772:, refers to the section of the human birth interval from parturition to the first post-partum ovulation. This period varies widely across globe and between societies. The length of post-partum infecundability is heavily influenced by breastfeeding because it holds some contraceptive physiological effects. The role of lactational amenorrhea has been shown to be important for infant survival as a mechanism to delay the next pregnancy, and thus infants have a longer period to optimize nutritional and immunological benefits of breast milk. Post-partum hormonal levels change so that both estrogen and progesterone are "cleared from the maternal circulation" and without breastfeeding, levels of plasma FSH and LH gradually increase and lead to the return of regular menses within 2 months. With breastfeeding, the resumption of normal menses occurs many months later, and the overall effect of lactational amenorrhea is influenced by the intensity of infant suckling.
519:
significantly decreased. Dietary composition, disease, psyschosocial circumstances, developmental conditions, genetics and epigenetics, and other environmental factors can all affect the age of the onset of puberty. These factors can come together and in terms of evolutionary trade offs, alter the allocation of energy into growth, maintenance, or reproduction, as best needed for survival. Most research focuses on female puberty because it is easier to determine due to menarche. While there is variation in the onset time and magnitude, the sequence of events stays more or less consistent, variations in the sequence can indication a pathological condition.
789:
month of the fetal life, the ovarian follicles reach to the number 6–7 million. At birth, the number of ovarian follicles in the ovary decline to 1–2 million. The follicle number decrease to 300,000–400,000 at the age of menarche. In the entire reproductive age, these follicles undergo atresia and at the time of menopause, the ovaries are left with approximately 1000 follicles. Below this threshold regular ovarian cycles cannot be maintained. The quality of ovarian follicles declines with age due to the increase meiotic non-disjunction. After age 31 years, fecundity decreases and the probability of aneuploidy rate increases in the early embryo.
125:
produce but the consumption of which does not increase in women during pregnancy or lactation to be the scarcest nutrients contained in the most expensive food in some societies, making sperm production effectively more expensive than pregnancy and lactation under local food prices in such societies. It is also argued that the variability of what food is the most valuable due to containing the rarest essential nutrients extend their effects to the economical significance ratio between hunting and gathering in the case of hunter-gatherer societies, and therefore that any attempt to circumvent the
722:
holding, carrying, and touching. It has been shown in various studies that allocare can take many forms such as provisioning, providing food, reducing parental costs for parents, time investments, economic investments, and other types of care such as holding. There have been different results from studies in traditional societies and natural fertility populations, than in industrialized societies. Allomaternal care has been hypothesized to have influenced ancestral evolution by being associated with increased brain size. Allomaternal care is also a part of a larger hypothesis of humans as
326:
reaching a certain number of children. In natural fertility populations, the parity related controls of fertility are not influenced by modern birth controls. Therefore, studying and understanding the age-related changes in fecundity is easier in natural fertility populations in compare to controlled fertility populations. Natural fertility populations deliver an easier platform to study the reproductive behavior which may affect the levels of fertility such as pregnancy loss, time for conception, and length of breastfeeding. In
Pennsylvania and Ohio states in the United States, the
254:
In humans, the timing of female reproductive maturation is particularly variable and is heavily influenced by ecological considerations. In addition, the age at menarche has decreased over time in many global populations. This phenomenon is referred to as the secular trend. Age at menarche is one measure of the fecundity of an individual female. Male reproductive maturity is less subject to environmental and ecological factors, and does not follow the secular trend that female puberty does.
189:
complications in the birth of a too-large infant. The length of the pregnancy is a compromise between these two demands, and is influenced by factors such as socioeconomic status, health, and fetal development. Women of lower socioeconomic status have been shown to deliver their babies earlier on average than women of higher socioeconomic status. Research has also shown that stress, especially during early pregnancy, can cause shorter gestation length and increase premature births.
814:
study of the genetics of ovarian aging. The genes such as GDF9 and BMP15 have been identified as the candidate genes for POF. POF has a relation with the genome-wide linkages on chromosomal regions 9q21.3 and Xp21.3. Several genes related to mitochondrial function such as mt-Atp6, Sod1, Hspa4, and Nfkbia are also associated with the aging of the ovary. In addition to that, the deletion at mtDNA 4977-bp in the granulosa cells is associated with fertility in older aged women.
740:
From a biological and evolutionary perspective, breastfeeding infants is biologically superior and contains various bioconstituents that provide nutrition, hydration, immune factors, hormones, and other necessary components to aid infant survival and growth. Lactational strategies vary cross-culturally, but can typically be defined by sibling sets and sex ratios, frequency of nursing, entire lactational duration, and milk composition.
130:
meat and regions where the rarest such nutrients were contained in some types of plants. It is cited in this context that humans evolved over relatively large parts of Africa with different food ecologies, making it impossible for humans to have specialized evolutionarily for one specific food cost ratio. This variability of food value ratios within Africa may have prepared humans evolutionarily to be able to leave Africa.
104:, often employ understandings of energetics to their hypotheses and models. Energetics in this context refers to energy allocation, under the assumption that natural selection favors optimal allocation and use of energy, but also that trade-offs often pose energetic constraints. Allocations of energy are evolved so they in turn, can be foreseeable but they are also variable depending on ecological constraints.
159:, aging, and mortality. Biodemographers use mathematical models, statistical estimates and biomarkers to analyze the demographic data. The field of biodemography often explores the scientific questions associated with fertility and mortality across cultures, the determinants of reproductive senescence, mortality and sex differences, low fertility in humans, and longer post-reproductive lifespan in women.
84:
maturation, fertility, parenting, and senescence because at every life stage organisms are bound to encounter and cope with unconscious and conscious decisions that hold trade-offs. Reproductive ecologists have specifically impacted life history by improving on the energetic models because they are complicated in humans, and involve many causal factors. They draw on classical life history theory,
116:, nutrients that the body cannot produce regardless of calorie availability and the specific nutrients must be present in the diet. It is argued that since there are different dietary conditions in which different essential nutrients are the most scarce in different regions and the few foods that contain the scarcest nutrients that are needed to avoid
262:
During breastfeeding, a period of lactational infertility also reduces female fecundity. The metabolic load hypothesis in human reproductive ecology describes how the energetic expenditure of lactation acts to inhibit ovarian cycling. With the majority of available energy going towards milk production, energy is not expended on reproductive effort.
613:, the process by which certain traits are picked by the potential mate and then proliferate throughout a species. Human cultures vary on what is considered to be a desirable honest signal. Emphasis on wealth, aesthetics, religious affiliation, and lineage, to name a few examples, are all used in different cultures as ways to choose a mate.
797:, due to a decreased level of inhibin-A and steroid hormones, the level of FSH increases. Due to these hormonal changes, the corpus luteum gets destroyed. The elevated level of FSH helps to recruit a cohort of the FSH-sensitive antral follicles in that cycle. During this phase, elevated FSH level stimulates the production of estradiol,
731:). Cooperative breeding is a social system that given some advantage over time, and cooperative breeding is much more common in humans and relatively rare in other mammalian species. Traits in our species that favor cooperative breeding evolve over time due to altruism, and within the context of kin selection and reciprocity.
