1998:. The plant was being forced to reduce its production due to water restrictions during high temperatures in the region (the plant consumed 1200 m3/day using adiabatic air coolers from 25 °C onwards of ambient temperature). The Hygroscopic cycle has allowed the plant to cut the cooling consumption for these air coolers, increase the power output by 1%, and increase the availability all around the year. The plant can now operate at 38 °C, and even 45 °C ambient temperature. The owner of the plant can now reach all the generation premiums of this plant. This increase also helps the province to reach the
31:
1601:
1714:. These hygroscopic compounds are cooled by an air-cooler, where the heat of condensation is dissipated by an air-cooler. Because of the thermal recovery of the boiler blowdown, the hygroscopic reaction in the steam condenser, and the use of an air-cooler to dissipate the heat of condensation, the
1738:
in the evaporator and allowing more liquid to evaporate. In the hygroscopic cycle, the gas absorbed-dissolved into the other fluid is the steam coming from the outlet of the steam turbine. As the steam is absorbed-dissolved into the hygroscopic fluid, more steam can condense, and the reduction in
2025:
The current state of development is being led by
Francisco Javier Rubio Serrano, where his research team and company, IMASA INGENIERĂŤA Y PROYECTOS, S.A. are developing other configurations, and researching hygroscopic fluids for each particular application together with their most suitable
1320:
1994:. This is the first industrial reference of this technology. It has a capacity of 12.5 MW and is part of Oleicola el Tejar. The biomass fed is dried olive bones from the olive oil industry surrounding the plant in the
1777:. This means that the temperature of the concentrated hygroscopic fluid entering the absorber can be higher than a non hygroscopic fluid. As a result, the cooling is easier than in a conventional Rankine cycle in the
1826:
Depending on the salts chosen, in particular those with a high dilution capacity (i.e. LiBr), saturation temperature of the hygroscopic fluid can be up to 40 °C higher than the steam leaving the turbine.
1822:
are also expensive, require numerous equipment, such as pumps and cooling towers, and expensive water treatment. Thus by reducing the cooling water needed, the operating costs of the plant will be reduced.
1800:
in power plants consume a high amount of fresh water and chemicals, and their alternative, electric air cooled steam condenser consumes part of the power produced in conventional power plants, reducing the
1718:
of the cycle is higher, with a higher electrical output, reduces or eliminates the need for cooling water, reduces the operating costs, and the capital cost of the utility power plant.
1754:
In the steam absorber, steam is absorbed with a concentrated hygroscopic fluid. As the steam is absorbed, the concentration of the hygroscopic fluid decreases, or the salt is
1155:
1100:
1045:
852:
805:
720:
673:
585:
538:
1630:
756:
624:
990:
1812:
much higher than the steam traditionally condensed in the air cooled condenser mentioned earlier, thus reducing the power needed for ventilation, and needing less
2504:
1331:
489:
2010:
The
Hygroscopic Cycle is a concept that has evolved recently and is at the heart of intensive research on hygroscopic fluids. Recent developments have been the
1999:
1219:
828:
781:
696:
649:
561:
514:
453:
1309:
2666:
1873:. For the last two cases, water can be easily desorbed in a reversible way, as opposed to the first case, where water cannot be recovered easily (
1342:
2043:
1880:
The selection of hygroscopic salts have to provide the following strict criteria in order to be of interest of use in the hygroscopic cycle:
912:
2437:"ANESE | IMASA desarrolla una importante tecnologĂa para OleĂcola el Tejar que es una herramienta de eficiencia energĂ©tica muy potente"
1623:
1210:
446:
324:
2014:, but with the actual configuration, it is expected to have an impact in locations with poor access to water, and a good integration with
1739:
vapor pressure is equivalent to a reduction in the condensation pressure at the outlet of the steam turbine. The effect of this is that a
879:
1830:
The salts are concentrated in the boiler, as steam is disengaged from liquid water. Given that the concentration of salts increases, the
2141:
1901:
Non-reactivity with other salts in the cycle and chemically stable over the range of temperatures and pressures in the hygroscopic cycle
262:
2497:
1394:
1368:
889:
343:
2162:
2732:
295:
1447:
2022:, biomass, coal). Here the residual heat of the boiler and hygroscopic fluid leaving the boiler can be used for heating purposes.
