Human subject research - Knowledge (XXG)

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federal studies," and most other participants administered trials because "reimbursements generated from such trials made it possible to maintain a financially viable, as well as profitable, practice." Cook and Hoas found that most of the physicians and coordinators could not explain directly if they actually told their patients or subjects about any financial compensation they received. Respondents worry that discussing funding or compensation would affect enrollment, effectively swaying participants from joining a research study. In most respondents' experience, most patients do not even ask for that information, so they assume that they do not have to discuss it with them and not jeopardize enrollment. When asked if information about funding or compensation would be important to provide to patients, one physician replied "...certainly it may influence or bring up in their mind questions whether or not, you know, we want them to participate because we're gonna get paid for this, you know, budget dollar amount. But, you know, when you talk about full disclosure, is that something that we should be doing? That's an interesting question."

1393:. Many considered this a violation of the requirement for informed consent in human subjects research. Because the data was collected by Facebook, a private company, in a manner that was consistent with its Data Use Policy and user terms and agreements, the Cornell IRB board determined that the study did not fall under its jurisdiction. It has been argued that this study broke the law nonetheless by violating state laws regarding informed consent. Others have noted that speaking out against these research methods may be counterproductive, as private companies will likely continue to experiment on users, but will be dis-incentivized from sharing their methods or findings with scientists or the public. In an "Editorial Expression of Concern" that was added to the online version of the research paper, PNAS states that while they "deemed it appropriate to publish the paper... It is nevertheless a matter of concern that the collection of the data by Facebook may have involved practices that were not fully consistent with the principles of obtaining informed consent and allowing participants to opt out." 1121:

shock to the learner when the learner answered incorrectly to a set of questions. The intensity of this electric shock was to be increased for every incorrect answer. The learner was a confederate (i.e. actor), and the shocks were faked, but the subjects were led to believe otherwise. Both prerecorded sounds of electric shocks and the confederate's pleas for the punishment to stop were audible to the "teacher" throughout the experiment. When the subject raised questions or paused, the experimenter insisted that the experiment should continue. Despite widespread speculation that most participants would not continue to "shock" the learner, 65 percent of participants in Milgram's initial trial complied until the end of the experiment, continuing to administer shocks to the confederate with purported intensities of up to "450 volts". Although many participants questioned the experimenter and displayed various signs of discomfort, when the experiment was repeated, 65 percent of subjects were willing to obey instructions to administer the shocks through the final one.

1098:. Twenty-four male students were assigned to a random role of a prisoner or guard to simulate a mock prison in one of Stanford's basements. After only six days, the abusive behavior of the guards and the psychological suffering of prisoners proved significant enough to halt the two-week-long experiment. The goal of the experiment was to determine whether dispositional factors (the behavior of guards and prisoners) or positional factors (the social environment of prisons) are the major cause of conflict within such facilities. The results of this experiment showed that people will readily conform to the specific social roles they are supposed to play. The prison environment played a part in making the guards behavior more brutal, due to the fact that none of the participants showed this type of behavior beforehand. Most of the guards had a hard time believing they had been acting in such a way. The evidence concludes this to be positional behavior, meaning the behavior was due to the hostile environment of the prison. 1225:. In 1959, Festinger and Carlsmith devised a situation in which participants would undergo excessively tedious and monotonous tasks. After the completion of these tasks, the subjects were instructed to help the experiment continue in exchange for a variable amount of money. All the subjects had to do was simply inform the next "student" waiting outside the testing area (who was secretly a confederate) that the tasks involved in the experiment were interesting and enjoyable. It was expected that the participants would not fully agree with the information they were imparting to the student, and after complying, half of the participants were awarded $ 1 (roughly the same as $ 10 now), and the others were awarded $ 20 (like $ 209 now). A subsequent survey showed that, by a large margin, those who received less money for essentially "lying" to the student came to believe that the tasks were far more enjoyable than their highly paid counterparts. 880:

of the benefits as well as the risks of human subject research. Justice is important because it causes the researchers to be fair in their research findings and share what they have found, whether the information is good or bad. The selection process of the subject is supposed to be fair and not separate due to race, sexual orientation or ethnic group. Lastly, respect for persons explains that at any point a person who is involved in a study can decide whether they want to participate, not to participate or withdraw themselves from the study altogether. Two rules of respect for persons involve the person being autonomous and persons with diminished autonomy and entitled to protection. The sole purpose of these guidelines is to ensure autonomy and to protect against those with a lesser chance to remain autonomous because of something out of their control.

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to students studying to be health care professionals as well as have more discussions surrounding the issues and importance of informed consent. There have also been a bigger push to protect participants in clinical trials. Rules and regulations of clinical trials can vary by country. Suggestions to remedy this include installing a committee to keep better track of this information and ensure that everything is properly documented. Research coordinators and physicians involved in clinical studies have their own concerns, particularly that an implementation of ethics rules could potentially disrupt the logistics of preparing a research study, specifically when it comes to enrolling patients. Another concern that research teams may have is that even if the rules are ethically sound, they may not be logical or helpful for conducting their studies.