792:
The regular menstrual cycle is associated with the hormonal regulation from hypothalamic, pituitary, and ovarian axis. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretes from the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic GnRH pulse influences the pulsatile secretion of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
619:
is the mating strategy of two individuals partnering exclusively with each other for a period or time or for life. Monogamy in humans is generally accompanied by selective mate-choice and mating, cohabitation, and bi-parental care for children. Humans may practice lifelong monogamy, as well as serial
527:
Differences in quality and quantity of nutrition account for one of the strongest environmental factors that alter the onset of puberty. Evidence has linked childhood obesity in girls with early pubertal timing, referencing an increased amount of body fat as a signal for the brain to initiate puberty
295:
is emphasized in the study of human reproductive ecology. Natural fertility is the measure of human fertility in populations without birth control. Research on natural fertility populations seeks to understand the evolutionary context, ecological constraints, and predict outcomes for human fertility.
83:
operates on the allocation of different types of resources (material and metabolic) to meet the competing demands of growth, maintenance, and reproduction at the various life stages. Life history theory is applied to reproductive ecology in the theoretical understandings of puberty, sexual growth and
739:
Lactation is one of the costliest forms of parental investment because it is taxing at a metabolic and physiological level, but also in terms of time and emotion as well. There are many trade-offs regarding lactation, and recent work has explored cost benefit models and thresholds for breastfeeding.
721:
or care or other types of allocare are a necessity to offspring survival and reproduction. Typically maternal care is defined at the most basic level of pregnancy and birth and lactation, but includes other things like provisioning, learning (in humans), mirroring (mirroring behavior of mother), and
635:
is the practice of a female partnering with multiple males. It is not as common in humans as polygyny, due in part to the constraints of female reproduction. While a female may only reproduce once at a time, a male may be able to contribute to multiple concurrent pregnancies. Polyandry is often seen
370:
among them. The 4-year birth interval is the optimum for the !kung women to have a maximized reproductive success. The total fertility of the women is also related to the post-reproductive survival of the women and in pre-industrial (1766–1895) Swedish population, the number of children was found be
316:
in a society. This trend is now seen in almost all cultures, resulting in some societies with below replacement fertility. Below replacement fertility is when the rate of childbirth in a society is less than the amount needed for each woman to have at least one daughter. Since the chance of having a
299:
Fertility is influenced by fecundity, but has additional factors that can increase or decrease an individual's lifetime reproductive success. The inter-birth interval, the amount of time between a woman's births, impacts a woman's total fertility. This amount of time varies cross-culturally, as well
253:
Fecundity is determined by the biological limitations of the individual and can be reduced when biological and ecological factors impact an individual's reproductive capabilities. The key components of fecundity are a person's reproductive maturation and the maintenance of their reproductive system.
788:
is considered as the final stage of ovarian aging. Menopause is clinically defined as the absence of menstruation beyond a year. It indicates the cessation of reproductive phase of life in women. The biology of menopause is associated with the depletion of the ovarian follicular pool. At the fourth
672:
in humans compared to other primates. This suggests that there was less male-male competition for female mates, which led to more male investment in offspring, rather than mate choices. Paternal investment strategies vary facultatively based on alloparental care, the costs and benefits of offspring
801:
A and B. Following that, due to the negative feedback mechanism the level of estradiol and inhibin-B increases and FSH level declines and it helps to select the dominant follicle. During the menopausal transition, FSH level elevates at the early follicular phase and due to the increased FSH level,
695:
in the 1970s alongside parental investment. Parental offspring conflict is also well documented and develops in tandem with the process of reproduction and parenting. Parent-offspring conflict occurs in the relationship between parent and fetus (in the case of striking a balance between allocating
504:
in girls. While there is variation among individuals, secondary sexual characteristics tend to develop in a sequence. For girls, breast development is followed by the appearance of pubic hair, followed by menarche, and fat deposition and broadening of the hips occurring as the completion of breast
361:
population, a shorter birth interval is associated with less investment of the mothers which results in small body size and low birth weight of the children at birth. In historical
Ireland (1700–1919) the number of children in the family was negatively associated with the lifespan and reproductive
129:
paradox of men not being able to be in two places at the same time to hunt and protect his family by reference to hiring guards by bartering meat would fail to make sex roles universal due to the difference between regions where the rarest essential nutrients were contained in one or more types of
813:
Various genetic and endocrine factors influence the aging of the ovaries and the age at menopause. In some women, the ovaries age faster and the follicle pool diminishes before the age of 40 years. This phenomenon is known as the premature ovarian failure (POF) and it is used as the model for the
684:
is widespread and less variable than paternal investment, but there have been recent evidence supporting multiple mating systems for females as well in the evolutionary literature. This could suggest that mating systems may influence how maternal investment is given, and the trade-offs posed both
677:
of social relationships, including the relation of paternal investment and endocrine function. It has been shown that fatherhood in general, reduces testosterone levels and competition for mates increases testosterone. It is also shown that male endocrine function is mediated by interactions with
325:
In 1961, French demographer Louis Henry introduced the term "natural fertility". Natural fertility is defined as uncontrolled fertility when the couples do not control the number of children and the family size. Controlled fertility populations use controlled methods to stop having children after
261:
limits the potential of conception to a brief period of fertility roughly once a month. Successful egg maturation, fertilization, and implantation must be able to occur for a reproductively mature female to be fecund. Changes in energy levels, diet, and hormones can all interfere in this process.
124:
in societies without money), and different functions in the body primarily consume different essential nutrients, no universal ranking of the costs of different aspects of reproduction can be made. For example, it is possible for the few micronutrients that men consume more of the more sperm they
592:
from a developing country at a young age. Conversely, menarche may be slightly later when a girl grows up in a large family with a biological father present. However, when the stress is severely high and potentially life-threatening such as in times of war, the onset of puberty has been delayed.
382:
is the transitory stage in human development in which a person goes from a child into a reproductively mature adult, in other words, puberty is the process of sexual maturation in humans. The onset of puberty varies between boys and girls, with boys usually starting around 11–12 years of age and
335:
population in Mali, West Africa are a natural fertility population with high fertility rate and they have been studied to understand the role of the age of wife, the age of husband, nutritional status, breastfeeding status, sex of last child, economic status, and polygyny on the waiting time to
78:
is a prominent analytical framework used in evolutionary anthropology, biology, and reproductive ecology that seeks to explain growth and development of an organism through various life history stages of the entire lifespan. The life history stages include early growth and development, puberty,
685:
biologically and socially. Maternal investment is almost always necessary for the survival of offspring, because compared to other primates, human infants are highly altricial. Offspring are also categorized as taking longer to wean, still dependent after weaning, and a longer juvenile period.