918:
317:
2201:
2770:
1616:
2325:
1862:
1547:
79:
1442:
2806:
2490:
2346:
1522:
1295:
272:
1808:
The air-cooler used in the hygroscopic cycle cools a liquid flow with concentrated hygroscopic compound, with an overall
2717:
907:
110:
100:
1755:
115:
105:
1995:
1954:
A hygroscopic cycle demonstration plant has been built, demonstrating the concepts of the cycle, which includes the
2631:
2521:
1437:
1399:
1363:
75:
1734:. In these machines, the refrigerant is absorbed-dissolved into another fluid (a hygroscopic fluid), reducing its
2785:
1967:
1813:
1192:
940:
386:
199:
189:
2067:
2019:
1975:
1866:
1809:
1782:
1695:
with the concentrated hygroscopic compounds is used thermally to pre-heat the steam turbine condensate, and as
2740:
2765:
2750:
2696:
1839:
1727:
1711:
1604:
1432:
1229:
932:
871:
407:
396:
62:
1955:
1853:
are all those substances that attract water in vapour or liquid from their environment, thus their use as
1767:
1537:
1457:
1254:
338:
92:
67:
1966:. The physical and chemical characteristics of the hygroscopic compounds, as well as their impact on the
2611:
2571:
2436:
1819:
1797:
1472:
1049:
362:
208:
57:
2254:
2755:
2086:
2050:
1552:
1477:
1467:
267:
141:
129:
1710:. Here the outlet steam is absorbed by cooled hygroscopic compounds using the same principles as in
2760:
2661:
2513:
2360:
Miranda, Teresa; Esteban, Alberto; Rojas, Sebastián; Montero, Irene; Ruiz, Antonio (4 April 2008).
1648:
1497:
1492:
1259:
281:
247:
242:
155:
2255:"Cooling Water : Watertreatment and chemical conditioning of open and closed cooling systems"
2617:
2411:
1924:
1586:
1249:
1197:
1110:
1055:
1000:
429:
413:
300:
252:
237:
227:
36:
30:
1244:
834:
787:
702:
655:
567:
520:
1706:
Condensation is done in a steam absorber, as opposed to the traditional condenser found in the
2780:
2393:
2340:
2180:
1991:
1687:
generator, where clean steam is released and superheated in order to be expanded and generate
1581:
1542:
1532:
1104:
902:
738:
730:
603:
232:
222:
164:
2116:
2722:
2383:
2373:
2235:
2098:
1912:
1735:
1502:
1487:
1427:
1422:
1239:
1234:
960:
884:
352:
217:
2745:
2015:
1692:
1656:
1452:
1300:
954:
595:
418:
179:
146:
471:
2712:
2671:
2656:
2641:
2576:
2566:
2561:
2536:
2388:
2361:
1895:
lower than water), with easily reversible desorption into water and steam in the boiler
1892:
1870:
1688:
1652:
1507:
1277:
813:
766:
681:
634:
546:
499:
377:
257:
194:
184:
52:
22:
2239:
2102:
2800:
2775:
2691:
2646:
2607:
2581:
2551:
2546:
2282:
2205:
1971:
1963:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1920:
1885:
1831:
1802:
1778:
1771:
1759:
1748:
1740:
1731:
1715:
1707:
1664:
1660:
1576:
894:
463:
424:
136:
2681:
2676:
2651:
2597:
2556:
2011:
1676:
1527:
1512:
1462:
945:
1874:
1482:
290:
2300:
2686:
2461:
1959:
1850:
1835:
1774:
1672:
1571:
1517:
1842:
the boiling point temperature, and the steam temperature that is disengaged.
1794:
reduce, or even eliminate the consumption of cooling water in the power plant
1962:
are recirculated, obtaining condensations with temperatures higher than the
1854:
169:
2397:
1858:
1744:
1285:
1202:
994:
402:
174:
2378:
1671:
as the motive fluid but with the novelty of introducing salts and their
2482:
1987:
391:
1786:
1696:
1680:
2117:"Water for Power Plant Cooling | Union of Concerned Scientists"
1934:
Other advantages are that most of the optimisations used in actual
16:
Thermodynamic cycle converting thermal energy into mechanical power
1970:, and other main equipment of the cycle similar to those found in
1684:
1668:
2226:
Rubio, Francisco Javier (2013). "The
Hygroscopic cycle for CSP".