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study, its purpose, its funding, as well as expectations of what participation might entail." Ultimately, only 24% of the respondents said they would be willing to participate with a majority of them stating they would need full transparency and an indication that there would be some personal benefit in order for them to even consider participating. Some had a list of criteria that had to be met. Eleven percent indicated that they would not at all be willing to enroll in a research study. One respondent commented "If it involved taking a medication, no. Never. I would be in a clinical trial if there was something, like...track mammogram… I am already subjecting myself to." Cook and Hoas stated that these answers were "particularly puzzling" because "these respondents still reported that their patient/participants received 'optimal care

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the perspectives of the researchers and whether they would consent to being a subject in a clinical trial. To assess the shift to rural communities, they surveyed 34 physicians or researchers and 46 research coordinators from states that have "large rural populations and have historically demonstrated limited participation in clinical research." Proper consent forms were provided and signed at the start of the study. Of the physicians and research coordinators that participated in this study, 90% were from hospital centers or worked in a hospital-clinic setting. Of all the participants, only 66% of research coordinators and 53% of physicians received training in research methods, while 59% of the coordinators received any ethics training. Only 17% of the physicians had ethics research training prior to this study.

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a provider that they trust recommends the study. Most respondents seem to agree that patients consent to participate because they believe that through this study, they would be receiving "more attention than my regular patients" and that "there are an awful lot of additional opportunities for interaction." One respondent commented "...the way that we're required to actually recruit patients, which is to have their providers be the point of contact, some ways is--I mean, I don't want to use the word 'coercion', but it's kind of leaning in that direction because basically here's this person that they entrust themselves to, who they're very dependent on for, you know, getting their healthcare."

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process, 5) make sure data is not identifiable or searchable (avoid direct quotes that may be identifiable with an online search), 6) consider developing project privacy policies in advance, and 7) be aware that each state has its own laws regarding informed consent. Social media sites offer great potential as a data source by providing access to hard-to-reach research subjects and groups, capturing the natural, "real-world" responses of subjects, and providing affordable and efficient data collection methods.

1168:, Oklahoma. The twelve-year-old boys bonded with their own groups for a week before the groups were set in competition with each other in games such as tug-of-war and football. When competing, the groups resorted to name-calling and other displays of resentment, such as burning the other group's team flag. The hostility continued and worsened until the end of the three-week study, when the groups were forced to work together to solve problems. 4063: 45: 1239: 1313:

Although this research provides positive contributions, there are some drawbacks and resistance to human subject research for crash testing due to the liability of injury and the lack of facilities that have appropriate machinery to perform such experiments. Research with live persons provides additional data which might be unobtainable when testing with

1139:'s classic conformity experiment in 1951 involved one subject participant and multiple confederates; they were asked to provide answers to a variety of different low-difficulty questions. In every scenario, the multiple confederates gave their answers in turn, and the participant subject was allowed to answer last. In a 1534:, 23 Nazi doctors and scientists were prosecuted for the unethical treatment of concentration camp inmates, who were often used as research subjects with fatal consequences. Of those 23, 15 were convicted, 7 were condemned to death, 9 received prison sentences from 10 years to life, and 7 were acquitted. 940:

Typical ethical issues that arise in this type of research trials include participant enrollment, the question of coercion if a physician refers their own patients, and any misunderstandings regarding treatment benefits. Patients are more likely to enroll in a trial if their primary care physician or

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is described as protecting the well-being of the persons and respecting their decisions by being ethical and protecting the subjects from harm. The two rules of beneficence are maximizing the benefits of research and minimizing any possible risks. It is the job of the researcher to inform the persons

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became commonly known as the Nuremberg Code, the first international document to clearly articulate the concept that "the voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential". Individual consent was emphasized in the Nuremberg Code in order to prevent prisoners of war, patients, prisoners,

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The term research subject has traditionally been the preferred term in professional guidelines and academic literature to describe a patient or an individual taking part in biomedical research. In recent years, however, there has been a steady shift away from the use of the term 'research subject' in

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designers improve upon safety restraints for vehicles. This research allows designers to gather more data on the tolerance of the human body in the event of an automobile accident, in order to better improve safety features in automobiles. Some of the tests conducted ranged from sled runs evaluating

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Respondents more often pointed out practical or logistical issues with the overall process rather than ethical issues. There was a general consensus that the whole practice of conducting research studies was more focused on the business aspects like funding and enrolling participants in the study in

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Cook and Hoas found that funding played a significant role in participant selection. One of Hoas's and Cook's participants commented that "in his practice, the income from conducting pharmaceutical trials sometimes used to offset the losses of conducting scientifically interesting but poorly funded

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Ann Cook and Freeman Hoas from the University of Montana's Department of Psychology conducted a study to gain more understanding about what influences potential candidates to consent to participation in any given clinical trial. They published their findings in February 2015. Cook and Hoas asked for

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As science and medicine evolve, the field of bioethics struggles to keep up with updating guidelines and rules to follow. There has been an interest in revisiting the ethics behind human subject trials. Members of the health field have commented that it may be useful to have ethics classes available

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to describe the ethical behaviors that involve researching human subjects. It is most heavily used by the current United States system for protecting human subjects in research trials. By looking primarily at biomedical and behavioral research that involve human subjects, the report was generated to

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conclude that if access to the social media content is public, information is identifiable but not private, and information gathering requires no interaction with the person who posted it online, then the research is unlikely to qualify as human subjects research. Defining features of human subject

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and their restraint systems. From thousands of tests involving human subjects, results indicate no serious injuries were persistent. This is largely due to the preparation efforts of researchers to ensure all ethical guidelines are followed and to ensure the safety and well-being of their subjects.