653:
defined by
Trivers and Willard in the 1970s is used widely in reproductive ecology to analyze and understand provisioning strategies and how they relate to life history trade-offs. Trivers' parental investment is defined as investment in offspring to that benefits their survival and ability to
630:
is the practice of a male partnering with multiple females. It is a fairly common mating strategy in humans, as well as in many other animals. Polygyny often occurs in agricultural societies and is often paired with male wealth or land access. When males are able to disproportionately control
188:
is one of conflict: it is in the best interest of the fetus to gestate as long as possible to continue receiving the nutritional and developmental benefits of being physically attached to the mother. For the mother, however, pregnancy is a highly demanding and risky time. Earlier births avoid
265:
Male fecundity is primarily determined by the quality of sperm and the availability of fertile female mates. Individual variation in sperm load, pH, lifespan, and morphology creates varying fecundity in males. As males do not gestate, their contribution to fecundity is less well established
216:
Pregnancies may be unsuccessful for multiple reasons. The maternal immune system, though suppressed during ovulation, views the fertilized egg as a foreign body and will attack it. Defective embryos may also be spontaneously aborted, or miscarried, whether due to chromosomal abnormality or
518:
While puberty is a consistent progression of events culminating in reproductive maturity, there is wide variation in age of onset of puberty and the magnitude of the changes that can be caused by a variety of different influences. Since the mid 19th century the global age of menarche has
509:
and testicles occurs, followed by pubic and axillary hair growth, voice change, facial hair growth, and muscle mass increase. This period is also a time of cognitive and psychosocial development where social relationships, skills, and experiences outside of the core family are explored.
571:(CDC), BPA found in plastic bottles and containers leaches into foods and liquids when warmed up, as in the case of plastic baby bottles, and traces of the chemical were found in more than 90% of the U.S. population studied. BPA is of concern because it interferes with the actions of
217:
developmental defects. Endometrial or placental development issues may also cause a pregnancy to fail. Additionally, the frequency of spontaneous abortion increases with the mother's age. Older mothers have a higher rate of genetic abnormalities that can trigger pregnancy loss.
46:
and seeks to explain human reproductive variation and adaptations. The theoretical orientation of reproductive ecology applies the theory of natural selection to reproductive behaviors, and has also been referred to as the evolutionary ecology of human reproduction.
748:. For weeks after that, mature milk is expressed and it has been shown that fetal-mammary gland signaling occurs even before birth in determining milk type and concentrations based on the fetus sex. Colostrum plays an important role in establishing the infant
548:, and other illnesses that affect nutritional intake, specially chronic ones, are energetically costly and energy and resources has to be allocated into maintenance and health, sometimes taking energy from growth or reproduction, stunting or delaying them.
608:
Culture heavily influences mate choice, but there are evolutionary concepts that underpin research into mate choice. Honest signals are characteristics of an individual that are assumed to be true indicators of health and fecundity. Honest signals guide
708:
Parental investment provided by individuals other than mothers and fathers is considered allocare. Both paternal care and allocare can reduce the energetic costs of parenting for mothers. Allocare is often referred as allomaternal care or
583:
Most of the studies have reported that menarche may occur a few months earlier in girls in high-stress households, whose fathers are absent during their early childhood, who have a stepfather in the home, who are subjected to prolonged
604:
in human reproductive ecology is the process by which individuals rationally partner with others. Mate choice practices, like many of the topics in human reproductive ecology, vary greatly between individuals and between cultures.
756:, and is high in protein and low in fat and milk sugar such as lactose. While breastmilk is extremely important for infants' health outcomes, it is also known that human mature milk is fairly dilute, which has an effect on infant
330:
settlements have been studied to understand the age of marriage, the age of first birth, birth intervals, the age at last birth, and total fertility rate as they are natural fertility population due to their religious belief. The
673:
investment, societal pressures, divisions of labor, cultural expectations and norms, and the individual qualities of males in any given society. In the field of reproductive ecology, it has been a recent interest to explore the
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placental energy stores to the growing fetus, while maintaining and metabolic balance of the mothers biology), and between parent and offspring. Parent offspring is expected to be highest during the parental investment period.
220:
Because human pregnancy is so costly, and human offspring so dependent on their mothers, early spontaneous abortion is high to ensure that energy of a pregnancy is spent on developing a fetus with a high chance of survival.
138:
The researchers involved in human reproductive ecology use the combined approach of demography and evolutionary biology to explain the reproductive phenomenon. Biodemography is the study of demography related to biology and
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reproduce, at the expense of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring. Inherent in these strategies is an underlying trade-off between energy and investment allocation to oneself as a parent and to each offspring.
348:
The number of children in any family is associated with the quality of those children. There is a trade-off between reproduction and survival of the children which influence total fertility rate in humans globally> In
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Mustanski, Brian S.; Viken, Richard J.; Kaprio, Jaakko; Pulkkinen, Lea; Rose, Richard J. (2004). "Genetic and
Environmental Influences on Pubertal Development: Longitudinal Data from Finnish Twins at Ages 11 and 14".
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to adhere to the desired length of time between pregnancies, or desired number of children. Environmental concerns like fetal loss, lack of resource access, and disease may all impact fertility for females or males.
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Comings, David E.; Muhleman, Donn; Johnson, James P.; MacMurray, James P. (2002). "Parent-Daughter
Transmission of the Androgen Receptor Gene as an Explanation of the Effect of Father Absence on Age of Menarche".
289:. Fertility rates vary both inter- and intra-culturally. Fertility for both males and females is dependent not just on biology but on cultural, religious, economic, and other sociological factors as well.
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Anderson, S. E.; Dallal, G. E.; Must, A. (1 April 2003). "Relative Weight and Race
Influence Average Age at Menarche: Results From Two Nationally Representative Surveys of US Girls Studied 25 Years Apart".
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whereby allocare discounts the individual costs of parenting, especially when sets of parents have children around the same time as each other, or have other kin or community members to provide care (see
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Hamatani, T.; Falco, G.; Carter, M.G.; Akutsu, H.; Stagg, C.A.; Sharov, A.A.; Dudekula, D.B.; VanBuren, V.; Ko, M.S. (2004). "Age-associated alteration of gene expression patterns in mouse oocytes".
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assumes there will be "disagreements" between parents and offspring about how long parental investment lasts, how resources are allocated, and maintaining the life history trade-offs in the process.
438:. The onset of menarche is easier to determine due to the evidence of menstrual bleeding, while the first ejaculation for males is usually self reported. In evolutionary context, it is assumed that
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includes trade-offs such as making a choice between investing in current offspring, or investing in future mating opportunities. Over the course of human evolution, there is evidence of reduced
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Hurt, L.S.; Ronsmans, C.; Thomas, S.L. (2006). "The effect of number of births on women's mortality: systematic review of the evidence for women who have completed their childbearing".
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Variation in pubertal timing has been directly found to be due through direct genetic association between mothers and daughters in 46% of the population studied. It is believed that an
55:
Multiple theoretical foundations from evolutionary biology and evolutionary anthropology are important to human reproductive ecology. Notably, reproductive ecology relies heavily on
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Ge, Xiaojia; Natsuaki, Misaki N.; Neiderhiser, Jenae M.; Reiss, David (2007). "Genetic and
Environmental Influences on Pubertal Timing: Results from Two National Sibling Studies".