2283:"Rankine Cycle with Absorption Step Using Hygroscopic Compounds"
1916:
1763:
367:
2486:
2440:
2163:"Water Conservation Options for Power Generation Facilities"
1907:
Thermal and physical properties are not degraded over cycles
1911:
Some of the most known salts with similar properties are
1751:
of the turbine, and generates a higher electrical output.
1726:
The hygroscopic effect of salts is well known and used in
1898:
Good solubility in water at low to moderate temperatures
2044:"Water efficient cooling of solar thermal power plants"
1762:
fluids with a high dilution capacity in water, such as
1747:
level at the outlet of the turbine. This increases the
1743:
with a lower outlet pressure can be used, with a lower
1768:
high saturation temperature / low saturation pressure
1113:
1058:
1003:
963:
837:
816:
790:
769:
741:
705:
684:
658:
637:
606:
570:
549:
523:
502:
474:
2181:"Air Cooled Heat Exchangers | Chart Industries"
2731:
2705:
2630:
2590:
2531:
2520:
2412:"Adiabatic Coolers the Sensible Choice for Cooling"
1857:. Many of them react chemically with water such as
1974:have also been proven, together with the overall
1789:concentrated hygroscopic fluid mentioned earlier.
1149:
1094:
1039:
984:
846:
822:
799:
775:
750:
714:
690:
667:
643:
618:
579:
555:
532:
508:
483:
2362:"Combustion Analysis of Different Olive Residues"
1816:and obtaining a lower overall cost of the plant.
1775:fluid can condense vapor at a higher temperature
1986:The hygroscopic cycle has been introduced in a
2498:
1624:
8:
2366:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2528:
2505:
2491:
2483:
2328:. Archived from the original on 2017-10-15
1631:
1617:
1180:
332:
151:
29:
18:
2387:
2377:
1112:
1057:
1002:
962:
836:
815:
789:
768:
740:
704:
683:
657:
636:
605:
569:
548:
522:
501:
473:
1869:in their crystalline structure, such as
1781:by using an air-cooler to dissipate the
2667:Homogeneous charge compression ignition
2202:"Forced Air Cooling and Fan Technology"
2068:"Think Water when Designing CSP Plants"
2035:
2018:plants, and any thermoelectric plants (
1938:can be achieved in this Cycle, such as
1834:temperature of the mixture of salts is
1377:
1354:
1308:
1268:
1218:
1183:
376:
351:
280:
207:
154:
21:
2338:
1982:Hygroscopic Cycle industrial reference
1792:With the appropriate salts, this can
7:
2326:"Oleicola el Tejar SCL - Enipedia"
838:
791:
706:
659:
571:
524:
344:Intensive and extensive properties
14:
2301:"Test plant – Hygroscopic Cycle"
2085:Rubio, Francisco Javier (2013).
1930:Refinements of Hygroscopic Cycle
1679:. The salts are desorbed in the
1600:
1599:
919:Table of thermodynamic equations
2087:"The Hygroscopic cycle for CSP"
1990:power plant in the province of
1958:of vapour in an absorber where
1904:Are non-toxic and non flammable
1700:
1395:Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
1884:Highly hygroscopic compounds,
1814:surface area for heat exchange
1129:
1117:
1074:
1062:
1019:
1007:
979:
967:
1:
2240:10.1016/S1755-0084(13)70048-6
2103:10.1016/S1755-0084(13)70048-6
1950:Hygroscopic Cycle Pilot Plant
1296:Mechanical equivalent of heat
908:Onsager reciprocal relations
2572:Stirling (pseudo/adiabatic)
1838:. In most salts, this will
1691:through the steam turbine.
1400:Entropy as energy dispersal
1211:"Perpetual motion" machines
1150:{\displaystyle G(T,p)=H-TS}
1095:{\displaystyle A(T,V)=U-TS}
1040:{\displaystyle H(S,p)=U+pV}
2823:
1891:Less volatile than water (
847:{\displaystyle \partial T}
800:{\displaystyle \partial V}
715:{\displaystyle \partial p}
668:{\displaystyle \partial V}
580:{\displaystyle \partial T}
533:{\displaystyle \partial S}
2345:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1321:An Inquiry Concerning the
2026:construction materials.