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Most of the coordinators and researchers showed some hesitation when they were asked if they would enroll as a subject in a clinical trial, not necessarily their own, but any study. When asked to elaborate on their hesitation, many said that they would be "concerned about the motivations behind the

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In general, it can be said that experimental infections in humans are tightly linked to a history of scandals in medical research, with scandals being followed by stricter regulatory rules. Ethical guidelines that govern the use of human subjects in research are a fairly new construct. In 1906 some

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led a series of experiments to determine to what extent an individual would obey instructions given by an experimenter. Placed in a room with the experimenter, subjects played the role of a "teacher" to a "learner" situated in a separate room. The subjects were instructed to administer an electric

694:– information about behavior that occurs in a context in which an individual can reasonably expect that no observation or recording is taking place, and information which has been provided for specific purposes by an individual and which the individual can reasonably expect will not be made public. 1365:

profiles of students at an "anonymous, northeastern American university" that was quickly identified as Harvard, potentially placing the privacy of the human subjects at risk. The data set was removed from public access shortly after the issue was identified. The issue was complicated by the fact

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In each of these experiments, participants were confronted with a type of emergency, such as the witnessing of a seizure or smoke entering through air vents. A common phenomenon was observed that as the number of witnesses or "bystanders" increases, so does the time it takes for individuals to

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s recommended considerations for social media research are: 1) determine if the study qualifies as human subject research, 2) consider the risk level of the content, 3) present research and motives accurately when engaging on social media, 4) provide contact information throughout the consent

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Recently there has been a shift from conducting research studies at research institution facilities or academic centers to rural communities. There is concern surrounding the topics addressed during the discussions with this specific demographic of participants, particularly having to do with

579:. Human subject research can be either medical (clinical) research or non-medical (e.g., social science) research. Systematic investigation incorporates both the collection and analysis of data in order to answer a specific question. Medical human subject research often involves analysis of 1143:

of participants, the percentage of error was less than one percent. However, when the confederates unanimously chose an incorrect answer, 75 percent of the subject participants agreed with the majority at least once. The study has been regarded as significant evidence for the power of

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that involves human subjects. Some of these guidelines included the principles that "research protocols should be reviewed by an independent committee prior to initiation" and that "research with humans should be based on results from laboratory animals and experimentation".

3345: 1667:, to provide for protection of human subjects in experiments. The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research was established and was tasked with establishing the boundary between research and routine practice, the role of 871: 1730:

in Africa without the informed consent of participants or without providing adequate access to healthcare. These practices raise questions about the exploitation of vulnerable populations and the prioritization of commercial interests over the rights of participants.

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promise that ethical standards are followed during research of human subjects. There are three standards that serve as the baseline for the report and how human subjects are to be researched. The three guidelines are beneficence, justice and respect for persons.

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approval in the country where approval of the therapy is sought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the risk/benefit ratio of the trial - their approval does not mean that the therapy is 'safe' or effective, only that the trial may be conducted.

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research, according to federal regulations, are that the researchers interact directly with the subject or obtain identifiable private information about the subject. Social media research may or may not meet this definition. A research institution's

654:(HHS) defines a human research subject as a living individual about whom a research investigator (whether a professional or a student) obtains data through 1) intervention or interaction with the individual, or 2) identifiable private information ( 1640: 1386: 1164:'s Robber's Cave experiment shed light on how group competition can foster hostility and prejudice. In the 1961 study, two groups of ten boys each who were not "naturally" hostile were grouped together without knowledge of one another in 944:

There was a large amount of respondents who thought that research participants did not read or understand the documents provided for informed consent. However, those respondents did not believe that was an ethical or moral concern.

1696:. He wanted to observe if cancer could be transmitted as well as if people could become immune to cancer by developing an acquired immune response. Many believe that this experiment violated the bioethical principles of 2698: 2407:

Cook, Ann Freeman; Hoas, Helena (2015-02-20). "Exploring the Potential for Moral Hazard When Clinical Trial Research is Conducted in Rural Communities: Do Traditional Ethics Concepts Apply?".

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involved the injection of infectious agents into military forces to observe their effects in human subjects. Subsequent human experiments in the United States have also been characterized as

3358: 1741:, or other forms of emotional distress without informed consent. These experiments raise concerns regarding the respect for the dignity and well-being of the individuals involved. 3627: 788: 651: 4844: 1831: 1432: 223: 1635:

of the test subjects. Public outcry over the discovery of government experiments on human subjects led to numerous congressional investigations and hearings, including the

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and soldiers from being coerced into becoming human subjects. In addition, it was emphasized in order to inform participants of the risk-benefit outcomes of experiments.

1644: 486: 795:(IRBs), obtaining informed consent, and Assurances of Compliance for human subject participants in research studies. On January 19, 2017, a final rule was added to the 3599: 2084: 1028:, and subsequently conduct progressively larger scale comparative studies. Clinical trials can vary in size and cost, and they can involve a single research center or 984:

biomedical or behavioral research studies on human participants are designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions, including new

3537: 1436: 787:, first published in 1991, also known as the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects, is dictated by the Office of Human Research Protections under the 775:(IRBs) were gradually introduced. The policies that these institutions implemented served to minimize harm to the participant's mental or physical well-being. 3512: 748:

favour of 'research participant' when referring to individuals who take part by providing data to various kinds of biomedical and epidemiological research.

3413:"The role of corruption and unethical behaviour in precluding the placement of industry sponsored clinical trials in sub-Saharan Africa: Stakeholder views" 1354:(IRB) is often responsible for reviewing potential research on human subjects, but IRB protocols regarding social media research may be vague or outdated. 668: 656: 892:

Of note currently in the research field is the manner in which researchers direct their conversations with potential human subjects for a research study.