340:
have been studied to predict the role of parity, pregnancy loss, mother's age, economic status, child's sex, and husband's migration on the distribution of postpartum amenorrhea.
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Lakhal, B.; Laissue, P.; Braham, R.; Elghezal, H.; Saâd, A.; Fellous, M.; Veitia, R.A. (2010). "BMP15 and premature ovarian failure: causal mutations, variants, polymorphisms?".
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the number of FSH-sensitive follicles decreases. These series of events lead to irregular menstrual cycle and the cycle length starts to become shorter. FSH, Inhibin-B, and
213:
at this stage. Post-implantation, rate of loss is highest in the first trimester of a pregnancy. The chance of pregnancy loss lowers the further into gestation a woman is.
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success of the children. In various natural fertility populations, the shorter birth interval length may cause higher deaths of the infants. The hunter-gatherer !
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Pregnancy varies person-to-person and across cultural and socioeconomic lines. Human gestation is between 30 and 40 weeks long. The dynamic between the mother and the
112:
The assumption that energy measured in calories can be used as a universal measure of nutritional cost is criticized by a number of scientists on the basis of
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is composed of my bioconstituents, but only a few will be outlined here. In the first days of puerperium, the first milk is thick and yellowish, also called
1892:
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is the practice of having multiple partners at the same time. The composition of the relationship will determine which type of polygamy is being practiced.
257:
In adults, fecundity is determined by the biological processes of reproduction. Female fecundity is heavily influenced by reproduction and energetics. The
3191:
Kaplan, Hillard; Hill, Kim; Lancaster, Jane; Hurtado, A. Magdalena (2000). "A theory of human life history evolution: Diet, intelligence, and longevity".
568:
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Gettler, Lee T. (June 2016). "Becoming DADS: Considering the Role of
Cultural Context and Developmental Plasticity for Paternal Socioendocrinology".
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717:, it is usually assumed that mothers have been ancestrally necessary to ensure offsprings survival and reproduction. It is less known to what extent
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Fernandez-Duque, Eduardo; Valeggia, Claudia R.; Mendoza, Sally P. (October 2009). "The
Biology of Paternal Care in Human and Nonhuman Primates".
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Kaprio, J.; Rimpelä, A.; Winter, T.; Viken, R. J.; Rimpelä, M.; Rose, R. J. (1995). "Common genetic influences on BMI and age at menarche".
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sexual development, reproductive career, and post-reproductive stage. Life history theory is based in evolutionary theory and suggests that
1364:"Prenatal stress, gestational age and secondary sex ratio: the sex-specific effects of exposure to a natural disaster in early pregnancy"
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Reiches, Meredith W.; Ellison, Peter T.; Lipson, Susan F.; Sharrock, Katherine C.; Gardiner, Eliza; Duncan, Laura G. (July 2009).
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mothers require to carry a greater amount of food and baby on foraging trips and shorter birth interval length results higher
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countries, child survival is negatively associated with the number of children in the family due to the child competition for
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Finley, Harry. "Average age at menarche in various cultures". Museum of
Menstruation and Women s Health. Retrieved 2007-08-02
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Singer, Marcie (1989-08-01). "Institutional Profile: International Healing for Children: The Palo Alto Medical Foundation".
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1516:"Spontaneous first trimester miscarriage rates per woman among parous women with 1 or more pregnancies of 24 weeks or more"
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In reproductive ecology, concepts related to parenting, social organization, and development are discussed. The concept of
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Muehlenbein, Michael P.; Bribiescas, Richard G. (2005). "Testosterone-mediated immune functions and male life histories".
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Bereczkei, T.; Hofer, A.; Ivan, Z. (2000). "Low birth weight, maternal birth-spacing decisions, and future reproduction".
277:. Infertility occurs in about 10–15% of couples, with the causes of infertility shared equally between males and females.
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C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor, Lyliane Rosetta (2011) "Reproduction and Adaptation: Topics in Human Reproductive Ecology"
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4026:"Mitochondrial deletions in luteinized granulosa cells as a function of age in women undergoing in vitro fertilization"
1189:"Biodemographic analyses of longitudinal data on aging, health, and longevity: recent advances and future perspectives"
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Welt, C.K.; Smith, P.C.; Taylor, A.E. (2004). "Evidence of early ovarian aging in fragile X premutation carriers".
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563:, but the specific gene has not been found. Chemicals and hormones found in the environment and plastics such as
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Vitzthum, Virginia J. (2009). "The Ecology and Evolutionary Endocrinology of Reproduction in the Human Female".
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Kishi, H.; Itoh, M.; Wada, S.; Yukinari, Y.; Tanaka, Y.; Nagamine, N.; Jin, W.; Watanabe, G.; Taya, K. (2000).
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in cases when there are more males in a society than females, or when males are considered to be unavailable.
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have been thought to affect sexual development in humans at the prenatal or postnatal stage. According to the
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that is concerned with human reproductive processes and responses to ecological variables. It is based in the
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Fertility is the measure of an individual's actual reproductive output, rather than just their potential for
126:
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1567:"Examining Variation in Recombination Levels in the Human Female: A Test of the Production-Line Hypothesis"
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Human reproductive ecology considers fecundity and fertility from a demographic perspective. In this view,
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Hill, Kim; Kaplan, Hillard (October 1999). "Life History Traits in Humans: Theory and Empirical Studies".
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Dribe, M. (2004). "Long-term effects of childbearing on mortality: evidence from pre-industrial Sweden".
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changes throughout pregnancy. Pre-implantation in the uterine wall, rate of loss is undetectable as the
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2143:"Parents face quantity–quality trade-offs between reproduction and investment in offspring in Iceland"
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Disease and chronic illness in childhood can lead to a delay in pubertal timing in boys and girls.
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2756:"Age at menarche as a fitness trait: Nonadditive genetic variance detected in a large twin sample"
1619:"Age at menarche in Canada: results from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children & Youth"
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Vitzthum, Virginia J. (October 2008). "Evolutionary Models of Women's Reproductive Functioning".
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monogamy. Serial monogamy is the mating strategy of having sequential, non-overlapping partners.
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Jacobson, Amy (2016), "Parental Investment and Sexual Selection (Trivers Foundational Theory)",
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behavior, which in many cases holds implications for the contraceptive properties of lactation.
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daughter is 50/50, there must be at least two children for every adult woman in the population.
2582:"Age of menarche in contemporary British teenagers: Survey of girls born between 1982 and 1986"
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2316:
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2242:
2180:
2115:
2080:
1981:
1925:
1851:
1807:
1774:
1733:
1715:
1650:
1596:
1547:
1496:
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1393:
1342:
1302:
1220:
1094:
1063:
1055:
1008:
1000:
957:
922:
914:
879:
869:
844:
781:
669:
557:
443:
313:
292:
80:
60:
3671:"Inhibin is an important factor in the regulation of FSH secretion in the adult male hamster"
3534:
Cooke, L.; Nelson, S.M. (2011). "Reproductive ageing and fertility in an ageing population".