1976:thermodynamic efficiency
1810:volumetric heat capacity
1803:Rankine cycle efficiency
1728:Absorption refrigerators
1712:absorption refrigerators
1334:Heterogeneous Substances
751:{\displaystyle \alpha =}
619:{\displaystyle \beta =-}
1865:. Others trap water as
1730:where heat is used for
1663:. It is similar to the
2228:Renewable Energy Focus
2091:Renewable Energy Focus
1964:saturation temperature
1820:Cooling water circuits
1798:Cooling water circuits
1770:. In other words, the
1151:
1096:
1041:
986:
985:{\displaystyle U(S,V)}
848:
824:
801:
777:
752:
716:
692:
669:
645:
620:
581:
557:
534:
510:
485:
464:Specific heat capacity
68:Quantum thermodynamics
1972:thermoelectric plants
1960:hygroscopic compounds
1851:Hygroscopic compounds
1332:On the Equilibrium of
1152:
1097:
1050:Helmholtz free energy
1042:
987:
849:
825:
802:
778:
753:
717:
693:
670:
646:
621:
582:
558:
535:
511:
486:
2807:Thermodynamic cycles
2756:Regenerative cooling
2634:combustion / thermal
2533:Without phase change
2524:combustion / thermal
2514:Thermodynamic cycles
2305:Hygroscopiccycle.com
2287:Patentscope.wipo.int
1783:heat of condensation
1779:condensation section
1766:usually also show a
1345:Motive Power of Fire
1111:
1056:
1001:
961:
913:Bridgman's equations
890:Fundamental relation
835:
814:
788:
767:
739:
703:
682:
656:
635:
604:
568:
547:
521:
500:
472:
2379:10.3390/ijms9040512
1675:properties for the
1649:thermodynamic cycle
1323:Source ... Friction
1255:Loschmidt's paradox
447:Material properties
325:Conjugate variables
2253:Dr. K. Nachstedt.
2188:Hudsonproducts.com
1925:Copper(II) sulfate
1877:may be required).
1867:water of hydration
1846:Hygroscopic Fluids
1659:by the means of a
1587:Order and disorder
1343:Reflections on the
1250:Heat death paradox
1147:
1092:
1037:
982:
844:
820:
797:
773:
748:
712:
688:
665:
641:
616:
577:
553:
530:
506:
484:{\displaystyle c=}
481:
454:Property databases
430:Reduced properties
414:Chemical potential
378:Functions of state
301:Thermal efficiency
37:Carnot heat engine
2794:
2793:
2771:Vapor-compression
2697:Staged combustion
2626:
2625:
2591:With phase change
2169:. September 2012.
1645:Hygroscopic cycle
1641:
1640:
1582:Self-organization
1407:
1406:
1105:Gibbs free energy
903:Maxwell relations
861:
860:
857:
856:
823:{\displaystyle V}
776:{\displaystyle 1}
731:Thermal expansion
725:
724:
691:{\displaystyle V}
644:{\displaystyle 1}
590:
589:
556:{\displaystyle N}
509:{\displaystyle T}
437:
436:
353:Process functions
339:Property diagrams
318:System properties
308:
307:
273:Endoreversibility
165:Equation of state
2814:
2766:Vapor absorption
2529:
2507:
2500:
2493:
2484:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2472:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2448:
2439:. Archived from
2433:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2422:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2391:
2381:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2344:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2259:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2204:. Archived from
2198:
2192:
2191:
2185:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2146:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2082:
2076:
2075:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2049:. Archived from
2048:
2040:
2006:State of the art
2000:COP 21 agreement
1996:south of Cordoba
1917:Sodium Hydroxyde
1913:Calcium chloride
1758:. Hygroscopic /
1736:partial pressure
1655:into mechanical
1633:
1626:
1619:
1603:
1602:
1310:Key publications
1291:
1290:("living force")
1240:Brownian ratchet
1235:Entropy and life
1230:Entropy and time
1181:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1101:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1038:
991:
989:
988:
983:
885:Clausius theorem
880:Carnot's theorem
853:
851:
850:
845:
829:
827:
826:
821:
806:
804:
803:
798:
782:
780:
779:
774:
761:
760:
757:
755:
754:
749:
721:
719:
718:
713:
697:
695:
694:
689:
674:
672:
671:
666:
650:
648:
647:
642:
629:
628:
625:
623:
622:
617:
586:
584:
583:
578:
562:
560:
559:
554:
539:
537:
536:
531:
515:
513:
512:
507:
494:
493:
490:
488:
487:
482:
460:
459:
333:
152:
33:
19:
2822:
2821:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2727:
2701:
2633:
2622:
2612:Organic Rankine
2586:
2540:
2537:hot air engines
2534:
2523:
2516:
2511:
2481:
2480:
2470:
2468:
2460:
2459:
2455:
2446:
2444:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2420:
2418:
2410:
2409:
2405:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2337:
2331:
2329:
2324:
2323:
2319:
2309:
2307:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2266:
2264:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2225:
2224:
2220:
2211:
2209:
2200:
2199:
2195:
2183:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2125:
2123:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2084:
2083:
2079:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2053:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2008:
1984:
1952:
1932:
1863:alkaline metals
1848:
1724:
1693:Boiler blowdown
1637:
1592:
1591:
1567:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1417:
1409:
1408:
1387:
1373:
1348:
1344:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1322:
1289:
1282:
1264:
1245:Maxwell's demon
1207:
1178:
1177:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1054:
1053:
1052:
999:
998:
997:
959:
958:
957:
955:Internal energy
950:
935:
925:
924:
899:
874:
864:
863:
862:
833:
832:
812:
811:
786:
785:
765:
764:
737:
736:
701:
700:
680:
679:
654:
653:
633:
632:
602:
601:
596:Compressibility
566:
565:
545:
544:
519:
518:
498:
497:
470:
469:
449:
439:
438:
419:Particle number
372:
331:
320:
310:
309:
268:Irreversibility
180:State of matter
147:Isolated system
132:
122:
121:
120:
95:
85:
84:
80:Non-equilibrium
72:
47:
39:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2820:
2818:
2810:
2809:
2799:
2798:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2737:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2638:
2636:
2628:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2605:
2600:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2543:
2541:
2532:
2526:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2502:
2495:
2487:
2479:
2478:
2462:"Kalina Cycle"
2453:
2428:
2403:
2372:(4): 512–525.
2352:
2317:
2292:
2274:
2245:
2218:
2193:
2172:
2154:
2133:
2108:
2077:
2059:
2056:on 2013-10-21.
2034:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2016:combined cycle
2007:
2004:
1992:Cordoba, Spain
1983:
1980:
1978:of the cycle.
1951:
1948:
1931:
1928:
1909:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1893:vapor pressure
1889:
1871:sodium sulfate
1847:
1844:
1723:
1720:
1701:steam-absorber
1653:thermal energy
1639:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1628:
1621:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1568:
1565:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1382:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1364:Thermodynamics
1360:
1357:
1356:
1352:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1340:
1338:
1329:
1327:
1318:
1313:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1281:
1280:
1278:Caloric theory
1274:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1102:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1047:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1006:
992:
981:
978:
975:
972:
969:
966:
951:
949:
948:
943:
937:
936:
931:
930:
927:
926:
923:
922:
915:
910:
905:
898:
897:
892:
887:
882:
876:
875:
870:
869:
866:
865:
859:
858:
855:
854:
843:
840:
830:
819:
808:
807:
796:
793:
783:
772:
758:
747:
744:
734:
727:
726:
723:
722:
711:
708:
698:
687:
676:
675:
664:
661:
651:
640:
626:
615:
612:
609:
599:
592:
591:
588:
587:
576:
573:
563:
552:
541:
540:
529:
526:
516:
505:
491:
480:
477:
467:
458:
457:
456:
450:
445:
444:
441:
440:
435:
434:
433:
432:
427:
422:
411:
400:
381:
380:
374:
373:
371:
370:
365:
359:
356:
355:
349:
348:
347:
346:
341:
322:
321:
316:
315:
312:
311:
306:
305:
304:
303:
298:
293:
285:
284:
278:
277:
276:
275:
270:
265:
260:
258:Free expansion
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
212:
211:
205:
204:
203:
202:
197:
195:Control volume
192:
187:
185:Phase (matter)
182:
177:
172:
167:
159:
158:
150:
149:
144:
139:
133:
128:
127:
124:
123:
119:
118:
113:
108:
103:
97:
96:
91:
90:
87:
86:
83:
82:
71:
70:
65:
60:
55:
49:
48:
45:
44:
41:
40:
35:The classical
34:
26:
25:
23:Thermodynamics
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2819:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2761:Transcritical
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2741:Hampson–Linde
2739:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2733:Refrigeration
2730:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2662:Gas-generator
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2647:Brayton/Joule
2645:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2629:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2552:Brayton/Joule
2550:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2538:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2503:
2501:
2496:
2494:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2467:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2443:on 2017-09-18