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and behavioral studies and medical chart review studies. (A specific, and especially heavily regulated, type of medical human subject research is the "

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W. G. Metzger, H.-J. Ehni, P. G. Kremsner, B. G. Mordmüller (December 2019), "Experimental infections in humans—historical and ethical reflections",

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In 1947, German physicians who conducted deadly or debilitating experiments on concentration camp prisoners were prosecuted as war criminals in the

1930: 513: 638:. As research has become formalized, the academic community has developed formal definitions of "human subject research", largely in response to 591:", in which drugs, vaccines and medical devices are evaluated.) On the other hand, human subject research in the social sciences often involves 4760: 4251: 496: 183: 1389:

in 2014, collected data from hundreds of thousands of Facebook users after temporarily removing certain types of emotional content from their

3755: 3240: 1659:. The study followed more than 600 African-American men who were not told they had syphilis and were denied access to the known treatment of 1063:

or a central laboratory. For example, a clinical drug trial case at the University of Minnesota that was under investigation in 2015 for the

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Shuchman, Miriam. "Protecting Patients in Ongoing Clinical Trials." CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal 182, no. 2 (2010): 124-126.

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is systematic, scientific investigation that can be either interventional (a "trial") or observational (no "test article") and involves

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The Declaration of Helsinki was established in 1964 to regulate international research involving human subjects. Established by the

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funding, overall efficacy of the treatment being studied, and if conducting such studies is done to the highest ethical standard.

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surgeries without their informed consent, often under pressure from local authorities or in exchange for government services.

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Concerns regarding privacy and informed consent have surfaced regarding multiple social media studies. A research project by

1060: 548: 1651:, widely regarded as the "most infamous biomedical research study in U.S. history," was performed from 1932 to 1972 by the 4765: 4648: 3950: 3795: 1967: 1899: 1816: 1712: 710: 518: 171: 4775: 4397: 3763: 3079: 1648: 768: 476: 1931:"Ethics in Clinical Research a History Of Human Subject Protections and Practical Implementation of Ethical Standards" 1778: 1367: 1196: 1130: 2103: 1264: 1165: 4849: 4598: 3896: 3808: 3545: 2730: 2178: 1810: 1784: 1420: 1351: 1085: 1017: 792: 772: 2714:

Asch SE (1951). "Effects of group pressure on the modification and distortion of judgments". In Guetzkow H (ed.).

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as a data source for researchers has led to new uncertainties regarding the definition of human subject research.

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Trials can be quite costly, depending on a number of factors. The sponsor may be a governmental organization or a

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Depending on product type and development stage, investigators initially enroll volunteers or patients into small

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program, primarily targeting poor and marginalized populations. Millions of people, especially women, underwent

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Blass T (1999). "The Milgram paradigm after 35 years: Some things we now know about obedience to authority".

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regulations were put in place in the United States to protect subjects from abuses. After the passage of the

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Nazi Germany performed human experimentation on large numbers of prisoners (including children), largely

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company. Certain functions necessary to the trial, such as monitoring and lab work, may be managed by an

4798: 4750: 4745: 4430: 4372: 4324: 4151: 4116: 4091: 3982: 3871: 1668: 1664: 1299:, research has shown that civilian volunteers decided to participate in vehicle safety research to help 1033: 508: 481: 387: 218: 158: 1937: 3351:

The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research

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A Clinical Drug Study at the University of Minnesota Department of Psychiatry: The Dan Markingson Case

1560:, and bacterial inoculations. It induced epidemics on a very large scale from 1932 onward through the 1008:) and known interventions that warrant further study and comparison. Clinical trials generate data on 4357: 4294: 4196: 4106: 3936: 3921: 3651: 3636: 3283:

Katz RV, Kegeles SS, Kressin NR, Green BL, Wang MQ, James SA, Russell SL, Claudio C (November 2006).

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by concluding that, when surrounded by others, the individual expects someone else to take action.

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Zimmer M (2010-12-01). ""But the data is already public": on the ethics of research in Facebook".

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Tyebkhan G (2003). "Declaration of Helsinki: the ethical cornerstone of human clinical research".

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Mitscherlich A, Mielke F (1992). "Epilogue: Seven Were Hanged". In Annas GJ, Grodin MA (eds.).

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National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research

3314: 3285:"The Tuskegee Legacy Project: willingness of minorities to participate in biomedical research" 3256: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3206: 3051: 3025: 2953: 2890: 2799: 2644: 2592: 2486: 2432: 2424: 2350: 2228: 2078: 2067: 2059: 2026: 2008: 1766: 1760: 1737:

have also faced ethical criticism due to their manipulation of participants, inducing stress,

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are key concerns, yet it is unclear when social media users qualify as human subjects. Moreno

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National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research

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time. A physician commented that " relationships are very important because of cash flow."

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Milgram S (October 1968). "Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority".

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and all members of the units in exchange for all of the results of their experiments.

1256: 4833: 4618: 4603: 4588: 4543: 4508: 4473: 4453: 4443: 4438: 4417: 4377: 4309: 4211: 4206: 3461: 3386: 1834: – Experiments that were performed on humans in the US that are deemed unethical 1605: 1557: 1511: 1495: 1475: 1467: 1452: 1140: 1048: 429: 419: 4818: 4808: 2986:"Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks" 2965: 2656: 2498: 2444: 848:

The Declaration of Helsinki is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human

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Systematic, scientific investigation that involves human beings as research subjects

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Human subject research is used in various fields, including research into advanced

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Bromley, Elizabeth; Mikesell, Lisa; Jones, Felica; Khodyakov, Dmitry (May 2015).

