546:Karyotype
3228:mitoWheel
2605:: e4790.
2138:J Immunol
1653:porphyrin
1587:crossover
1501:promoters
1480:eukaryote
1477:anaerobic
1323:Threonine
1083:Histidine
1035:Glutamine
876:1-Letter
873:3-Letter
769:apoptosis
322:to study
245:Karyotype
227:karyogram
189:NC_012920
116:Gene list
104:Gene list
3987:See also
3829:Telomere
3796:Euploidy
3724:Acentric
3621:allosome
3613:Autosome
3539:concepts
3297:Autosome
3208:27261779
3090:33557869
3035:11210907
2916:21750925
2866:10936107
2816:20362514
2767:32397749
2718:11354629
2682:31063702
2631:29844960
2553:19945968
2512:34199769
2504:17259400
2482:Diabetes
2462:17291767
2425:16 March
2349:10076021
2308:20552678
2300:28129726
2168:15356113
2002:12192017
1947:28721182
1814:See also
1759:American
1754:Examples
1738:Forensic
1702:myopathy
1546:In vitro
1371:Tyrosine
1242:577–647
987:Cysteine
915:Arginine
517:Category
501:ribosome
443:wildtype
415:Because
387:Egg cell
357:Quantity
256:genetics
68:of genes
52:Length (
47:Features
41:in grey.
3999:Plasmid
3853:Histone
3764:Meiosis
3759:Mitosis
3243:MITOMAP
3129:8630496
3082:8162066
3043:6480921
2975:6251473
2943:Bibcode
2907:4834861
2857:1287528
2807:2855429
2726:6171041
2673:6662975
2622:5967365
2580:8411715
2401:4355527
2393:7219534
2373:Bibcode
2260:3157709
2252:3221842
2217:2847966
2159:4034140
2119:1715276
2054:4355527
2046:7219534
2026:Bibcode
1938:5506767
1889:3178814
1761:outlaw
1595:fission
1512:primers
1466:aerobic
1251:Proline
1155:Leucine
1131:Leucine
1059:Glycine
891:Alanine
885:Strand
879:MT DNA
842:MT-RNR2
823:MT-RNR1
790:Subunit
754:MT-RNR2
749:Humanin
733:MT-ATP8
720:MT-ATP6
588:MT-ND4L
510:Complex
497:MT-RNR2
493:humanin
273:). The
239:oocytes
202:GenBank
128:Ensembl
3560:Genome
3551:Ploidy
3206:
3158:
3137:287478
3135:
3127:
3088:
3080:
3041:
3033:
2973:
2966:349666
2963:
2914:
2904:
2864:
2854:
2814:
2804:
2765:
2724:
2716:
2680:
2670:
2629:
2619:
2578:
2551:
2510:
2502:
2460:
2399:
2391:
2365:Nature
2347:
2306:
2298:
2258:
2250:
2215:
2166:
2156:
2117:
2052:
2044:
2018:Nature
2000:
1945:
1935:
1887:
1718:stroke
1690:cancer
1658:oocyte
1618:, and
1591:fusion
1583:fusion
1529:, and
1523:POLRMT
1519:POLRMT
1395:Valine
1310:MT-TS2
1299:Serine
1286:MT-TS1
1275:Serine
1179:Lysine
1166:MT-TL2
1142:MT-TL1
810:Strand
699:MT-CO3
686:MT-CO2
673:MT-CO1
652:MT-CYB
627:MT-ND6
614:MT-ND5
601:MT-ND4
575:MT-ND3
562:MT-ND2
549:MT-ND1
532:Strand
512:number
313:zygote
283:energy
260:human
208:J01415
183:RefSeq
140:Entrez
59:16,569
3837:TINF2
3606:Types
3537:Basic
3133:S2CID
3086:S2CID
3039:S2CID
2722:S2CID
2599:PeerJ
2508:S2CID
2397:S2CID
2304:S2CID
2256:S2CID
2050:S2CID
1678:mtDNA
1567:light
1563:heavy
1535:TFB2M
1531:TFB1M
1506:When
1471:in a
1406:MT-TV
1382:MT-TY
1358:MT-TW
1334:MT-TT
1262:MT-TP
1238:MT-TF
1214:MT-TM
1190:MT-TK
1118:MT-TI
1094:MT-TH
1070:MT-TG
1046:MT-TQ
1022:MT-TE
998:MT-TC
974:MT-TD
950:MT-TN
926:MT-TR
902:MT-TA
862:tRNAs
800:Genes
781:rRNAs
522:Genes
465:Genes
411:cell.
331:codes
307:, as
279:cells
265:(the
212:FASTA
193:FASTA
3619:(or
3204:PMID
3156:ISBN
3125:PMID
3078:PMID
3031:PMID
2971:PMID
2912:PMID
2862:PMID
2812:PMID
2763:PMID
2714:PMID
2678:PMID
2627:PMID
2576:PMID
2549:PMID
2500:PMID
2458:PMID
2427:2019
2389:PMID
2345:PMID
2331:1410
2296:PMID
2248:PMID
2213:PMID
2182:link
2164:PMID
2115:PMID
2042:PMID
1998:PMID
1961:link
1943:PMID
1903:link
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