96:
Analytical frameworks that explore problems relevant to reproductive ecology, such as age at
4037:
3998:
3963:
3920:
3875:
3831:
3823:
3782:
3741:
3731:
3682:
3641:
3633:
3592:
3582:
3543:
3498:
3457:
3441:
3386:
3326:
3285:
3235:
3200:
3149:
3094:
3051:
3015:
2964:
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2918:
2884:
2832:
2767:
2728:
2685:
2647:
2601:
2593:
2539:
2504:
2469:
2422:
2391:
2277:
2234:
2207:
2170:
2162:
2107:
2070:
2062:
2023:
1971:
1915:
1907:
1843:
1764:
1723:
1707:
1640:
1630:
1586:
1578:
1537:
1527:
1486:
1478:
1437:
1383:
1375:
1330:
1292:
1284:
1251:
1210:
1200:
1153:
1047:
992:
953:
949:
906:
836:
610:
493:
367:
794:
431:
258:
27:
2960:
363:
2158:
831:
Valeggia, Claudia R.; Núñez-de la Mora, Alejandra (2015). "Human Reproductive Ecology".
3836:
3811:
3787:
3770:
3646:
3621:
3597:
3570:
3462:
3429:
2772:
2755:
2508:
2426:
2175:
2142:
2075:
2050:
1728:
1695:
1645:
1618:
1591:
1566:
1542:
1515:
1491:
1466:
1388:
1363:
1297:
1272:
1215:
1188:
1187:
Arbeev, K.G.; Akushevich, I.; Kulminski, A.M.; Ukraintseva, S.V.; Yashin, A.I. (2014).
840:
749:
692:
210:
31:
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3746:
3719:
2198:
Jones, N.B. (1986). "Bushman birth spacing: A test for optimal interbirth intervals".
383:
ending by 16–17, and girls starting around 10–11 and ending at 15–17. Activity in the
357:. The decrease in birth interval rate can also endanger the life of the child. In the
88:, and reproductive ecology to make predictions about reproductive behavior and growth
4065:
3924:
3445:
3071:
3019:
2923:
2889:
2704:
2689:
2606:
2581:
2540:
2211:
2035:
1482:
1331:
1035:
757:
714:
710:
301:
300:
as varies with different environmental constraints. Many cultures practice conscious
64:
3940:
3897:
3687:
3670:
3555:
3414:
3356:
3255:
3122:
2986:
2857:
Colborn, T., Dumanoski, D. and Myers, J.P. Our Stolen Future, 1996, Plume: New York.
2524:
2297:
2254:
2127:
1993:
1937:
1863:
1173:
1020:
996:
969:
910:
3704:
1786:
1075:
753:
585:
473:
423:
400:
392:
332:
312:, began in the 1700s and continues today. It is strongly correlated with increased
117:
3331:
3314:
3177:
1958:
Holman, D.J.; Grimes, M.A.; Achterberg, J.T.; Brindle, E.; O’Connor, K.A. (2006).
1753:"Deliberate control in a natural fertility population: Southern Sweden, 1766–1864"
308:
Fertility rates across the globe have steadily declined. This trend, known as the
3390:
3547:
2732:
2702:
McKenna, Phil (2007-03-05). "Childhood obesity brings early puberty for girls".
2281:
768:
Post-partum infecundability, also referred to as lactational infecundability or
741:
601:
564:
506:
470:
435:
274:
270:
198:
3137:
1582:
3880:
2628:"Girls maturing slightly earlier". BBC News. 2001-05-03. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
2597:
2238:
2111:
1847:
1711:
1532:
1256:
1239:
883:
807:
545:
477:
439:
358:
337:
3637:
3587:
3512:
3453:
3398:
3340:
3299:
3247:
3226:
Hill, Kim (2005-06-02). "Life history theory and evolutionary anthropology".
3212:
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2516:
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2403:
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1800:
Holman, D.J; Wood, J.W. (2001). "Pregnancy loss and fecundability in women".
1719:
1635:
1098:
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1004:
961:
918:
3430:"Trade-offs underlying maternal breastfeeding decisions: a conceptual model"
3239:
2836:
2395:
2315:. Cavanaugh, John C. (5th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
1379:
1288:
785:
745:
665:
632:
481:
447:
238:
230:
176:
is primarily focused variation in pregnancy and on rates of pregnancy loss.
173:
156:
144:
34:, and is based on theory and models deriving from human and animal biology,
4051:
4010:
3975:
3932:
3889:
3845:
3796:
3755:
3736:
3696:
3655:
3606:
3520:
3471:
3406:
3348:
3290:
3273:
3169:
3114:
2844:
2740:
2659:
2615:
2481:
2473:
2289:
2246:
2184:
2119:
2084:
2066:
1985:
1855:
1829:"Population growth and fertility patterns in an Old Order Amish settlement"
1778:
1737:
1654:
1600:
1551:
1500:
1397:
1306:
1224:
1067:
1012:
926:
897:
Voland, Eckart (1998-10-21). "Evolutionary Ecology of Human Reproduction".
660:
is more variable than maternal investment worldwide, and compared to other
446:
to maximize reproductive success by allotting energy and resources through
2808:
2781:
2417:
Bogin, B. (2011). "Puberty and Adolescence: An Evolutionary Perspective".
1929:
1912:
10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199802)105:2<167::aid-ajpa5>3.0.co;2-s
1893:"Predictors of fecundability and conception waits among the Dogon of Mali"
1769:
1752:
1441:
1205:
528:
and due to an excess of available energetic resources, since developing a
4002:
3967:
3503:
3486:
2008:
1920:
1144:
Olshansky, S.J. (1998). "On the biodemography of aging: a review essay".
627:
623:
616:
572:
427:
419:
411:
152:
113:
97:
2969:
2866:"Are Bisphenol A (BPA) Plastic Products Safe for Infants and Children?".
2359:"Parents & Teachers: Teen Growth & Development | Years 11 to 14"
2166:
3622:"GnRH pulsatility, the pituitary response and reproductive dysfunction"
3153:
3098:
2651:
1976:
1959:
1165:
1051:
798:
661:
379:
39:
1617:
Al-Sahab, Ban; Ardern, Chris I; Hamadeh, Mazen J; Tamim, Hala (2010).
120:
are therefore the most expensive (the cost may be paid in the form of
3827:
3372:"Allomaternal care, life history and brain size evolution in mammals"
1273:"Length of human pregnancy and contributors to its natural variation"
631:
resources, they may be able to support more than one female partner.
501:
497:
458:
121:
1157:
3055:
2027:
3000:
Geary, David C. (2015-11-18), "Evolution of Paternal Investment",
1960:"Distribution of postpartum amenorrhea in rural Bangladeshi women"
529:
489:
462:
407:
327:
185:
2708:. Archived from the original on 2008-04-19. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
2051:"The life-history trade-off between fertility and child survival"
2009:"On the Interaction between the Quantity and Quality of Children"
3205:
10.1002/1520-6505(2000)9:4<156::aid-evan5>3.3.co;2-z
560:
3859:
Li, Q.; Geng, X.; Zheng, W.; Tang, J.; Xu, B.; Shi, Q. (2012).
2546:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp.
1337:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp.
575:
which is needed as a developmental and reproductive regulator.