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Hungry Canadian aboriginal children used in government experiments during 1940s

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The Nazi Doctors And The Nuremberg Code - Human Rights in Human Experimentation

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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United States, Congress, Office of the Legislative Auditor, and James Nobles.

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Wolfensberger Wolf (1967). "Ethical Issues in Research with Human Subjects".

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cells into cancer patients, healthy individuals, and prison inmates from the

4678: 4463: 4367: 3735: 3462:"Unethical human research in the field of neuroscience: a historical review" 3010: 2876: 2179:"WMA Press Release: WMA revises the Declaration of Helsinki. 9 October 2000" 1961: 1671:, guidelines for participation, and the definition of informed consent. Its 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1573: 1549: 1506:

was given for the procedures. Typically, the experiments resulted in death,

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Human subjects have been commonly used in experiments testing the theory of

1056: 627: 392: 3493: 3446: 3318: 3126:"Stop complaining about the Facebook study. It's a golden age for research" 3029: 2894: 2648: 2436: 2354: 2232: 2071: 2030: 4062: 3300: 2596: 2490: 688:– communication or interpersonal contact between investigator and subject. 4392: 4387: 4347: 3261: 1537: 1499: 1444: 1378: 1362: 1013: 908:

Hoas and Cook categorized their findings into the following main topics:

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in Maryland was the headquarters of US biological warfare experiments.

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in the United States published recommended rights of human subjects:

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1946 military human subject research on the effects of wind on humans

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sociologists, known as "Tastes, Ties, and Time", utilized data from

1195:

respond to the emergency. This effect has been shown to promote the

2104:"Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects ('Common Rule" 1677:

established three tenets of ethical research: respect for persons,

1094:

in 1971 examined the effect of social roles on college students at

3460:

Algahtani, Hussein; Bajunaid, Mohammed; Shirah, Bader (May 2018).

3175: 1471: 700:– specific information that can be used to identify an individual. 43: 37:"Human experiments" redirects here. For the 1979 horror film, see 2198:"The declaration of Helsinki: The cornerstone of research ethics" 4407: 3568: 1763: – Post-World War II trial of German doctors for war crimes 1689: 1463: 1071:, a pharmaceutical company headquartered in the United Kingdom. 3833: 3609: 1552:, in northeast China), experimented on prisoners by conducting 1793: – Japanese biological, chemical warfare unit (1936–1945) 1722:

Some pharmaceutical companies have been accused of conducting

1711:

In the 1970s, the Indian government implemented a large-scale

1627:. They were often performed illegally, without the knowledge, 1300: 1232: 3829: 2841:. Washington: proceedings. Washington: USGPO. pp. 87–98. 1769: – Canadian children, wrongly classified as mentally ill 2048:(in German), vol. 24, no. 12, pp. 1384–1390, 1502:

into participating; they did not willingly volunteer and no

595:

which consist of questions to a particular group of people.

2859:

Moreno MA, Goniu N, Moreno PS, Diekema D (September 2013).

2543:

The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil

1526:, and the abuses perpetrated led to the development of the 1415:

Unethical human experimentation violates the principles of

1688:, an important virologist and cancer researcher, injected 30:"Test subject" redirects here. For non-human animals, see 3359:

United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare

1936:. Society of Clinical Research Associates. Archived from 2221:

Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology

1568:, similar units were set up in conquered cities such as 1821:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

1795:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

1260: 1787: – Type of committee that applies research ethics 1600:). After the war, Supreme Commander of the Occupation 1366:

that the research project was partially funded by the

726:

The right to end participation in research at any time

2824:

Cognitive Dissonance, Fifty Years of a Classic Theory

2532:. www.auditor.leg.state.mn.us/sreview/markingson.pdf. 2329:"Revisiting the Ethics of Research on Human Subjects" 2129:"Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects" 1186:

is demonstrated in a series of famous experiments by

789:

United States Department of Health and Human Services

652:

United States Department of Health and Human Services

3538:"Japanese veteran haunted by WWII surgical killings" 3411:

Egharevba, Efe; Atkinson, Jacqueline (August 2016).

1832:

Unethical human experimentation in the United States

1370:, which mandates the projects it funds to engage in 4721: 4428: 4338: 4250: 4070: 3895: 3794: 3754: 3718: 3690: 3644: 3591:

Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights

3571:- a monthly newsletter on protecting human subjects 3289:

Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved

2718:. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press. pp. 177–190. 1819: – Experimentation using other primate animals 1016:. They are conducted only after they have received 732:

Protection from physical, mental and emotional harm

2791: 1828: – Individual entity for statistical purposes 799:with an official effective date of July 19, 2018. 2304:"The Belmont Report | Institutional Review Board" 1645:Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments 723:Respect for persons: treated as autonomous agents 2984:Kramer AD, Guillory JE, Hancock JT (June 2014). 2560:"Stanford Prison Experiment | Simply Psychology" 2280:"MSU Authentication | Michigan State University" 2865:Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking 1813: – Unethical experiments on human subjects 1419:. It has been performed by countries including 1387:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2839:Vehicle safety research integration: symposium 2770:The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination 1781: – Studies of radiation effects on humans 817:. A portion of the verdict handed down in the 3845: 3621: 3375:. New York: Broadway Paperbacks. p. 128. 3044:"Opinion | Should Facebook Manipulate Users?" 2346:10.1001/journalofethics.2015.17.12.fred1-1512 1455:, and the human experimentation conducted by 549: 8: 2817: 2815: 2083:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2046:Tropical Medicine & International Health 1757: – American immunologist and oncologist 1518:, and as such are considered as examples of 4845:Human subject research in the United States 3417:Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications 2772:. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. pp. 325–330. 1036:aims to ensure the scientific validity and 1032:, in one country or in multiple countries. 3852: 3838: 3830: 3628: 3614: 3606: 3513:"A life haunted by WWII surgical killings" 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 1075:Human subjects in psychology and sociology 556: 542: 78: 58: 3436: 3308: 3019: 3009: 2884: 2630: 2344: 2053: 2020: 1283:Learn how and when to remove this message 1890: 1888: 1886: 1775: – American feral child (born 1957) 1255:Relevant discussion may be found on the 735:Access to information regarding research 575:as research subjects, commonly known as 487:Library and information science software 3387:"India's dark history of sterilisation" 3218: 3216: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1850: 767:in 1906, regulatory bodies such as the 70: 2402: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2076: 1963:Human Subject & Privacy Protection 1862:"Definition of Human Subject Research" 1267:to additional sources at this section. 915:morally nagging and challenging issues 791:and serves as a set of guidelines for 482:Geographic information system software 3756:Guidelines for human subject research 3080:"Illegal, Immoral, and Mood-Altering" 3073: 3071: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2931: 2929: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2456: 2454: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2366: 2364: 2274: 2272: 2246: 2244: 2242: 1856: 1854: 932:Morally nagging or challenging issues 758:Guidelines for human subject research 7: 3373:The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks 3335:, Montgomery: New South Books, 1998. 2679:Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2518:. Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. 2284:ovidsp.tx.ovid.com.proxy2.cl.msu.edu 2098: 2096: 2094: 949:Willingness to join a research study 918:willingness to join a research study 738:Protection of privacy and well-being 3257:"Hidden history of US germ testing" 2585:International Journal of Psychiatry 1657:United States Public Health Service 2691:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb00134.x 1896:"What is Human Subjects Research?" 1490:mainly in the early 1940s, during 1248:relies largely or entirely upon a 25: 3667:Privacy for research participants 2938:Ethics and Information Technology 2913:The Chronicle of Higher Education 2794:Classic Experiments in Psychology 2755:10.1038/scientificamerican1261-45 1993:American Journal of Public Health 1604:gave immunity in the name of the 1018:health authority/ethics committee 4061: 1866:University of California, Irvine 1237: 3176:"Angel of Death: Josef Mengele" 2612:"Behavioral Study of Obedience" 1791:Japanese human experimentations 1411:Unethical human experimentation 1405:Unethical human experimentation 666:As defined by HHS regulations ( 2619:Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1061:contract research organization 1: 4157:Industrial and organizational 3796:Monitoring in clinical trials 1968:National Institute of Justice 1900:University of Texas at Austin 1817:Non-human primate experiments 1548:(then in the puppet state of 1466:from across Europe, but also 896:Research in rural communities 711:National Institute of Justice 4398:Human factors and ergonomics 3764:List of medical ethics cases 3429:10.1016/j.conctc.2016.04.009 3078:Grimmelmann J (2014-09-23). 2909:"Harvard's Privacy Meltdown" 2768:Whitley BE, Kite ME (2010). 2731:"Nationality and conformity" 1840: – Experimental surgery 1649:Tuskegee syphilis experiment 1308:tests, and tests involving 1217:after the landmark study by 769:Food and Drug Administration 729:Right to safeguard integrity 3333:The Tuskegee Syphilis Study 3151:"Живущие в стеклянном доме" 2483:10.1126/science.155.3758.47 1864:. Research Administration, 1779:Human radiation experiments 1368:National Science Foundation 1197:diffusion of responsibility 1131:Asch conformity experiments 1125:Asch conformity experiments 870:was created in 1978 by the 793:institutional review boards 773:institutional review boards 743:From Subject to Participant 4876: 3809:Institutional review board 2716:Groups, Leadership and Men 2610:Milgram S (October 1963). 