2442:
2438:
2432:
2429:
2417:
2416:Icscoolenergy
2413:
2407:
2404:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2356:
2353:
2348:
2342:
2327:
2321:
2318:
2306:
2302:
2296:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2275:
2263:
2256:
2249:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2219:
2208:on 2013-06-03
2207:
2203:
2197:
2194:
2189:
2182:
2176:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2052:
2045:
2039:
2036:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1936:Rankine cycle
1929:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1921:sulfuric acid
1918:
1914:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1832:boiling point
1828:
1824:
1821:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1741:steam turbine
1737:
1733:
1732:refrigeration
1729:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1708:Rankine cycle
1704:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1665:Rankine cycle
1662:
1661:steam turbine
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1634:
1629:
1627:
1622:
1620:
1615:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1577:Self-assembly
1575:
1573:
1570:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1548:van der Waals
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1473:von Helmholtz
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1413:
1412:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1187:
1182:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1114:
1106:
1103:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1051:
1048:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1004:
996:
993:
976:
973:
970:
964:
956:
953:
952:
947:
944:
942:
939:
938:
934:
929:
928:
921:
920:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
900:
896:
895:Ideal gas law
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
877:
873:
868:
867:
841:
831:
817:
810:
809:
794:
784:
770:
763:
762:
759:
745:
742:
735:
732:
729:
728:
709:
699:
685:
678:
677:
662:
652:
638:
631:
630:
627:
613:
610:
607:
600:
597:
594:
593:
574:
564:
550:
543:
542:
527:
517:
503:
496:
495:
492:
478:
475:
468:
465:
462:
461:
455:
452:
451:
448:
443:
442:
431:
428:
426:
425:Vapor quality
423:
421:
420:
415:
412:
410:
409:
404:
401:
398:
394:
393:
388:
385:
384:
383:
382:
379:
375:
369:
366:
364:
361:
360:
358:
357:
354:
350:
345:
342:
340:
337:
336:
335:
334:
330:
326:
319:
314:
313:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
288:
287:
286:
283:
279:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
263:Reversibility
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
215:
214:
213:
210:
206:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
162:
161:
160:
157:
153:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
137:Closed system
135:
134:
131:
126:
125:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
98:
94:
89:
88:
81:
77:
74:
73:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
56:
54:
51:
50:
43:
42:
38:
32:
28:
27:
24:
20:
2618:Regenerative
2602:
2547:Bell Coleman
2469:. Retrieved
2465:
2456:
2445:. Retrieved
2441:the original
2431:
2419:. Retrieved
2415:
2406:
2369:
2365:
2355:
2330:. Retrieved
2320:
2308:. Retrieved
2304:
2295:
2286:
2277:
2265:. Retrieved
2261:
2248:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2210:. Retrieved
2206:the original
2196:
2187:
2175:
2167:Powermag.com
2166:
2157:
2149:Netl.doe.gov
2148:
2136:
2124:. Retrieved
2120:
2111:
2094:
2090:
2080:
2072:Powermag.com
2071:
2062:
2051:the original
2038:
2024:
2012:Kalina cycle
2009:
1985:
1953:
1944:regeneration
1933:
1910:
1886:deliquescent
1879:
1849:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1807:
1793:
1791:
1772:deliquescent
1760:deliquescent
1753:
1725:
1705:
1677:condensation
1644:
1642:
1438:Carathéodory
1369:Heat engines
1341:
1330:
1319:
1301:Motive power
1286:
946:Free entropy
917:
417:
416: /
406:
405: /
397:introduction
390:
389: /
328:
291:Heat engines
78: /
2786:Ionocaloric
2781:Vuilleumier
2603:Hygroscopic
2262:Mkk.desy.de
2074:. May 2012.
1875:calcination
1673:hygroscopic
1651:converting
1260:Synergetics
941:Free energy
387:Temperature
248:Quasistatic
243:Isenthalpic
200:Instruments
190:Equilibrium
142:Open system
76:Equilibrium
58:Statistical
2751:Pulse tube
2723:Mixed/dual
2466:Google.com
2447:2017-10-15
2332:2017-10-15
2212:2013-06-07
2121:Ucsusa.org
2030:References
1956:absorption
1749:efficiency
1722:Principles
1716:efficiency
1572:Nucleation
1416:Scientists
1220:Philosophy
933:Potentials
296:Heat pumps
253:Polytropic
238:Isentropic
228:Isothermal
2746:Kleemenko
2632:Internal
2267:March 11,
2234:(3): 18.