371:
to be negatively associated with the longevity of the mothers.
143:. Biodemographers do research on demographic outcomes such as
780:
Ovarian aging is characterized by the gradual decline of the
3675:
American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism
2497:
BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology
713:
if it is provided by anyone other than the mother. Based on
3771:"Hormone changes associated with the menopausal transition"
2913:
Palmer-Hague, Jaime (2016), "Trivers-Willard Hypothesis",
2542:
On Fertile Ground: A Natural History of Human Reproduction
1333:
On Fertile Ground: A Natural History of Human Reproduction
3138:"Choosy But Not Chaste: Multiple Mating in Human Females"
1134:
EA Smith (2017) "Evolutionary ecology and human behavior"
664:
paternal investment is more robust in humans. Mating and
453:
This period of reproductive maturation sees the onset of
2055:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
67:, and theories based on the study of animal evolution.
3956:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
3487:"Ovarian aging: mechanisms and clinical consequences"
1696:"The demographic transition: causes and consequences"
1467:"The Immune System in Pregnancy: A Unique Complexity"
1091:
Energetics, reproductive ecology, and human evolution
505:
development approaches. For boys, enlargement of the
3810:
Roudebush, W.E.; Kivens, W.J.; Mattke, J.M. (2008).
3569:
Pelosi, E.; Forabosco, A.; Schlessinger, D. (2015).
3228:
Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews
3193:
Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews
3142:
Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews
2874:
2872:
2917:, Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–7,
2883:, Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–2,
645:
Parental investment and parental-offspring conflict
3313:Kramer, Karen L.; Veile, Amanda (September 2018).
2915:Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science
2881:Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science
1240:"Biodemography: Research prospects and directions"
793:hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. During the
336:conception. Natural fertility population in rural
269:A lack of fecundity in adults can be described as
2049:Lawson, D.W.; Alvergne, A.; Gibson, M.A. (2012).
209:. There is no current way to detect pregnancy or
3428:Tully, Kristin P.; Ball, Helen L. (2011-12-20).
3370:Isler, Karin; van Schaik, Carel P. (July 2012).
4024:Seifer, D.B.; DeJesus, V.; Hubbard, K. (2002).
2671:
2669:
3004:, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 1–18,
426:. The central event in puberty for females is
385:hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (HPG axis)
1036:"Pooled energy budget and human life history"
8:
2384:Laser Medicine and Surgery News and Advances
2343:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1111:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
172:In human reproductive ecology, the study of
1471:American Journal of Reproductive Immunology
469:. Secondary sexual characteristics include
3315:"Infant allocare in traditional societies"
1673:US Department of Health and Human Services
784:number and decreasing quality of oocytes.
569:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
4041:
3879:
3835:
3786:
3745:
3735:
3686:
3645:
3596:
3586:
3502:
3461:
3330:
3289:
3009:
2968:
2922:
2888:
2771:
2605:
2313:Human development : a life-span view
2174:
2074:
1975:
1964:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1919:
1900:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1768:
1727:
1644:
1634:
1590:
1541:
1531:
1490:
1387:
1296:
1255:
1214:
1204:
3861:"Current understanding of ovarian aging"
1803:Reproductive Ecology and Human Evolution
866:Reproductive Ecology and Human Evolution
344:Quality-quantity trade-offs in fertility
3002:The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology
954:10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085112
823:
42:. It is associated with fields such as
3724:Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology
3720:"The physiology of follicle selection"
3485:Broekmans, F.J.; Fauser, B.C. (2009).
2754:Treloar, S. A.; Martin, N. G. (1990).
2336:
1891:Strassman, B.I.; Warner, J.H. (1998).
1427:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1104:
399:. The anterior pituitary releases the
3267:
3265:
1612:
1610:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
864:Ellison, Peter T., ed. (2017-09-04).
434:bleeding. For males, it is the first
7:
3620:Tsutsumi, R.; Webster, N.J. (2009).
3536:The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist
3272:TRIVERS, ROBERT L. (February 1974).
3136:Scelza, Brooke A. (September 2013).
2961:10.1146/annurev-anthro-091908-164334
134:Biodemography and human reproduction
108:Essential nutrient cost variability
2760:American Journal of Human Genetics
2678:Journal of Research on Adolescence
2509:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1994.tb13020.x
2427:10.1016/b978-0-12-373951-3.00033-8
2007:Becker, G.S.; Lewis, H.G. (1973).
841:10.1016/b978-0-12-802652-6.00021-9
14:
3571:"Genetics of the ovarian reserve"
3087:American Journal of Human Biology
2640:Yearbook of Physical Anthropology
1751:Bengtsson, T.; Dribe, M. (2006).
1146:Population and Development Review
1040:American Journal of Human Biology
552:Genetics and environmental causes
532:is very energetically demanding.
3925:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2009.03651.x
3769:Su, H.I.; Freeman, E.W. (2009).
3446:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2011.00378.x
3020:10.1002/9781119125563.evpsych120
2924:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_1911-1
2890:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3584-1
2690:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00546.x
1483:10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00836.x
467:secondary sexual characteristics
16:Subfield in evolutionary biology
3812:"Biomarkers of ovarian reserve"
3688:10.1152/ajpendo.2000.278.4.E744
997:10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.397
911:10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.347
579:Stress and psychosocial factors
387:initiates puberty by secreting
3434:Maternal & Child Nutrition
2421:. Elsevier. pp. 275–286.
1434:Dynamics of Human Reproduction
1271:Jucik, Anne (1 October 2013).
835:. Elsevier. pp. 295–308.
455:primary sexual characteristics
389:gonadotropin-releasing hormone
205:hormone is not secreted until
1:
4043:10.1016/S0015-0282(02)04214-0
3332:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.02.054
2949:Annual Review of Anthropology
1432:Wood, James W. (2017-09-29).
985:Annual Review of Anthropology
942:Annual Review of Anthropology
899:Annual Review of Anthropology
321:Natural fertility populations
151:, births, marriage, divorce,
3391:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.03.009
2449:Marshall (1986), pp. 176–177
2212:10.1016/0162-3095(86)90002-6
2016:Journal of Political Economy
1669:"How common is infertility?"
1520:BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth
492:growth in boys, increase in
416:follicle-stimulating hormone
3868:Science China Life Sciences
3548:10.1576/toag.13.3.161.27668
3274:"Parent-Offspring Conflict"
2733:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1188
2419:Encyclopedia of Adolescence
2282:10.1080/0032472042000272357
1514:Cohain, J (December 2017).
1362:Torche, F (February 2012).
752:, as it contains important
691:is a theory synthesized by
241:is the actual reproductive
4098:
3379:Journal of Human Evolution
2538:Ellison, Peter T. (2001).
2147:Royal Society Open Science
1694:Galor, Oded (2012-01-01).
1583:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.06.008
1329:Ellison, Peter T. (2001).
500:mass, and widening of the
20:Human reproductive ecology
3881:10.1007/s11427-012-4352-5
3319:Physiology & Behavior
2598:10.1136/bmj.322.7294.1095
2311:V., Kail, Robert (2010).