1811:Nazi human experimentation 1785:Institutional review board 1408: 1352:institutional review board 1206: 1175: 1151: 1128: 1105: 1086:Stanford prison experiment 1083: 1080:Stanford prison experiment 965: 859: 829: 806: 755: 36: 29: 4784: 4087:Applied behavior analysis 4059: 3867: 3814:Data monitoring committee 3478:10.1007/s10072-018-3245-1 2950:10.1007/s10676-010-9227-5 2421:10.1007/s10730-015-9270-z 1735:Psychological experiments 1449:Totskoye nuclear exercise 1158:realistic conflict theory 838:World Medical Association 599:includes questionnaires, 509:Qualitative data analysis 3819:Community advisory board 3741:Clinical research ethics 3511:AFP (October 31, 2007). 3105:"In defense of Facebook" 3103:Yarkoni T (2014-06-29). 2837:Bradford LL (May 1973). 2564:www.simplypsychology.org 2005:10.2105/AJPH.2014.302403 1562:Second Sino-Japanese war 1166:Robber's Cave State Park 958:" from clinical trials. 698:Identifiable information 4363:Behavioral neuroscience 3927:Behavioral neuroscience 3774:Declaration of Helsinki 3585:Declaration of Helsinki 3569:"Human Research Report" 3203:Oxford University Press 3124:Watts DJ (2014-07-07). 3011:10.1073/pnas.1320040111 2877:10.1089/cyber.2012.0334 2541:Zimbardo, P.G. (2007). 1806:Military medical ethics 1663:. This led to the 1974 1065:Death of Dan Markingson 832:Declaration of Helsinki 826:Declaration of Helsinki 18:Human subjects research 4840:Human subject research 4413:Psychology of religion 4353:Behavioral engineering 4290:Human subject research 3946:Cognitive neuroscience 3912:Affective neuroscience 3692:Human subject research 2185:on September 27, 2006. 1929:Perlman D (May 2004). 1647:, amongst others. The 1641:Rockefeller Commission 1542:Imperial Japanese Army 1540:, a department of the 1156:A classic advocate of 765:Pure Food and Drug Act 569:Human subject research 388:Inferential statistics 334:Descriptive statistics 281:Human subject research 56: 4860:Ethics and statistics 4789:Wiktionary definition 4325:Self-report inventory 4320:Quantitative research 3466:Neurological Sciences 3301:10.1353/hpu.2006.0126 2822:Cooper, Joel (2007). 2333:AMA Journal of Ethics 2327:Tsay Cynthia (2015). 2154:"Revised Common Rule" 1669:risk-benefit analysis 1665:National Research Act 1615:During World War II, 1451:, the experiments of 1329:The increased use of 1090:A study conducted by 1034:Clinical study design 172:Philosophical schools 54: 4315:Qualitative research 4270:Behavior epigenetics 3637:Research participant 3536:AFP (Oct 28, 2007). 2826:. SAGE Publications. 2252:"The Belmont Report" 1713:forced sterilization 1684:From the 1950s-60s, 1304:head–neck injuries, 1261:improve this article 1215:cognitive dissonance 1209:Cognitive dissonance 1203:Cognitive dissonance 972:Clinical trials are 705:Human subject rights 581:biological specimens 497:Reference management 447:Scientific modelling 189:Critical rationalism 4794:Wiktionary category 4358:Behavioral genetics 4330:Statistical surveys 4187:Occupational health 3922:Behavioral genetics 3662:Respect for persons 3523:on 13 December 2014 3178:. Auschwitz website 3002:2014PNAS..111.8788K 2798:. Greenwood Press. 2747:1961SciAm.205f..45M 2735:Scientific American 2475:1967Sci...155...47W 2202:Archive of Oncology 1773:Genie (feral child) 1621:Operation Whitecoat 1488:concentration camps 1439:. Examples include 1385:, published in the 1381:and researchers at 1297:automotive industry 1152:Robber's Cave study 1096:Stanford University 1059:partner, such as a 1002:dietary supplements 923:The role of funding 842:biomedical research 692:Private Information 642:of human subjects. 477:Argument technology 4766:Schools of thought 4669:Richard E. Nisbett 4549:Donald T. Campbell 4227:Sport and exercise 3602:Toronto Star, 2013 3225:Unit 731 Testimony 3048:The New York Times 2729:Milgram S (1961). 2701:2016-11-14 at the 2308:www2.umf.maine.edu 2196:Snežana B (2001). 1755:Chester M. Southam 1728:experimental drugs 1686:Chester M. Southam 1655:contracted by the 1653:Tuskegee Institute 1457:Chester M. Southam 1383:Cornell University 1319:crash test dummies 1108:Milgram Experiment 1102:Milgram experiment 856:The Belmont Report 752:Ethical guidelines 597:Survey methodology 471:Tools and software 415:Secondary research 339:Discourse analysis 57: 4850:Clinical research 4827: 4826: 4804:Wikimedia Commons 4731:Counseling topics 4694:Ronald C. Kessler 4684:Shelley E. Taylor 4609:Lawrence Kohlberg 4584:Stanley Schachter 4383:Consumer behavior 4265:Archival research 4033:Psycholinguistics 3917:Affective science 3827: 3826: 3700:Clinical research 3677:Return of results 3672:Right to withdraw 3548:on March 17, 2014 3371:Skloot R (2010). 3242:978-0-8048-3565-7 3229:Tuttle Publishing 3084:James Grimmelmann 2666:on June 11, 2011. 2513:"Clinical Trials" 2055:10.1111/tmi.13320 1767:Duplessis Orphans 1694:Ohio Penitentiary 1602:Douglas MacArthur 1498:. Prisoners were 1310:military vehicles 1293: 1292: 1285: 1223:Merrill Carlsmith 978:clinical research 912:source of funding 632:political science 616:clinical medicine 566: 565: 532:Philosophy portal 440:Systematic review 425:Literature review 383:Historical method 366:Social experiment 301:Scientific method 286:Narrative inquiry 137:Interdisciplinary 131:Research strategy 102:Research question 97:Research proposal 52: 39:Human Experiments 16:(Redirected from 4867: 4761:Research methods 4704:Richard Davidson 4699:Joseph E. LeDoux 4574:George A. Miller 4564:David McClelland 4559:Herbert A. Simon 4459:Edward Thorndike 4280:Content analysis 4065: 4038:Psychophysiology 3854: 3847: 3840: 3831: 3804:Ethics committee 3682:Informed consent 3630: 3623: 3616: 3607: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3544:. Archived from 3532: 3530: 3528: 3519:. 