2097:(3): 18.
1888:materials
1855:desiccant
1553:Waterston
1503:von Mayer
1458:de Donder
1448:Clapeyron
1428:Boltzmann
1423:Bernoulli
1384:Education
1355:Timelines
1139:−
1084:−
872:Equations
839:∂
792:∂
743:α
707:∂
660:∂
614:−
608:β
572:∂
525:∂
233:Adiabatic
223:Isochoric
209:Processes
170:Ideal gas
53:Classical
2801:Category
2713:Combined
2672:Humphrey
2657:Expander
2642:Atkinson
2577:Stoddard
2567:Stirling
2562:Ericsson
2522:External
2471:11 March
2421:11 March
2398:19325766
2341:cite web
2310:11 March
2126:11 March
1859:hydrates
1840:increase
1836:affected
1787:refluxed
1745:enthalpy
1605:Category
1543:Thompson
1453:Clausius
1433:Bridgman
1287:Vis viva
1269:Theories
1203:Gas laws
995:Enthalpy
403:Pressure
218:Isobaric
175:Real gas
63:Chemical
46:Branches
2776:Siemens
2692:Scuderi
2608:Rankine
2389:2635694
1988:biomass
1785:in the
1756:diluted
1699:in the
1528:Smeaton
1523:Rankine
1513:Onsager
1498:Maxwell
1493:Massieu
1198:Entropy
1193:General
1184:History
1174:Culture
1171:History
395: (
392:Entropy
329:italics
130:Systems
2682:Miller
2677:Lenoir
2652:Diesel
2598:Kalina
2582:Manson
2557:Carnot
2396:
2386:
2142:"Home"
1968:boiler
1940:reheat
1697:reflux
1681:boiler
1667:using
1518:Planck
1508:Nernst
1483:Kelvin
1443:Carnot
733:
598:
466:
408:Volume
323:Note:
282:Cycles
111:Second
101:Zeroth
2706:Mixed
2258:(PDF)
2184:(PDF)
2145:(PDF)
2054:(PDF)
2047:(PDF)
1689:power
1685:steam
1669:water
1657:power
1647:is a
1566:Other
1533:Stahl
1488:Lewis
1478:Joule
1468:Gibbs
1463:Duhem
156:State
116:Third
106:First
2718:HEHC
2687:Otto
2473:2022
2423:2022
2394:PMID
2347:link
2312:2022
2269:2022
2128:2022
1942:and
1923:and
1764:LiBr
1643:The
1538:Tait
368:Heat
363:Work
93:Laws
2384:PMC
2374:doi
2236:doi
2099:doi
2020:CSP
1861:or
1683:or
1381:Art
327:in
2803::
2464:.
2414:.
2392:.
2382:.
2368:.
2364:.
2343:}}
2339:{{
2303:.
2285:.
2260:.
2232:14
2230:.
2186:.
2165:.
2147:.
2119:.
2095:14
2093:.
2089:.
2070:.
2002:.
1946:.
1919:,
1915:,
1805:.
1796:.
1703:.
2614:)
2610:(
2539:)
2535:(
2506:e
2499:t
2492:v
2475:.
2450:.
2425:.
2400:.
2376::
2370:9
2349:)
2335:.
2314:.
2289:.
2271:.
2242:.
2238::
2215:.
2190:.
2151:.
2130:.
2105:.
2101::
1632:e
1625:t
1618:v
1145:S
1142:T
1136:H
1133:=
1130:)
1127:p
1124:,
1121:T
1118:(
1115:G
1090:S
1087:T
1081:U
1078:=
1075:)
1072:V
1069:,
1066:T
1063:(
1060:A
1035:V
1032:p
1029:+
1026:U
1023:=
1020:)
1017:p
1014:,
1011:S
1008:(
1005:H
980:)
977:V
974:,
971:S
968:(
965:U
842:T
818:V
795:V
771:1
746:=
710:p
686:V
663:V
639:1
611:=
575:T
551:N
528:S
504:T
479:=
476:c
399:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