2239:10.1080/00324720500436011
2200:Ethology and Sociobiology
2112:10.1007/s12110-000-1018-y
1848:10.1080/03014460110075684
1712:10.1007/s11698-011-0062-7
1533:10.1186/s12884-017-1620-1
1257:10.4054/DemRes.2008.19.50
1089:Thorpe., Ellison, Peter.
833:Basics in Human Evolution
698:Parent-offspring conflict
689:Parent offspring conflict
588:in childhood, or who are
442:has been modeled through
375:Physiology and maturation
44:evolutionary anthropology
3991:Human Molecular Genetics
3638:10.1507/endocrj.K09E-185
3588:10.3389/fgene.2015.00308
2721:Developmental Psychology
1636:10.1186/1471-2458-10-736
404:luteunizing hormone (LH)
122:other goods and services
4030:Fertility and Sterility
3718:Zeleznik, A.J. (2004).
3240:10.1002/evan.1360020303
2837:10.1111/1467-8624.00456
2580:Whincup, P. H. (2001).
2396:10.1089/lms.1989.7.4.15
1836:Annals of Human Biology
1565:Rowsey, R (July 2014).
810:for the ovarian aging.
225:Fecundity and fertility
127:evolutionary psychology
51:Theoretical foundations
3913:Clinical Endocrinology
3737:10.1186/1477-7827-2-31
2474:10.1542/peds.111.4.844
2067:10.1098/rspb.2012.1635
1436:. pp. Chapter 8.
1193:Advances in Geriatrics
806:(AMH) are used as the
804:anti-Müllerian hormone
770:lactational amenorrhea
764:Lactational amenorrhea
729:grandmother hypothesis
310:demographic transition
180:Variation in pregnancy
102:lactational amenorrhea
3575:Frontiers in Genetics
1827:Greksa, L.P. (2002).
1770:10.1353/dem.2006.0030
1465:Mor, G (March 2010).
1442:10.4324/9780203792780
1380:10.1093/humrep/der390
1289:10.1093/humrep/det297
542:Inflammatory diseases
237:of an individual and
4082:Reproductive ecology
4072:Evolutionary biology
3968:10.1210/jc.2004-0347
3775:Minerva Ginecologica
3504:10.1210/er.2009-0006
3291:10.1093/icb/14.1.249
3044:Current Anthropology
2141:Lynch, R.F. (2016).
1244:Demographic Research
1238:Carey, J.R. (2008).
724:cooperative breeders
715:kin selection theory
546:parasitic infections
461:and hormones by the
457:, the production of
287:reproductive success
233:is the reproductive
149:spontaneous abortion
141:evolutionary biology
24:evolutionary biology
2592:(7294): 1095–1096.
2167:10.1098/rsos.160087
2159:2016RSOS....360087L
2061:(1748): 4755–4764.
1206:10.1155/2014/957073
719:paternal investment
682:Maternal investment
658:Paternal investment
651:parental investment
480:and axillary hair,
355:parental investment
351:sub-Saharan African
266:post-reproduction.
114:essential nutrients
76:Life history theory
71:Life history theory
57:life history theory
36:evolutionary theory
4077:Human reproduction
4003:10.1093/hmg/ddh241
3816:Biomarker Insights
3278:American Zoologist
3154:10.1002/evan.21373
3099:10.1002/ajhb.20419
2652:10.1002/ajpa.21195
2270:Population Studies
2227:Population Studies
1977:10.1002/ajpa.20267
1806:. pp. 15–38.
1368:Human Reproduction
1277:Human Reproduction
1052:10.1002/ajhb.20906
514:Pubertal variation
486:breast development
397:anterior pituitary
245:of an individual.
86:behavioral ecology
3997:(19): 2263–2278.
3626:Endocrine Journal
3491:Endocrine Reviews
3325:(Pt A): 117–126.
2825:Child Development
2557:978-0-674-00463-4
1623:BMC Public Health
1348:978-0-674-00463-4
1283:(10): 2848–2855.
782:ovarian follicles
704:Allomaternal care
670:sexual dimorphism
565:Bisphenol A (BPA)
558:androgen receptor
523:Dietary influence
444:natural selection
314:industrialization
293:Natural fertility
81:natural selection
22:is a subfield in
4089:
4056:
4055:
4045:
4036:(5): 1046–1048.
4021:
4015:
4014:
3986:
3980:
3979:
3962:(9): 4569–4574.
3951:
3945:
3944:
3908:
3902:
3901:
3883:
3865:
3856:
3850:
3849:
3839:
3828:10.4137/bmi.s537
3807:
3801:
3800:
3790:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3749:
3739:
3715:
3709:
3708:
3690:
3681:(4): E744–E751.
3666:
3660:
3659:
3649:
3617:
3611:
3610:
3600:
3590:
3566:
3560:
3559:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3506:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3465:
3425:
3419:
3418:
3376:
3367:
3361:
3360:
3334:
3310:
3304:
3303:
3293:
3269:
3260:
3259:
3223:
3217:
3216:
3188:
3182:
3181:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3050:(S13): S38–S51.
3039:
3033:
3032:
3013:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2972:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2926:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2892:
2876:
2867:
2864:
2858:
2855:
2849:
2848:
2831:(4): 1046–1051.
2819:
2813:
2812:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2775:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2727:(6): 1188–1198.
2715:
2709:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2673:
2664:
2663:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2609:
2577:
2571:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2545:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2492:
2486:
2485:
2456:
2450:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2379:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2342:
2334:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2178:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2078:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2022:(2): S279–S288.
2013:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1979:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1940:. Archived from
1923:
1897:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1872:
1866:. Archived from
1833:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1772:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1731:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1648:
1638:
1614:
1605:
1604:
1594:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1545:
1535:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1494:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1429:
1402:
1401:
1391:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1336:
1326:
1311:
1310:
1300:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1235:
1229:
1228:
1218:
1208:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1141:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1110:
1102:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1031:
1025:
1024:
980:
974:
973:
937:
931:
930:
894:
888:
887:
861:
855:
854:
828:
611:sexual selection
494:subcutaneous fat
440:human physiology
422:, which produce
410:, which produce
391:(GnRH) from the
368:infant mortality
118:deficit diseases
61:fitness theories
4097:
4096:
4092:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4087:
4086:
4062:
4061:
4060:
4059:
4023:
4022:
4018:
3988:
3987:
3983:
3953:
3952:
3948:
3910:
3909:
3905:
3863:
3858:
3857:
3853:
3809:
3808:
3804:
3768:
3767:
3763:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3619:
3618:
3614:
3568:
3567:
3563:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3484:
3483:
3479:
3427:
3426:
3422:
3374:
3369:
3368:
3364:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3271:
3270:
3263:
3225:
3224:
3220:
3190:
3189:
3185:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3084:
3083:
3079:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3030:
3011:10.1.1.412.8946
2999:
2998:
2994:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2901:
2878:
2877:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2821:
2820:
2816:
2794:
2793:
2789:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2701:
2697:
2675:
2674:
2667:
2637:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2569:
2565:
2558:
2537:
2536:
2532:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2444:
2437:
2416:
2415:
2411:
2381:
2380:
2376:
2367:
2365:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2335:
2323:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2011:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1944:
1895:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1831:
1826:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1750:
1749:
1745:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1678:
1676:
1675:. 2 August 2018
1667:
1666:
1662:
1616:
1615:
1608:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1452:
1431:
1430:
1405:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1349:
1328:
1327:
1314:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1237:
1236:
1232:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1158:10.2307/2807981
1143:
1142:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1103:
1088:
1087:
1083:
1033:
1032:
1028:
982:
981:
977:
939:
938:
934:
896:
895:
891:
876:
863:
862:
858:
851:
830:
829:
825:
820:
795:menstrual cycle
778:
766:
737:
706:
647:
642:
599:
581:
554:
538:
525:
516:
418:(FSH) into the
377:
346:
323:
283:
251:
227:
195:
182:
170:
165:
136:
110:
94:
73:
53:
32:social sciences
17:
12:
11:
5:
4095:
4093:
4085:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4064:
4063:
4058:
4057:
4016:
3981:
3946:
3919:(3): 425–426.