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Please help 1245: 1243: 1236: 1230: 1229:Vehicle safety 1227: 1219:Leon Festinger 1207:Main article: 1204: 1201: 1176:Main article: 1173: 1170: 1162:Muzafer Sherif 1153: 1150: 1129:Main article: 1126: 1123: 1106:Main article: 1103: 1100: 1084:Main article: 1081: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1067:was funded by 1053:medical device 1045:pharmaceutical 968:Clinical trial 966:Main article: 963: 960: 950: 947: 933: 930: 924: 921: 920: 919: 916: 913: 897: 894: 885: 882: 868:Belmont Report 862:Belmont Report 860:Main article: 857: 854: 830:Main article: 827: 824: 819:doctors' trial 809:Nuremberg Code 807:Main article: 804: 803:Nuremberg Code 801: 780: 777: 756:Main article: 753: 750: 744: 741: 740: 739: 736: 733: 730: 727: 724: 721: 706: 703: 702: 701: 695: 689: 683: 647: 646:Human subjects 644: 589:clinical trial 564: 563: 561: 560: 553: 546: 538: 535: 534: 528: 527: 524: 523: 522: 521: 516: 511: 501: 500: 499: 494: 484: 479: 473: 470: 469: 466: 465: 462: 461: 456: 455: 454: 444: 443: 442: 437: 435:Scoping review 432: 427: 422: 412: 407: 406: 405: 395: 390: 385: 380: 378:Field research 375: 374: 373: 368: 363: 353: 352: 351: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 315: 312: 311: 308: 307: 304: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 276:Historiography 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 247: 242: 241: 238: 237: 234: 233: 232: 231: 229:Subtle realism 226: 216: 211: 209:Postpositivism 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 184:Constructivism 181: 179:Antipositivism 175: 170: 169: 166: 165: 162: 161: 156: 155: 154: 144: 139: 133: 130: 129: 126: 125: 122: 121: 120: 119: 114: 104: 99: 93: 88: 87: 84: 83: 75: 74: 68: 67: 32:Animal testing 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4872: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4786: 4783: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4751:Psychologists 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4741:Organizations 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4720: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4689:John Anderson 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4619:Ulric Neisser 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4604:Endel Tulving 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4589:Robert Zajonc 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4544:Jerome Bruner 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4509:B. 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Hull 4472: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4454:Sigmund Freud 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4444:William James 4442: 4440: 4439:Wilhelm Wundt 4437: 4435: 4432: 4431:Psychologists 4427: 4419: 4418:Psychometrics 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4378:Consciousness 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4310:Psychophysics 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4252:Methodologies 4249: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4212:Psychotherapy 4210: 4208: 4207:Psychometrics 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 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During the 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1514:or permanent 1513: 1512:disfigurement 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1496:the Holocaust 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1453:Josef Mengele 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1433:United States 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1412: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1353: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1324: 1322: 1320: 1316: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1298: 1287: 1284: 1276: 1273:December 2020 1266: 1262: 1258: 1252: 1251: 1250:single source 1246:This section 1244: 1235: 1234: 1228: 1226: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1210: 1202: 1200: 1198: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1179: 1171: 1169: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1149: 1147: 1142: 1141:control group 1138: 1135:Psychologist 1132: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1116:psychologist 1115: 1109: 1101: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1087: 1079: 1074: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1049:biotechnology 1046: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1026:pilot studies 1022: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 969: 961: 959: 948: 946: 942: 938: 931: 929: 922: 917: 914: 911: 910: 909: 906: 902: 895: 893: 890: 883: 881: 878: 873: 869: 863: 855: 853: 851: 846: 843: 839: 833: 825: 823: 820: 816: 810: 802: 800: 798: 794: 790: 786: 778: 776: 774: 770: 766: 759: 751: 749: 742: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 720: 716: 715: 714: 712: 709:In 2010, the 704: 699: 696: 693: 690: 687: 684: 681: 678: 677: 676: 673: 670: 664: 661: 658: 653: 645: 643: 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 608: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 577:test subjects 574: 570: 559: 554: 552: 547: 545: 540: 539: 537: 536: 533: 530: 529: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 506: 505: 502: 498: 495: 493: 492:Bibliometrics 490: 489: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 474: 468: 467: 460: 457: 453: 450: 449: 448: 445: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 430:Meta-analysis 428: 426: 423: 421: 420:Bibliometrics 418: 417: 416: 413: 411: 408: 404: 401: 400: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 358: 357: 354: 350: 347: 346: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 316: 310: 309: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 291:Phenomenology 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 248: 245: 240: 239: 230: 227: 225: 222: 221: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 176: 173: 168: 167: 160: 157: 153: 150: 149: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 134: 128: 127: 118: 115: 113: 110: 109: 108: 105: 103: 100: 98: 95: 94: 91: 86: 85: 81: 77: 76: 73: 69: 65: 61: 60: 40: 33: 19: 4664:Larry Squire 4659:Bruce McEwen 4654:Amos Tversky 4624:Jerome Kagan 4614:Noam Chomsky 4554:Hans Eysenck 4524:Harry Harlow 4504:Erik Erikson 4403:Intelligence 4300:Neuroimaging 4289: 4043:Quantitative 4008:Mathematical 4003:Intelligence 3993:Experimental 3988:Evolutionary 3978:Differential 3887:Psychologist 3778: 3691: 3550:. 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