3903:
3874:(8): 659–669.
3851:
3802:
3781:(6): 483–489.
3761:
3710:
3661:
3632:(6): 729–737.
3612:
3561:
3542:(3): 161–168.
3526:
3497:(5): 465–493.
3477:
3420:
3362:
3305:
3284:(1): 249–264.
3261:
3218:
3199:(4): 156–185.
3183:
3148:(5): 259–269.
3128:
3093:(5): 527–558.
3077:
3056:10.1086/686149
3034:
3028:
2992:
2955:(1): 115–130.
2939:
2933:
2905:
2899:
2868:
2859:
2850:
2814:
2787:
2746:
2710:
2695:
2684:(4): 767–788.
2665:
2630:
2621:
2572:
2563:
2556:
2530:
2487:
2468:(4): 844–850.
2451:
2442:
2435:
2409:
2374:
2350:
2321:
2303:
2276:(3): 297–310.
2260:
2217:
2190:
2133:
2106:(2): 183–205.
2090:
2041:
2028:10.1086/260166
1999:
1970:(4): 609–619.
1950:
1947:on 2018-12-14.
1906:(2): 167–184.
1883:
1842:(2): 192–201.
1819:
1812:
1792:
1763:(4): 727–746.
1743:
1686:
1660:
1606:
1577:(1): 108–112.
1557:
1506:
1477:(6): 425–433.
1457:
1450:
1403:
1354:
1347:
1312:
1263:
1230:
1179:
1152:(2): 381–393.
1136:
1127:
1118:
1081:
1046:(4): 421–429.
1026:
991:(1): 397–430.
975:
932:
905:(1): 347–374.
889:
874:
856:
849:
822:
821:
819:
816:
777:
774:
765:
762:
750:gut microbiome
736:
733:
705:
702:
646:
643:
641:
638:
598:
595:
580:
577:
553:
550:
537:
534:
524:
521:
515:
512:
496:, increase in
376:
373:
345:
342:
322:
319:
282:
279:
250:
247:
226:
223:
211:pregnancy loss
194:
193:Pregnancy loss
191:
181:
178:
169:
166:
164:
161:
135:
132:
109:
106:
93:
90:
72:
69:
59:, energetics,
52:
49:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4094:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4053:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4020:
4017:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3985:
3982:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3950:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3907:
3904:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3862:
3855:
3852:
3847:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3806:
3803:
3798:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3765:
3762:
3757:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3714:
3711:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3665:
3662:
3657:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3616:
3613:
3608:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3565:
3562:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3530:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3478:
3473:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3424:
3421:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3373:
3366:
3363:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3309:
3306:
3301:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3266:
3262:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3219:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3187:
3184:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3078:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3038:
3035:
3031:
3029:9781119125563
3025:
3021:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3003:
2996:
2993:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2940:
2936:
2934:9783319169996
2930:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2900:9783319169996
2896:
2891:
2886:
2882:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2863:
2860:
2854:
2851:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2818:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2803:(5): 739–53.
2802:
2798:
2797:Human Biology
2791:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2766:(1): 137–48.
2765:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2714:
2711:
2707:
2706:
2705:New Scientist
2699:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2634:
2631:
2625:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2573:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2549:
2544:
2543:
2534:
2531:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2488:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2455:
2452:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2436:9780123739513
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2413:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2375:
2364:
2360:
2354:
2351:
2346:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2322:9780495600374
2318:
2314:
2307:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2264:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2206:(2): 91–105.
2205:
2201:
2194:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2153:(5): 160087.
2152:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2091:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2042:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1951:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1921:2027.42/37683
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1887:
1884:
1873:on 2018-11-30
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1830:
1823:
1820:
1815:
1813:9780202368573
1809:
1805:
1804:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1747:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1687:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1461:
1458:
1453:
1451:9780203792780
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1374:(2): 558–67.
1373:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1355:
1350:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1334:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1253:
1250:: 1749–1758.
1249:
1245:
1241:
1234:
1231:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1140:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1122:
1119:
1114:
1108:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
979:
976:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
936:
933:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
890:
885:
881:
877:
875:9781351493505
871:
868:. Routledge.
867:
860:
857:
852:
850:9780128026526
846:
842:
838:
834:
827:
824:
817:
815:
811:
809:
805:
800:
796:
790:
787:
783:
776:Ovarian aging
775:
773:
771:
763:
761:
759:
755:
754:immunoglobins
751:
747:
743:
734:
732:
730:
725:
720:
716:
712:
711:allomothering
703:
701:
699:
694:
690:
686:
683:
679:
676:
675:endocrinology
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
652:
644:
639:
637:
634:
629:
625:
621:
618:
614:
612:
606:
603:
596:
594:
591:
587:
578:
576:
574:
570:
566:
562:
559:
551:
549:
547:
543:
535:
533:
531:
522:
520:
513:
511:
508:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
484:enlargement,
483:
479:
475:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
451:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
402:
401:gonadotropins
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
374:
372:
369:
365:
360:
356:
352:
343:
341:
339:
334:
329:
320:
318:
315:
311:
306:
303:
302:birth spacing
297:
294:
290:
288:
280:
278:
276:
272:
267:
263:
260:
259:ovarian cycle
255:
248:
246:
244:
240:
236:
232:
224:
222:
218:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
192:
190:
187:
179:
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1868:the original
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219:
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3399:0047-2484
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1720:1863-2513
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1060:1042-0533
1005:0084-6570
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786:Menopause
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735:Lactation
640:Parenting
633:Polyandry
432:menstrual
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395:into the
359:Hungarian
281:Fertility
249:Fecundity
239:fertility
235:potential
231:fecundity
174:pregnancy
168:Gestation
157:menopause
4052:12413991
4011:15317747
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3941:26899357
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3898:17549443
3890:22932881
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3697:10751210
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3407:22578648
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2741:15535766
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2255:26893604
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2120:26193366
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1994:38514377
1986:16345064
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970:56259477
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628:Polygyny
624:Polygamy
617:Monogamy
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